Elevator

An elevator (American English) or lift (Commonwealth English)

is a machine that vertically transports people or freight between
levels. They are typically powered by electric motors that drive
traction cables and counterweight systems such as a hoist,
although some pump hydraulic fluid to raise a cylindrical piston
like a jack.

Elevators are used in agriculture and manufacturing to lift

materials. There are various types, like chain and bucket elevators,
Outside of typical elevators, shown
grain augers, and hay elevators. Modern buildings often have
in an office building in Portland,
elevators to ensure accessibility, especially where ramps aren't
Oregon
feasible. High-speed elevators are common in skyscrapers. Some
elevators can even move horizontally.[1]

History

Pre-industrial era
The earliest known reference to an elevator is in the works of the
Roman architect Vitruvius, who reported that Archimedes
This elevator to the Alexanderplatz
(c. 287 BC – c. 212 BC) built his first elevator probably in 236 U-Bahn station in Berlin is built with
BC.[2] Sources from later periods mention elevators as cabs on a glass walls and doors, exposing the
hemp rope, powered by people or animals. inner workings.

The Roman Colosseum, completed in 80 AD, had roughly 25

elevators that were used for raising animals up to the floor.[3] Each
elevator could carry about 600 pounds (270 kg) (roughly the weight of
two lions) 23 feet (7.0 m) up when powered by up to eight men.[4] In
1000, the Book of Secrets by Ibn Khalaf al-Muradi in Islamic Spain
described the use of an elevator-like lifting device to raise a large battering
ram to destroy a fortress.[5]

In the 17th century, prototypes of elevators were installed in the palace

buildings of England and France. Louis XV of France had a so-called
'flying chair' built for one of his mistresses at the Château de Versailles in
1743.[6] Elevator design by the
German engineer Konrad
Ancient and medieval elevators used drive systems based on hoists and Kyeser (1405)
windlasses. The invention of a system based on the screw drive was
perhaps the most important step in elevator technology since ancient
times, leading to the creation of modern passenger elevators. The first screw-drive elevator was built by
Ivan Kulibin and installed in the Winter Palace in 1793, although there may have been an earlier design
by Leonardo da Vinci.[7] Several years later, another of Kulibin's elevators was installed in the
Arkhangelskoye near Moscow.

Industrial Era
The development of elevators was led by the need for movement of raw materials, including coal and
lumber, from hillsides. The technology developed by these industries, and the introduction of steel beam
construction, worked together to provide the passenger and freight elevators in use today. Starting in coal
mines, elevators in the mid-19th century operated with steam power, and were used for moving goods in
bulk in mines and factories. These devices were soon applied to a diverse set of purposes. In 1823,
Burton and Homer, two architects in London, built and operated a novel tourist attraction which they
called the "ascending room", which elevated customers to a considerable height in the center of London,
providing a panoramic view.[8]

Early, crude steam-driven elevators were refined in the ensuing decade. In 1835, an innovative elevator,
the Teagle, was developed by the company Frost and Stutt in England. It was belt-driven and used a
counterweight for extra power.[9]

In 1845, Neapolitan architect Gaetano Genovese installed the "Flying chair", an elevator ahead of its time
in the Royal Palace of Caserta. It was covered with chestnut wood outside and with maple wood inside. It
included a light, two benches, and a hand-operated signal, and could be activated from the outside,
without any effort by the occupants. Traction was controlled by a motor mechanic utilizing a system of
toothed wheels. A safety system was designed to take effect if the cords broke, consisting of a beam
pushed outwards by a steel spring.

The hydraulic crane was invented by Sir William Armstrong in 1846, primarily for use at the Tyneside
docks for loading cargo. They quickly supplanted the earlier steam-driven elevators, exploiting Pascal's
law to provide much greater force. A water pump supplied a variable level of water pressure to a plunger
encased inside a vertical cylinder, allowing the platform, carrying a heavy load, to be raised and lowered.
Counterweights and balances were also used to increase lifting power.

Henry Waterman of New York is credited with inventing the

"standing rope control" for an elevator in 1850.[10]

In 1852, Elisha Otis introduced the safety elevator, which

prevented the fall of the cab if the cable broke. He demonstrated it
at the New York exposition in the Crystal Palace in a dramatic,
death-defying presentation in 1854,[10][11] and the first such
passenger elevator was installed at 488 Broadway in New York
City on 23 March 1857.

The first elevator shaft preceded the first elevator by four years.
Construction for Peter Cooper's Cooper Union Foundation Elisha Otis demonstrating his safety
building in New York began in 1853. An elevator shaft was system, at the New York Crystal
included in the design because Cooper was confident that a safe Palace, 1853
passenger elevator would soon be invented.[12] The shaft was
cylindrical because Cooper thought it was the most efficient
design.[13] Otis later designed a special elevator for the building.

Peter Ellis, an English architect, installed the first elevators that

could be described as paternoster elevators in Oriel Chambers in
Liverpool in 1868.[14]

The Equitable Life Building, completed in 1870 in New York City, Elisha Otis's elevator patent
is thought to be the first office building with passenger drawing, 15 January 1861
elevators.[15]

In 1872, American inventor James Wayland patented a novel method of securing elevator shafts with
doors that are automatically opened and closed as the elevator car approaches and leaves them.[16]

In 1874, J. W. Meaker patented a method permitting elevator doors to open and close safely.[17]

The first electric elevator was built by Werner von Siemens in 1880 in Germany.[18] Inventor Anton
Freissler further developed von Siemens' ideas and created a successful elevator enterprise in Austria-
Hungary. The safety and speed of electric elevators were significantly enhanced by Frank Sprague, who
added floor control, automatic operation, acceleration control, and further safety devices. His elevator ran
faster and with larger loads than hydraulic or steam elevators. 584 of Sprague's elevators were installed
before he sold his company to the Otis Elevator Company in 1895. Sprague also developed the idea and
technology for multiple elevators in a single shaft.

In 1871, when hydraulic power was a well established technology, Edward B. Ellington founded Wharves
and Warehouses Steam Power and Hydraulic Pressure Company, which became the London Hydraulic
Power Company in 1883. It constructed a network of high-pressure mains on both sides of the Thames
which ultimately extended 184 miles (296 km) and powered some 8,000 machines, predominantly
elevators and cranes.[19]

Schuyler Wheeler patented his electric elevator design in 1883.[20][21][22]

In 1884, American inventor D. Humphreys of Norfolk, Virginia, patented an elevator with automatic
doors that closed off the elevator shaft when the car was not being entered or exited.[23][24]

In 1887, American inventor Alexander Miles of Duluth, Minnesota, patented an elevator with automatic
doors that closed off the elevator shaft when the car was not being entered or exited.

In 1891, American inventors Joseph Kelly and William L. Woods co-patented a novel way to guard
elevator shafts against accident, by way of hatches that would automatically open and close as the car
passed through them.[25]

The first elevator in India was installed at the Raj Bhavan in Kolkata by Otis in 1892.[26]

By 1900, completely automated elevators were available, but passengers were reluctant to use them.
Their adoption was aided by a 1945 elevator operator strike in New York City, and the addition of an
emergency stop button, emergency telephone, and a soothing explanatory automated voice.[27]
An inverter-controlled gearless drive system is applied in high-speed elevators worldwide. The Toshiba
company continued research on thyristors for use in inverter control and dramatically enhanced their
switching capacity, resulting in the development of insulated gate bipolar transistors (IGBTs) at the end of
the 1980s. The IGBT realized increased switching frequency and reduced magnetic noise in the motor,
eliminating the need for a filter circuit and allowing a more compact system. The IGBT also allowed the
development of a small, highly integrated, highly sophisticated all-digital control device, consisting of a
high-speed processor, specially customized gate arrays, and a circuit capable of controlling large currents
of several kHz.[28]

In 2000, the first vacuum elevator was offered commercially in Argentina.[29]

Design
Some people argue that elevators began as simple rope or chain
hoists (see Traction elevators below). An elevator is essentially a
platform that is either pulled or pushed up by mechanical means.
A modern-day elevator consists of a cab (also called a "cabin",
"cage", "carriage" or "car") mounted on a platform within an
enclosed space called a shaft or sometimes a "hoistway". In the
past, elevator drive mechanisms were powered by steam and water
hydraulic pistons or by hand. In a "traction" elevator, cars are
Elevator machine room
pulled up by means of rolling steel ropes over a deeply grooved
pulley, commonly called a sheave in the industry. The weight of
the car is balanced by a counterweight. Oftentimes two elevators (or sometimes three) are built so that
their cars always move synchronously in opposite directions, and are each other's counterweight.

The friction between the ropes and the pulley furnishes the traction which gives this type of elevator its
name.

Hydraulic elevators use the principles of hydraulics (in the sense of hydraulic power) to pressurize an
above-ground or in-ground piston to raise and lower the car (see Hydraulic elevators below). Roped
hydraulics use a combination of both ropes and hydraulic power to raise and lower cars. Recent
innovations include permanent magnet motors, machine room-less rail mounted gearless machines, and
microprocessor controls.

The technology used in new installations depends on a variety of factors. Hydraulic elevators are cheaper,
but installing cylinders greater than a certain length becomes impractical for very-high lift hoistways. For
buildings of much over seven floors, traction elevators must be employed instead. Hydraulic elevators are
usually slower than traction elevators.

Elevators are a candidate for mass customization. There are economies to be made from mass production
of the components, but each building comes with its own requirements like different number of floors,
dimensions of the well and usage patterns.

Doors
Elevator doors prevent riders from falling into, entering, or
tampering with anything in the shaft. The most common
configuration is to have two panels that meet in the middle and
slide open laterally. These are known as "center-opening". In a
cascading telescopic configuration (potentially allowing wider
entryways within limited space), the doors roll on independent
tracks so that while open, they are tucked behind one another, and
Cascading telescopic 2-speed door
while closed, they form cascading layers on one side. This can be configuration inside of an elevator
configured so that two sets of such cascading doors operate like
the center opening doors described above, allowing for a very
wide elevator cab. In less expensive installations the elevator can
also use one large "slab" door: a single panel door the width of the
doorway that opens to the left or right laterally. These are known
as "single slide" doors. Some buildings have elevators with the
single door on the shaftway, and double cascading doors on the
cab.
A large "slab" door

Machine room-less (MRL) elevators

Elevators that do not require separate machine rooms are designed
so that most of their power and control components fit within the
hoistway (the shaft containing the elevator car), and a small
cabinet houses the controller. The equipment is otherwise similar
to that of a normal traction or hole-less hydraulic elevator. The
world's first machine-room-less elevator, the Kone MonoSpace,
was introduced in the year 1996, by Kone. Compared to traditional
elevators, it:
Kone EcoDisc. The entire drive
Required less space system is in the hoistway.
Used 70–80% less energy
Used no hydraulic oil (in contrast to traditional hydraulic
units)
Had all components above ground (avoiding the environmental concern created by the
hydraulic cylinder on direct hydraulic-type elevators being underground)
Cost somewhat less than other systems, and significantly less than the hydraulic MRL
elevator
Could operate at faster speeds than hydraulics, but not normal traction units
Its disadvantage was that it could be harder, and significantly more dangerous, to service and maintain.

Other facts
Noise level of 50–55 dBA (A-weighted decibels), lower than some but not all types of
elevators
Usually used for low-rise to mid-rise buildings
National and local building codes did not address elevators without machine rooms.
Residential MRL elevators are still not allowed by the ASME A17 code in the US. MRL
elevators have been recognized in the 2005 supplement to the 2004 A17.1 Elevator Code.
 Today, some machine room-less hydraulic elevators by Otis and TK Elevator exist. They do
not involve the use of an underground piston or a machine room, mitigating environmental
concerns; however, they are not allowed by codes in some parts of the United States.[30][31]

Double-decker elevators
Double-decker elevators are traction elevators with cars that have an upper and lower deck. Both decks,
which can serve a floor at the same time, are usually driven by the same motor.[32] The system increases
efficiency in high-rise buildings, and saves space so additional shafts and cars are not required.

In 2003, TK Elevator invented a system called TWIN, with two elevator cars independently running in
one shaft.[33]

Traffic calculations

Round-trip time calculations

History
In 1901, consulting engineer Charles G. Darrach (1846–1927) proposed the first formula to determine
elevator service.[34]

In 1908, Reginald P. Bolton published the first book devoted to this subject, Elevator Service.[35] The
summation of his work was a massive fold-out chart (placed at the back of his book) that allowed users to
determine the number of express and local elevators needed for a given building to meet a desired
interval of service.

In 1912, commercial engineer Edmund F. Tweedy and electrical engineer Arthur Williams co-authored a
book titled Commercial Engineering for Central Stations.[36] He followed Bolton's lead and developed a
"Chart for determining the number and size of elevators required for office buildings of a given total
occupied floor area".

In 1920, Howard B. Cook presented a paper titled "Passenger Elevator Service".[37] This paper marked
the first time a member of the elevator industry offered a mathematical means of determining elevator
service. His formula determined the round trip time (RTT) by finding the single trip time, doubling it, and
adding 10 seconds.

In 1923, Bassett Jones published an article titled "The Probable Number of Stops Made by an
Elevator".[38] He based his equations on the theory of probabilities and found a reasonably accurate
method of calculating the average stop count. The equation in this article assumed a consistent population
on every floor.
He went on to write an updated version of his equations in 1926 which accounted for variable population
on each floor.[39] Jones credited David Lindquist for the development of the equation but provides no
indication as to when it was first proposed.

Although the equations were there, elevator traffic analysis was still a very specialist task that could only
be done by world experts. That was until 1967 when Strakosch wrote an eight step method for finding the
efficiency of a system in "Vertical transportation: Elevators and Escalators".[40]

Uppeak calculations
In 1975, Barney and Dos Santos developed and published the "Round Trip Time (RTT) formula", which
followed Strakosch's work.[41] This was the first formulized mathematical model and is the simplest form
that is still used by traffic analyzers today.

Modification and improvements have been made to this equation over the years, most significantly in
2000 when Peters published "Improvements to the Up Peak Round Trip Time Calculation"[42] which
improved the accuracy of the flight time calculation, making allowances for short elevator journeys when
the car does not reach maximum rated speed or acceleration, and added the functionality of express
zones. This equation is now referred to as the 'Up peak Calculation'[43] as it uses the assumption that all
the passengers are coming into the building from the ground floor (incoming traffic) and that there are no
passengers traveling from a higher floor to the ground floor (outgoing traffic) and no passengers traveling
from one internal floor to another (interfloor traffic). This model works well if a building is at its most
busy first thing in the morning; however, in more complicated elevator systems, this model does not
work.

General analysis
In 1990, Peters published a paper titled "Lift Traffic Analysis: Formulae for the General Case"[44] in
which he developed a new formula which would account for mixed traffic patterns as well as accounting
for passenger bunching using Poisson approximation. This new General Analysis equation enabled much
more complex systems to be analyzed however the equations had now become so complex that it was
almost impossible to do manually and it became necessary to use software to run the calculations. The
GA formula was extended even further in 1996 to account for double deck elevators.[45]

Simulations
RTT calculations establish an elevator system's handling capacity by using a set of repeatable
calculations which, for a given set of inputs, always produce the same answer. It works well for simple
systems; but as systems get more complex, the calculations are harder to develop and implement. For
very complex systems, the solution is to simulate the building.[46]

Dispatcher-based simulation
In this method, a virtual version of a building is created on a computer, modeling passengers and
elevators as realistically as possible, and random numbers are used to model probability rather than
mathematical equations and percentage probability.

Dispatcher-based simulation has had major improvements over the years, but the principle remains the
same. The most widely used simulator, Elevate, was first showcased in 1998 as Elevate Lite.[47]

Although it is currently the most accurate method of modeling an elevator system, the method does have
drawbacks. Unlike calculations, it does not find a RTT value because it does not run standard round trips;
thus it does not conform with standardized elevator-traffic analysis methodology, and cannot be used to
find values such as average interval; instead, it is generally used to find the average waiting time.

Monte Carlo simulation

At the first Elevator and Escalator symposium in 2011, Al-Sharif proposed an alternative form of
simulation[48] that modeled a car's single round trip before restarting and running again. This method is
still capable of modeling complex systems, and also conforms with standard methodology by producing
an RTT value. The model was improved further in 2018 when Al-Sharif demonstrated a way to
reintroduce a dispatcher-like function which can model destination control systems.[49]

While this does successfully remove simulation's major drawback, it is not quite as accurate as
dispatcher-based simulations given its simplifications and non-continual nature. The Monte Carlo method
also requires passenger count as an input, rather than passengers per second, in other methodologies.

Types of hoist mechanisms

Elevators can be rope dependent or rope-free.[50] There are at least four means of moving an elevator:

Traction elevators
Geared traction machines are driven by AC or DC electric motors.
Geared machines use worm gears to control mechanical
movement of elevator cars by "rolling" steel hoist ropes over a
drive sheave which is attached to a gearbox driven by a high-
speed motor. These machines are generally the best option for
basement or overhead traction use for speeds up to 3 m/s
(500 ft/min).[51]

Historically, AC motors were used for single or double-speed Steel ropes and an electric motor
elevator machines on the grounds of cost and lower usage (machine) in the machine room. The
applications where car speed and passenger comfort were less of machine has two brake calipers on
an issue, but for higher speed, larger capacity elevators, the need top.
for infinitely variable speed control over the traction machine
becomes an issue. Therefore, DC machines powered by an AC/DC
motor generator were the preferred solution. The MG set also typically powered the relay controller of
the elevator, which has the added advantage of electrically isolating the elevators from the rest of a
building's electrical system, thus eliminating the transient power spikes in the building's electrical supply
caused by the motors starting and stopping (causing lighting to dim every time the elevators are used for
example), as well as interference to other electrical equipment caused by the arcing of the relay
contactors in the control system.

The widespread availability of variable frequency AC drives has allowed AC motors to be used
universally, bringing with it the advantages of the older motor-generator, DC-based systems, without the
penalties in terms of efficiency and complexity. The older MG-based installations are gradually being
replaced in older buildings due to their poor energy efficiency.

Gearless traction machines are low-speed (low-RPM), high-torque electric motors powered either by AC
or DC. In this case, the drive sheave is directly attached to the end of the motor. Gearless traction
elevators can reach speeds of up to 20 m/s (4,000 ft/min), A brake is mounted between the motor and
gearbox or between the motor and drive sheave or at the end of the drive sheave to hold the elevator
stationary at a floor. This brake is usually an external drum type and is actuated by spring force and held
open electrically; a power failure will cause the brake to engage and prevent the elevator from falling (see
inherent safety and safety engineering). But it can also be some form of disc type like one or more
calipers over a disc in one end of the motor shaft or drive sheave which is used in high speed, high rise
and large capacity elevators with machine rooms (an exception is the Kone MonoSpace's EcoDisc which
is not high speed, high rise and large capacity and is machine room less but it uses the same design as is a
thinner version of a conventional gearless traction machine) for braking power, compactness and
redundancy (assuming there are at least two calipers on the disc), or one or more disc brakes with a single
caliper at one end of the motor shaft or drive sheave which is used in machine room less elevators for
compactness, braking power, and redundancy (assuming there are two or more brakes).

In each case, steel or kevlar cables are attached to a hitch plate on top of the cab or may be "underslung"
below a cab, and then looped over the drive sheave to a counterweight attached to the opposite end of the
cables which reduces the amount of power needed to move the cab. The counterweight is located in the
hoist-way and is carried along a separate railway system; as the car goes up, the counterweight goes
down, and vice versa. This action is powered by the traction machine which is directed by the controller,
typically a relay logic or computerized device that directs starting, acceleration, deceleration and stopping
of the elevator cab. The weight of the counterweight is typically equal to the weight of the elevator cab
plus 40–50% of the capacity of the elevator. The grooves in the drive sheave are specially designed to
prevent the cables from slipping. "Traction" is provided to the ropes by the grip of the grooves in the
sheave, thereby the name. As the ropes age and the traction grooves wear, some traction is lost and the
ropes must be replaced and the sheave repaired or replaced. Sheave and rope wear may be significantly
reduced by ensuring that all ropes have equal tension, thus sharing the load evenly. Rope tension
equalization may be achieved using a rope tension gauge, and is a simple way to extend the lifetime of
the sheaves and ropes.

Elevators with more than 30 m (98 ft) of travel have a system called compensation. This is a separate set
of cables or a chain attached to the bottom of the counterweight and the bottom of the elevator cab. This
makes it easier to control the elevator, as it compensates for the differing weight of cable between the
hoist and the cab. If the elevator cab is at the top of the hoist-way, there is a short length of hoist cable
above the car and a long length of compensating cable below the car and vice versa for the
counterweight. If the compensation system uses cables, there will be an additional sheave in the pit below
the elevator, to guide the cables. If the compensation system uses chains, the chain is guided by a bar
mounted between the counterweight tracks.

Regenerative drives
Another energy-saving improvement is the regenerative drive,[52] which works analogously to
regenerative braking in vehicles, using the elevator's electric motor as a generator to capture some of the
gravitational potential energy of descent of a full cab (heavier than its counterweight) or ascent of an
empty cab (lighter than its counterweight) and return it to the building's electrical system.

Hydraulic elevators
Conventional hydraulic elevators. They use an
underground hydraulic cylinder, are quite common for
low level buildings with two to five floors (sometimes but
seldom up to six to eight floors), and have speeds of up
to 1 m/s (200 ft/min).
Holeless hydraulic elevators were developed in the
1970s, and use a pair of above-ground cylinders, which
makes it practical for environmentally or cost-sensitive
buildings with two, three, or four floors.
Roped hydraulic elevators use both above-ground Pit of a hydraulic scenic elevator
cylinders and a rope system, allowing the elevator to with metal grating on bottom. This
travel further than the piston has to move. elevator travels seven stories.

The low mechanical complexity of hydraulic elevators in

comparison to traction elevators makes them ideal for low-rise, low-traffic installations. They are less
energy-efficient as the pump works against gravity to push the car and its passengers upwards; this energy
is lost when the car descends on its own weight. The high current draw of the pump when starting up also
places higher demands on a building's electrical system. There are also environmental concerns should
the lifting cylinder leak fluid into the ground,[53] hence the development of holeless hydraulic elevators,
which also eliminate the need for a relatively deep hole in the bottom of the elevator shaft.

Electromagnetic propulsion
Cable-free elevators using electromagnetic propulsion, capable of moving both vertically and
horizontally, have been developed by German engineering firm Thyssen Krupp for use in high rise, high
density buildings.[54][55]

Climbing elevator
A climbing elevator is a self-ascending elevator with its own propulsion. The propulsion can be done by
an electric or a combustion engine. Climbing elevators are used in guyed masts or towers, in order to
make easy access to parts of these constructions, such as flight safety lamps for maintenance. An example
would be the moonlight towers in Austin, Texas, where the elevator holds only one person and equipment
for maintenance. The Glasgow Tower—an observation tower in Glasgow, Scotland—also makes use of
two climbing elevators. Temporary climbing elevators are commonly used in the construction of new
high-rise buildings to move materials and personnel before the building's permanent elevator system is
installed, at which point the climbing elevators are dismantled.

Pneumatic elevator
An elevator of this kind uses a vacuum on top of the cab and a valve on the top of the "shaft" to move the
cab upwards and closes the valve in order to keep the cab at the same level. A diaphragm or a piston is
used as a "brake", if there is a sudden increase in pressure above the cab. To go down, it opens the valve
so that the air can pressurize the top of the "shaft", allowing the cab to go down by its own weight. This
also means that in case of a power failure, the cab will automatically go down. The "shaft" is made of
acrylic, and is always round due to the shape of the vacuum pump. To keep the air inside of the cab,
rubber seals are used. Due to technical limitations, these elevators have a low capacity, they usually allow
1–3 passengers and up to 525 pounds (238 kg).[56]

Controls

Manual controls
In the first half of the twentieth century, almost all elevators had no
automatic positioning of the floor on which the cab would stop. Some of
the older freight elevators were controlled by switches operated by pulling
on adjacent ropes. In general, most elevators before WWII were manually
controlled by elevator operators using a rheostat connected to the motor.
This rheostat (see picture) was enclosed within a cylindrical container
about the size and shape of a cake. This was mounted upright or sideways
on the cab wall and operated via a projecting handle, which was able to
slide around the top half of the cylinder.

The elevator motor was located at the top of the shaft or beside the bottom
of the shaft. Pushing the handle forward would cause the cab to rise; Otis 1920s controller,
backwards would make it sink. The harder the pressure, the faster the operational in a New York
elevator would move. The handle also served as a dead man switch: if the City apartment building
operator let go of the handle, it would return to its upright position,
causing the elevator cab to stop. In time, safety interlocks would ensure
that the inner and outer doors were closed before the elevator was allowed to move.

This lever would allow some control over the energy supplied to the motor and so enabled the elevator to
be accurately positioned—if the operator was sufficiently skilled. More typically, the operator would have
to "jog" the control, moving the cab in small increments until the elevator was reasonably close to the
landing point. Then the operator would direct the outgoing and incoming passengers to "watch the step".

The Otis Autotronic system of the early 1950s brought the earliest predictive systems which could
anticipate traffic patterns within a building to deploy elevator movement in the most efficient manner.
Relay-controlled elevator systems remained common until the 1980s; they were gradually replaced with
solid-state systems, and microprocessor-based controls are now the
industry standard. Most older, manually-operated elevators have been
retrofitted with automatic or semi-automatic controls.

General controls
A typical modern passenger elevator will have:

Outside the elevator, buttons to go up or down (the bottom floor

only has the up button, the top floor only has the down button,
and every floor in between (usually) has both)
Space to stand in, guardrails, seating cushion (luxury)
Overload sensor – prevents the elevator from moving until Manual pushbutton elevator
excess load has been removed. It may trigger a voice prompt or controls
buzzer alarm. This may also trigger a "full car" indicator,
indicating the car's inability to accept more passengers until
some are unloaded.
Electric fans or air conditioning units to enhance circulation and comfort.
A control panel with various buttons. In many countries, button text and icons are raised to
allow blind users to operate the elevator; many have Braille text besides. Buttons include:
Call buttons to choose a floor. Some of these may be key switches (to control access). In
some elevators, such as those in some hotels, certain floors are inaccessible unless one
swipes a security card or enters a passcode.
An alarm button or switch, which passengers can use to warn the premises manager that
they have been trapped in the elevator. Some elevators also have emergency telephones to
summon help in the event of entrapment. In many jurisdictions this is required by law.
Door open and door close buttons.
The operation of the door open button is transparent, immediately opening and holding the door, typically
until a timeout occurs and the door closes. The operation of the door close button is less transparent, and
it often appears to do nothing, leading to frequent but incorrect[57] reports that the door close button is a
placebo button: either not wired up at all, or inactive in normal service. On many older elevators, if one is
present, the door close button is functional because the elevator is not ADA compliant and/or it does not
have a fire service mode.[58][59][60][61] Working door open and door close buttons are required by code in
many jurisdictions, including the United States, specifically for emergency operation: in independent
mode, the door open and door close buttons are used to manually open or close the door.[57][62] Beyond
this, programming varies significantly, with some door close buttons immediately closing the door, but in
other cases being delayed by an overall timeout, so the door cannot be closed until a few seconds after
opening. In this case (hastening normal closure), the door close button has no effect. However, the door
close button will cause a hall call to be ignored (so the door will not reopen), and once the timeout has
expired, the door close will immediately close the door, for example, to cancel a door open push. The
minimum timeout for automatic door closing in the US is 5 seconds,[63] which is a noticeable delay if not
over-ridden.

A set of doors kept locked on each floor to prevent unintentional access into the elevator
shaft by the unsuspecting individual. The door is unlocked and opened by a machine sitting
on the roof of the car, which also drives the doors that travel with the car. Door controls are
provided to close immediately or reopen the doors, although the button to close them
immediately is often disabled during normal operations, especially on more recent elevators.
Objects in the path of the moving doors will either be detected by sensors or physically
 activate a switch that reopens the doors. Otherwise, the doors will close after a preset time.
Some elevators are configured to remain open at the floor until they are required to move
again. Regulations often require doors to close after use to prevent smoke from entering the
elevator shaft in event of fire.
A stop switch to halt the elevator while in motion, which is often used to hold an elevator
open while freight is loaded. Keeping an elevator stopped for too long may set off an alarm.
Unless local codes require otherwise, this will most likely be a key switch.
Some elevators may have one or more of the following:

An elevator telephone, which can be used (in addition to

the alarm) by a trapped passenger to call for help. This
may consist of a transceiver, or simply a button. This
feature is often required by local regulations.
Hold button: This button delays the door closing timer,
useful for loading freight and hospital beds.
Call cancellation: A destination floor may be deselected
by double clicking.
Access restriction by key switches, RFID reader, code
keypad, hotel room card, etc. Using the emergency telephone
One or more additional sets of doors. This is primarily button in an elevator. There is
used to serve different floor plans: on each floor only one Braille text for visually impaired
set of doors opens. For example, in an elevated people and a button illuminates to
crosswalk setup, the front doors may open on the street alert a hearing impaired person that
level, and the rear doors open on the crosswalk level. the alarm is ringing and the call is
This is also common in garages, rail stations, and being placed.
airports. Alternatively, both doors may open on a given
floor. This is sometimes timed so that one side opens
first for getting off, and then the other side opens for getting on, to improve boarding/exiting
speed. This is particularly useful when passengers have luggage or carts, as at an airport,
due to reduced maneuverability.
In case of dual doors, there may be two sets of door
open and door close buttons, with one pair
controlling the front doors, from the perspective of
the console, typically denoted <> and ><, with the
other pair controlling the rear doors, typically denoted
with a line in the middle, <|> and >|<, or double lines,
|<>| and >||<. This second set is required in the US if Dual door open and door close
both doors can be opened at the same landing, so buttons, in an elevator with two sets
that the doors can both be controlled in independent of doors, found on a ThyssenKrupp
service.[57][64] elevator from the 2010s
Security camera
Plain walls or mirrored walls
Glass windowpane providing a view of the building interior or onto the streets
An audible signal button, labeled "S": in the US, for elevators installed between 1991 and 2012 (initial
passage of ADA and coming into force of 2010 revision), a button which if pushed, sounds an audible
signal as each floor is passed, to assist visually impaired passengers. This button is no longer used on new
elevators, where the sound is normally obligatory.[65][66]

Other controls, which are not available for the public (either because they are key switches, or because
they are kept behind a locked panel), include:
 Fireman's service, phase II key switch
Switch to enable or disable the elevator.
An inspector's switch, which places the elevator in
inspection mode (this may be situated on the top of the
elevator)
Manual up/down controls for elevator technicians, to be
used in inspection mode, for example.
An independent service/exclusive mode (also known as 'S' "Signal" button, found in US
"car preference"), which will prevent the car from elevators of 1991–2012 vintage
answering to hall calls and only arrive at floors selected
via the panel. The door should stay open while parked
on a floor. This mode may be used for temporarily transporting goods.
Attendant service mode
Large buildings with multiple elevators of this type also had an elevator dispatcher stationed
in the lobby to direct passengers and to signal the operator to leave with the use of a
mechanical "cricket" noisemaker.

External controls
Elevators are typically controlled from the outside by a call box, which
has up and down buttons, at each stop. When pressed at a certain floor, the
button (also known as a "hall call" button) calls the elevator to pick up
more passengers. If the particular elevator is currently serving traffic in a
certain direction, it will only answer calls in the same direction unless
there are no more calls beyond that floor.

In a group of two or more elevators, the call buttons may be linked to a

central dispatch computer, such that they illuminate and cancel together.
This is done to ensure that only one car is called at one time.

Key switches may be installed on the ground floor so that the elevator can An external control panel
be remotely switched on or off from the outside.

In destination control systems, one selects the intended destination floor (in lieu of pressing "up" or
"down") and is then notified which elevator will serve their request.

Floor numbering
To distinguish between floors, the different landings are given numbers and sometimes letters. See the
above article for more information.

Elevator algorithm
The elevator algorithm, a simple algorithm by which a single elevator can decide where to stop, is
summarized as follows:

Continue traveling in the same direction while there are remaining requests in that same
direction.
 If there are no further requests in that direction, then
stop and become idle, or change direction if there are
requests in the opposite direction.
The elevator algorithm has found an application in computer
operating systems as an algorithm for scheduling hard disk
requests. Modern elevators use more complex heuristic algorithms
to decide which request to service next. In taller buildings with
high traffic, such as the New York Marriott Marquis or the Burj
Khalifa, the destination dispatch algorithm is used to group Elevator buttons showing the
passengers going to similar floors, maximizing load by up to 25%. missing 13th floor

Destination control system

Some skyscraper buildings and other types of installation feature a
destination operating panel where a passenger registers their floor calls
before entering the car. The system lets them know which car to wait for,
instead of everyone boarding the next car. In this way, travel time is
reduced as the elevator makes fewer stops for individual passengers, and
the computer distributes adjacent stops to different cars in the bank.
Although travel time is reduced, passenger waiting times may be longer as
they will not necessarily be allocated the next car to depart. During the
down peak period the benefit of destination control will be limited as
passengers have a common destination.

It can also improve accessibility, as a mobility-impaired passenger can An Otis CompassPlus

move to their designated car in advance. destination control elevator
floor selection panel at
Inside the elevator there is no call button to push, or the buttons are there Northeastern University in
but they cannot be pushed—except door opening and alarm button—they Boston, United States
only indicate stopping floors.

The idea of destination control was originally conceived by Leo Port from Sydney in 1961,[67] but at that
time elevator controllers were implemented in relays and were unable to optimize the performance of
destination control allocations.

The system was first pioneered by Schindler Elevator in 1992 as the Miconic 10. Manufacturers of such
systems claim that average traveling time can be reduced by up to 30%.[68]

However, performance enhancements cannot be generalized as the benefits and limitations of the system
are dependent on many factors.[69] One problem is that the system is subject to gaming. Sometimes, one
person enters the destination for a large group of people going to the same floor. The dispatching
algorithm is usually unable to completely cater for the variation, and latecomers may find the elevator
they are assigned to is already full. Also, occasionally, one person may press the floor multiple times.
This is common with up/down buttons when people believe this to be an effective way to hurry elevators.
However, this will make the computer think multiple people are waiting and will allocate empty cars to
serve this one person.
To prevent this problem, in one implementation of destination control, every user is given an RFID card,
for identification and tracking, so that the system knows every user call and can cancel the first call if the
passenger decides to travel to another destination, preventing empty calls. The newest invention knows
even where people are located and how many on which floor because of their identification, either for the
purposes of evacuating the building or for security reasons.[70] Another way to prevent this issue is to
treat everyone traveling from one floor to another as one group and to allocate only one car for that
group.

The same destination scheduling concept can also be applied to public transit such as in group rapid
transit.

Special operating modes

Anti-crime protection
The anti-crime protection (ACP) feature will force each car to stop at a
pre-defined landing and open its doors. This allows a security guard or a
receptionist at the landing to visually inspect the passengers. The car stops
at this landing as it passes to serve further demand.

Up-peak
During up-peak mode (also called moderate incoming traffic), elevator An Otis Compass
cars in a group are recalled to the lobby to provide expeditious service to destination dispatch control
passengers arriving at the building, most typically in the morning as station, outside of the car,
on which the user presses a
people arrive for work or at the conclusion of a lunch-time period when
button to indicate the
people are going back to work. Elevators are dispatched one-by-one when desired destination floor,
they reach a pre-determined passenger load, or when they have had their and the panel indicates
doors opened for a certain period of time. The next elevator to be which car will be dispatched
dispatched usually has its hall lantern or a "this car leaving next" sign
illuminated to encourage passengers to make maximum use of the
available elevator system capacity. Some elevator banks are programmed so that at least one car will
always return to the lobby floor and park whenever it becomes free.

The commencement of up-peak may be triggered by a time clock, by the departure of a certain number of
fully loaded cars leaving the lobby within a given time period, or by a switch manually operated by a
building attendant.

Down-peak
During down-peak mode, elevator cars in a group are sent away from the lobby towards the highest floor
served, after which they commence running down the floors in response to hall calls placed by passengers
wishing to leave the building. This allows the elevator system to provide maximum passenger handling
capacity for people leaving the building.
The commencement of down-peak may be triggered by a time clock, by the arrival of a certain number of
fully loaded cars at the lobby within a given time period, or by a switch manually operated by a building
attendant.

Sabbath service
In areas with large populations of observant Jews or in facilities catering
to Jews, one may find a "Sabbath elevator". In this mode, an elevator will
stop automatically at every floor, allowing people to step on and off
without having to push any buttons. This prevents violation of the Sabbath
prohibition against operating electrical devices when Sabbath is in effect
for those who observe this ritual.[71]

However, Sabbath mode has the side effect of using considerable amounts
of energy, running the elevator car sequentially up and down every floor
of a building, repeatedly servicing floors where it is not needed. For a tall
building with many floors, the car must move on a frequent enough basis
so as to not cause undue delay for potential users that will not touch the A switch to turn Sabbath
controls as it opens the doors on every floor up the building. elevator mode on or off

Independent service
Independent service or car preference is a special mode found on most elevators. It is activated by a key
switch either inside the elevator itself or on a centralized control panel in the lobby. When an elevator is
placed on this mode, it will no longer respond to hall calls. (In a bank of elevators, traffic is rerouted to
the other elevators, while in a single elevator, the hall buttons are disabled). The elevator will remain
parked on a floor with its doors open until a floor is selected and the door close button is held until the
elevator starts to travel. Independent service is useful when transporting large goods or moving groups of
people between certain floors.

Inspection service
Inspection service is designed to provide access to the hoistway and car top for inspection and
maintenance purposes by qualified elevator mechanics. It is first activated by a key switch on the car
operating panel usually labeled 'Inspection', 'Car Top', 'Access Enable' or 'HWENAB' (short for HoistWay
access ENABled). When this switch is activated the elevator will come to a stop if moving, car calls will
be canceled (and the buttons disabled), and hall calls will be assigned to other elevator cars in the group
(or canceled in a single elevator configuration). The elevator can now only be moved by the
corresponding 'Access' key switches, usually located at the highest (to access the top of the car) and
lowest (to access the elevator pit) landings. The access key switches will allow the car to move at reduced
inspection speed with the hoistway door open. This speed can range from anywhere up to 60% of normal
operating speed on most controllers, and is usually defined by local safety codes.

Elevators have a car top inspection station that allows the car to be operated by a mechanic in order to
move it through the hoistway. Generally, there are three buttons: UP, RUN, and DOWN. Both the RUN
and a direction button must be held to move the car in that direction, and the elevator will stop moving as
soon as the buttons are released. Most other elevators have an up/down toggle switch and a RUN button.
The inspection panel also has standard power outlets for work lamps and powered tools.

Fire service
Depending on the location of the elevator, fire service code will vary state to state and country to country.
Fire service is usually split up into two modes: phase one and phase two. These are separate modes that
the elevator can go into.

Phase one mode is activated by a corresponding smoke sensor, heat sensor, or manual key switch in the
building. Once an alarm has been activated, the elevator will automatically go into phase one. The
elevator will wait an amount of time, then proceed to go into nudging mode to tell everyone the elevator
is leaving the floor. Once the elevator has left the floor, depending on where the alarm was set off, the
elevator will go to the fire-recall floor. However, if the alarm was activated on the fire-recall floor, the
elevator will have an alternate floor to recall to. When the elevator is recalled, it proceeds to the recall
floor and stops with its doors open. The elevator will no longer respond to calls or move in any direction.
Located on the fire-recall floor is a fire-service key switch. The fire-service key switch has the ability to
turn fire service off, turn fire service on or bypass fire service. The only way to return the elevator to
normal service is to switch it to bypass after the alarms have reset.

Phase-two mode can only be activated by a key switch located inside the
elevator on the car operating panel. This mode was created for firefighters
so that they may rescue people from a burning building. The phase-two
key switch has three positions: off, on, and hold. By turning phase two on,
the firefighter enables the car to move. However, like independent-service
mode, the car will not respond to a car call unless the firefighter manually
pushes and holds the door close button. Once the elevator gets to the
desired floor it will not open its doors unless the firefighter holds the door
open button. This is in case the floor is burning and the firefighter can feel
the heat and knows not to open the door. The firefighter must hold the
door open button until the door is completely opened. If for any reason the
firefighter wishes to leave the elevator, they will use the hold position on KONE Ecodisc elevator in
the key switch to make sure the elevator remains at that floor. If the the United Kingdom in
firefighter wishes to return to the recall floor, they simply turn the key off fireman's service mode
and close the doors.

In the UK and Europe the requirements for firefighters lifts are defined in the standard EN81-72.

Medical emergency or code-blue service

Commonly found in hospitals, code-blue service allows an elevator to be summoned to any floor for use
in an emergency situation. Each floor will have a code-blue recall key switch, and when activated, the
elevator system will immediately select the elevator car that can respond the fastest, regardless of
direction of travel and passenger load. Passengers inside the elevator will be notified with an alarm and
indicator light to exit the elevator when the doors open.
Once the elevator arrives at the floor, it will park with its doors open and the car buttons will be disabled
to prevent a passenger from taking control of the elevator. Medical personnel must then activate the code-
blue key switch inside the car, select their floor and close the doors with the door close button. The
elevator will then travel non-stop to the selected floor, and will remain in code-blue service until switched
off in the car. Some hospital elevators will feature a 'hold' position on the code-blue key switch (similar to
fire service) which allows the elevator to remain at a floor locked out of service until code blue is
deactivated.

Riot mode
In the event of civil disturbance, insurrection, or rioting, management can prevent elevators from
stopping at the lobby or parking areas, preventing undesired persons from using the elevators while still
allowing the building tenants to use them within the rest of the building.

Emergency power operation

Many elevator installations now feature emergency power systems such as uninterruptible power supply
(UPS) which allow elevator use in blackout situations and prevent people from becoming trapped in
elevators. To be compliant with BS 9999 safety standards, a passenger lift being used in an emergency
situation must have a secondary source of power.

Where a generator is being used as the secondary power supply in a hospital, a UPS must also be present
to meet regulations stating that healthcare facilities must test their emergency generators under load at
least once per month. During the test period only one supply of power is feeding the lift, in a blackout
situation without a UPS, the lifts would not be operational.

Traction elevators
When power is lost in a traction elevator system, all elevators will initially come to a halt. One by one,
each car in the group will return to the lobby floor, open its doors, and shut down. People in the
remaining elevators may see an indicator light or hear a voice announcement informing them that the
elevator will return to the lobby shortly. Once all cars have successfully returned, the system will then
automatically select one or more cars to be used for normal operations and these cars will return to
service. The car(s) selected to run under emergency power can be manually over-ridden by a key or strip
switch in the lobby. To help prevent entrapment, when the system detects that it is running low on power,
it will bring the running cars to the lobby or nearest floor, open the doors, and shut down.

Hydraulic elevators
In hydraulic elevator systems, emergency power will lower the elevators to the lowest landing and open
the doors to allow passengers to exit. The doors then close after an adjustable time period and the car
remains unusable until reset, usually by cycling the elevator main power switch. Typically, due to the
high current draw when starting the pump motor, hydraulic elevators are not run using standard
emergency power systems. Buildings like hospitals and nursing homes usually size their emergency
generators to accommodate this draw. However, the increasing use of current-limiting motor starters,
commonly known as "soft-start" contactors, avoids much of this problem, and the current draw of the
pump motor is less of a limiting concern.

Modernization
Most elevators are built to provide about 30 to 40 years of service,
as long as service intervals specified and periodic
maintenance/inspections by the manufacturer are followed. As the
elevator ages and equipment become increasingly difficult to find
or replace, along with code changes and deteriorating ride
performance, a complete overhaul of the elevator may be
suggested to the building owners.

A typical modernization consists of controller equipment,

An elevator test tower in Japan
electrical wiring and buttons, position indicators and direction
arrows, hoist machines and motors (including door operators), and
sometimes door hanger tracks. Rarely are car slings, rails, or other heavy structures changed. The cost of
an elevator modernization can range greatly depending on which type of equipment is to be installed.

Modernization can greatly improve operational reliability by replacing electrical relays and contacts with
solid-state electronics. Ride quality can be improved by replacing motor-generator-based drive designs
with Variable-Voltage, Variable Frequency (V3F) drives, providing near-seamless acceleration and
deceleration. Passenger safety is also improved by updating systems and equipment to conform to current
codes.

Safety
On 26 February 2014, the European Union released their adoption of safety standards through a directive
notification.[72]

Traction elevators
Statistically speaking, traction elevators are extremely safe. Of the
20 to 30 elevator-related deaths each year, most of them are
maintenance-related—for example, technicians leaning too far
into the shaft or getting caught between moving parts, and most of
the rest are attributed to other kinds of accidents, such as people
stepping blindly through doors that open into empty shafts or
being strangled by scarves caught in the doors.[73] While it is
possible (though extraordinarily unlikely) for an elevator's cable to
snap, all elevators in the modern era have been fitted with several An overspeed governor
safety devices which prevent the elevator from simply free-falling
and crashing. An elevator cab is typically borne by 2 to 6 (up to 12
or more in high rise installations) redundant hoist cables or belts, each of which is capable on its own of
supporting the rated load of the elevator plus twenty-five percent more weight. In addition, there is a
device which detects whether the elevator is descending faster than its maximum designed speed; if this
happens, the device causes copper (or silicon nitride ceramic in high rise installations) brake shoes to
clamp down along the vertical rails in the shaft, stopping the elevator quickly, but not so abruptly as to
cause injury. This device, called the governor, was invented by Elisha Graves Otis.[74] For example, in
2007 an elevator at a Seattle children's hospital experienced cable failure, causing it to free-fall until its
governor engaged.[75] In addition, an oil/hydraulic or spring or polyurethane or telescopic oil/hydraulic
buffer or a combination (depending on the travel height and travel speed) is installed at the bottom of the
shaft (or in the bottom of the cab and sometimes also in the top of the cab or shaft) to somewhat cushion
any impact.[73] Lethal accidents do occur, however: in 1989, seven people were killed at a hospital in
L'Hospitalet, Spain, when the pulleys connecting the cables to the elevator cabin broke loose and the
safety mechanism failed to activate, causing the elevator to plunge seven stories to the ground.[76] A
similar accident occurred in 2019 in Santos, Brazil, killing four.[77]

Hydraulic elevators
Past problems with hydraulic elevators include underground electrolytic destruction of the cylinder and
bulkhead, pipe failures, and control failures. Single bulkhead cylinders, typically built prior to a 1972
ASME A17.1 Elevator Safety Code change requiring a second dished bulkhead, were subject to possible
catastrophic failure. The code previously permitted only single-bottom hydraulic cylinders. In the event
of a cylinder breach, the fluid loss results in uncontrolled down movement of the elevator. This creates
two significant hazards: being subject to an impact at the bottom when the elevator stops suddenly and
being in the entrance for a potential shear if the rider is partly in the elevator. Because it is impossible to
verify the system at all times, the code requires periodic testing of the pressure capability. Another
solution to protect against a cylinder blowout is to install a plunger gripping device. Two commercially
available are known by the marketing names "LifeJacket" and "HydroBrake". The plunger gripper is a
device which, in the event of an uncontrolled downward acceleration, nondestructively grips the plunger
and stops the car. A device known as an overspeed or rupture valve is attached to the hydraulic inlet/outlet
of the cylinder and is adjusted for a maximum flow rate. If a pipe or hose were to break (rupture), the
flow rate of the rupture valve will surpass a set limit and mechanically stop the outlet flow of hydraulic
fluid, thus stopping the plunger and the car in the down direction.

In addition to the safety concerns for older hydraulic elevators, there is risk of leaking hydraulic oil into
the aquifer and causing potential environmental contamination. This has led to the introduction of PVC
liners (casings) around hydraulic cylinders which can be monitored for integrity.

In the past decade, recent innovations in inverted hydraulic jacks have eliminated the costly process of
drilling the ground to install a borehole jack. This also eliminates the threat of corrosion to the system and
increases safety.

Mine-shaft elevators
Safety testing of mine shaft elevator rails is routinely undertaken. The method involves destructive testing
of a segment of the cable. The ends of the segment are frayed, then set in conical zinc molds. Each end of
the segment is then secured in a large, hydraulic stretching machine. The segment is then placed under
increasing load to the point of failure. Data about elasticity, load, and other factors is compiled and a
report is produced. The report is then analyzed to determine whether or not the entire rail is safe to use.

Uses

Passenger service
A passenger elevator is designed to move people between a
building's floors.

Passenger elevators capacity is related to the available floor space.

Generally passenger elevators in buildings of eight floors or fewer
are hydraulic or electric, which can reach speeds up to 1 m/s
(200 ft/min) hydraulic and up to 3 m/s (500 ft/min) electric.

Sometimes passenger elevators are used as a city transport along

A Fujitec traction elevator in Block
with funiculars. For example, there is a three-station underground
192, Bishan, Singapore
public elevator in Yalta, Ukraine, which takes passengers from the
top of a hill above the Black Sea on which hotels are perched, to a
tunnel located on the beach below. At Casco Viejo station in the Bilbao Metro, the elevator that provides
access to the station from a hilltop neighborhood doubles as city transportation: the station's ticket
barriers are set up in such a way that passengers can pay to reach the elevator from the entrance in the
lower city, or vice versa. See also the Elevators for urban transport section.

Types of passenger elevators

Passenger elevators may be specialized for the service they
perform, including: hospital emergency (code blue), front and rear
entrances, a television in high-rise buildings, double-decker, and
other uses. Cars may be ornate in their interior appearance, may
have audio visual advertising, and may be provided with
specialized recorded voice announcements. Elevators may also
have loudspeakers in them to play calm, easy listening music.
Such music is often referred to as elevator music.
The former World Trade Center's
An express elevator does not serve all floors. For example, it twin towers used skylobbies, located
moves between the ground floor and a skylobby, or it moves from on the 44th and 78th floors of each
the ground floor or a skylobby to a range of floors, skipping floors tower.
in between. These are especially popular in eastern Asia.

Capacity
Residential elevators may be small enough to only accommodate one person while some are large enough
for more than a dozen. Wheelchair, or platform elevators, a specialized type of elevator designed to move
a wheelchair 3.7 m (12 ft) or less, can often accommodate just one person in a wheelchair at a time with a
load of 340 kg (750 lb).[78]

Freight elevators
A freight elevator, or goods lift, is an elevator designed to carry
goods, rather than passengers. Freight elevators are generally
required to display a written notice in the car that the use by
passengers is prohibited (though not necessarily illegal), though
certain freight elevators allow dual use through the use of an
inconspicuous riser. In order for an elevator to be legal to carry
passengers in some jurisdictions it must have a solid inner door.
Freight elevators are typically larger and capable of carrying A specialized elevator from 1905 for
heavier loads than a passenger elevator, generally from 2,300 to lifting narrow gauge railroad cars
4,500 kg (5,100 to 9,900 lb). Freight elevators may have manually between a railroad freight house
and the Chicago Tunnel Company
operated doors, and often have rugged interior finishes to prevent
tracks below
damage while loading and unloading. In North America, it is
common for freight elevators to have vertically opening doors the
entire width of the cab.

Sidewalk elevators
A sidewalk elevator is a special type of freight elevator. Sidewalk
elevators are used to move materials between a basement and a
ground-level area, often the sidewalk just outside the building.
They are controlled via an exterior switch and emerge from a
metal trap door at ground level. Sidewalk elevator cars feature a The interior of a freight elevator,
uniquely shaped top that allows this door to open and close shown on a college campus in North
automatically.[79] Carolina. It is very basic yet rugged
for freight loading.

Stage lifts
Stage lifts and orchestra lifts are specialized elevators, typically powered by hydraulics, that are used to
raise and lower entire sections of a theater stage. For example, Radio City Music Hall has four such
elevators: an orchestra lift that covers a large area of the stage, and three smaller lifts near the rear of the
stage. In this case, the orchestra lift is powerful enough to raise an entire orchestra, or an entire cast of
performers (including live elephants) up to stage level from below. There is a barrel on the background of
the image of the left which can be used as a scale to represent the size of the mechanism
 The pit beneath the orchestra lift at Orchestra lift at Radio City Music
Radio City Music Hall Hall as viewed from beneath the
stage

Vehicle elevators
Vehicular elevators are used within buildings or areas with limited space (in place of ramps), generally to
move cars into the parking garage or manufacturer's storage. Geared hydraulic chains (not unlike bicycle
chains) generate lift for the platform and there are no counterweights. To accommodate building designs
and improve accessibility, the platform may rotate so that the driver only has to drive forward. Most
vehicle elevators have a weight capacity of 2 tons.

Rare examples of extra-heavy elevators for 20-ton lorries, and even for railcars (like one that was used at
Dnipro Station of the Kyiv Metro) also occur.

Boat lift
In some smaller canals, boats and small ships can pass between different levels of a canal with a boat
elevator rather than through a canal lock.

Aircraft elevators

For aircraft
On aircraft carriers, elevators carry aircraft between the flight deck and the hangar deck for operations or
repairs. These elevators are designed for much greater capacity than other elevators, up to 91,000 kg
(200,000 lb) of aircraft and equipment. Smaller elevators lift munitions to the flight deck from magazines
deep inside the ship.

Within aircraft
On some passenger double-deck aircraft such as the Boeing 747 or other
widebody aircraft, elevators transport flight attendants and food and
beverage trolleys from lower deck galleys to upper passenger carrying
decks.[80] Franklin Roosevelt had a retractable elevator installed on a
Douglas C-54 Skymaster to allow him to board the aircraft in his
wheelchair.[81]

Limited use and limited application

The limited-use, limited-application (LU/LA) elevator is a special purpose
passenger elevator used infrequently, and which is exempt from many
commercial regulations and accommodations. For example, a LU/LA is
primarily meant to be handicapped accessible, and there might only be
room for a single wheelchair and a standing passenger. In North America, An F/A-18C on an aircraft
they are limited to a capacity of 1,400 pounds (640 kg) and travel of 25 elevator of USS Kitty Hawk
feet (7.6 m).[82]

Residential elevator
A residential elevator or home lift is often permitted to be of lower cost
and complexity than full commercial elevators. They may have unique
design characteristics suited for home furnishings, such as hinged wooden
shaft-access doors rather than the typical metal sliding doors of
commercial elevators. Construction may be less robust than in commercial
designs with shorter maintenance periods, but safety systems such as locks
on shaft access doors, fall arrestors, and emergency phones must still be
present in the event of malfunction.

The American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME) has a specific

section of Safety Code (ASME A17.1 Section 5.3) which addresses
Residential Elevators. This section allows for different parameters to
alleviate design complexity based on the limited use of a residential
elevator by a specific user or user group. Section 5.3 of the ASME A17.1 A residential elevator with
integrated hoistway
Safety Code is for Private Residence Elevators, which does not include
construction and machine-
multi-family dwellings.[83]
room-less design

Some types of residential elevators do not use a traditional elevator shaft,

machine room, and elevator hoistway. This allows an elevator to be installed where a traditional elevator
may not fit, and simplifies installation. The ASME board first approved machine-room-less systems in a
revision of the ASME A17.1 in 2007. Machine-room-less elevators have been available commercially
since the mid-1990s, however cost and overall size prevented their adoption to the residential elevator
market until around 2010.[84]

Also, residential elevators are smaller than commercial elevators. The smallest passenger elevator is
pneumatic, and it allows for only 1 person.[85] The smallest traction elevator allows for just 2 persons.[86]

Dumbwaiter
Dumbwaiters are small freight elevators that are intended to carry food, books or other small freight loads
rather than passengers. They often connect kitchens to rooms on other floors. They usually do not have
the same safety features found in passenger elevators, like various ropes for redundancy. They have a
lower capacity, and they can be up to 1 metre (3 ft) tall. Control panels at every stop mimic those found in
passenger elevators, allowing calling, door control and floor selection.

Paternoster
A special type of elevator is the paternoster, a constantly moving chain of
boxes. A similar concept, called the manlift or humanlift, moves only a
small platform, which the rider mounts while using a handhold seen in
multi-story industrial plants.

Scissor lift
The scissor lift is yet another type of elevator. These are usually mobile
work platforms that can be easily moved to where they are needed, but
can also be installed where space for counter-weights, machine room and
so forth is limited. The mechanism that makes them go up and down is
like that of a scissor jack. A paternoster in Berlin,
Germany

Rack-and-pinion elevator
Rack-and-pinion elevator are powered by a motor driving a pinion gear.
Because they can be installed on a building or structure's exterior and
there is no machine room or hoistway required, they are the most used
type of elevator for buildings under construction (to move materials and
tools up and down).[87][88]

Material handling belts and belt elevators

Material transport elevators generally consist of an inclined plane on
which a conveyor belt runs. The conveyor often includes partitions to
ensure that the material moves forward. These elevators are often used in
industrial and agricultural applications. When such mechanisms (or spiral
screws or pneumatic transport) are used to elevate grain for storage in
large vertical silos, the entire structure is called a grain elevator. Belt
elevators are often used in docks for loading loose materials such as coal,
iron ore and grain into the holds of bulk carriers
A mobile scissor lift,
extended to near its highest
position
There have occasionally been belt lifts for humans; these typically have steps about every 2 m (6 ft 6.7 in)
along the length of the belt, which moves vertically, so that the passenger can stand on one step and hold
on to the one above. These belts are sometimes used, for example, to carry the employees of parking
garages, but are considered too dangerous for public use.

Social impact
Before the widespread use of elevators, most residential buildings were limited to about seven stories.
The wealthy lived on lower floors, while poorer residents—required to climb many flights of stairs—
lived on higher floors. The elevator reversed this social stratification, exemplified by the modern
penthouse suite.[89]

Early users of elevators sometimes reported nausea caused by abrupt stops while descending, and some
users would use stairs to go down. In 1894, a Chicago physician documented "elevator sickness".[89]

Elevators necessitated new social protocols. When Nicholas II of Russia visited the Hotel Adlon in
Berlin, his courtiers panicked about who would enter the elevator first, and who would press the
buttons.[90] In Lifted: A Cultural History of the Elevator, author Andreas Bernard documents other social
impacts caused by the modern elevator, including thriller movies about stuck elevators, casual encounters
and sexual tension on elevators, the reduction of personal space and claustrophobia, and concerns about
personal hygiene.[91]

User interface
Elevators may feature talking devices as an accessibility aid for
the blind. Since the early 1980s, some elevators feature voice
synthesis to announce floor landings, car direction and special
messages to passengers.[92]

In addition to the call buttons, elevators usually have floor

indicators and direction lanterns. The former are almost universal
in cab interiors with more than two stops and may be found
outside the elevators as well on one or more of the floors. Up until
LCD elevator floor indicator
the 1980s, floor indicators typically had an analog strip of
numbers that would light up individually. Around that time, digital
floor indicators began appearing, usually either segmented or dot-matrix displays. More detailed displays
first began appearing in the early 1990s with Otis’s electroluminescent display, and became more
common as LCDs became more viable in the 21st century. Likewise, a change of floors or an arrival at a
floor is indicated by a sound, depending on the elevator. Some buildings use proximity technology that
recognizes residents and brings the elevator to ground level.[93]

Direction lanterns are also found both inside and outside elevator cars, but they should always be visible
from outside because their primary purpose is to help people decide whether or not to get on the elevator.
If somebody waiting for the elevator wants to go up, but a car comes first that indicates that it is going
down, then the person may decide not to get on the elevator. If the person waits, then one will still stop
going up. Direction indicators are sometimes etched with arrows or shaped like arrows and/or use the
convention that one that lights up red means "down" and green (or
white) means "up". Since the color convention is often
undermined or over-ridden by systems that do not invoke it, it is
usually used only in conjunction with other differentiating factors.
An example of a place whose elevators use only the color
convention to differentiate between directions is the Museum of
Contemporary Art in Chicago, where a single circle can be made
to light up green for "up" and red for "down". Sometimes
directions must be inferred by the position of the indicators A typical elevator indicator located in
relative to one another. the Waldorf Astoria New York. This
elevator was made by Otis.
In addition to lanterns, most elevators have a chime to indicate if
the elevator is going up or down either before or after the doors
open, usually in conjunction with the lanterns lighting up. For example, one chime can indicate "up", two
"down", and no chimes indicate an elevator that is 'free'.[94]

Observatory service elevators often convey other facts of interest,

including elevator speed, stopwatch, and current position
(altitude), as with the case for Taipei 101's service elevators.

There are several technologies aimed to provide better experience

to passengers suffering from claustrophobia, anthropophobia or
social anxiety. Israeli startup DigiGage uses motion sensors to
scroll the pre-rendered images, building and floor-specific content
on a screen embedded into the wall as the cab moves up and
down.[95] British company LiftEye provides a virtual window Elevator with a virtual window
technology to turn common elevator into panoramic. It creates 3d affording a view of the City of
video panorama using live feed from cameras placed vertically London
along the facade and synchronizes it with cab movement. The
video is projected on a wall-sized screens making it look like the
walls are made of glass.[96]

Air conditioning
The primary reason for installing an elevator air conditioner is the comfort
that it provides while traveling in the elevator. It stabilizes the condition of
the air inside the elevator car. Some elevator air conditioners can be used
in countries with cold climates if a thermostat is used to reverse the
refrigeration cycle to warm the elevator car.

Heat generated from the cooling process is dissipated into the hoistway.
The elevator cab (or car) is ordinarily not air-tight, and some of this heat
may reenter the car and reduce the overall cooling effect.
Elevator airflow diagram
The air from the lobby constantly leaks into the elevator shaft due to
elevator movements as well as elevator shaft ventilation requirements.
Using this conditioned air in the elevator does not increase energy costs. However, by using an
independent elevator air conditioner to achieve better temperature control inside the car, more energy will
be used.

Air conditioning poses a problem to elevators because of the condensation that occurs. The condensed
water produced has to be disposed of; otherwise, it would create flooding in the elevator car and
hoistway.

Methods of removing condensed water

There are at least four ways to remove condensed water from the air conditioner. However, each solution
has its pros and cons.

Atomizing
Atomizing, also known as misting the condensed water, is one way to dispose of the condensed water.
Spraying ultra-fine water droplets onto the hot coils of the air conditioner ensures that the condensed
water evaporates quickly.

Though this is one of the best methods to dispose of the condensed water, it is also one of the costliest
because the nozzle that atomizes the water easily gets choked. The majority of the cost goes to
maintaining the entire atomizing system.

Boiling
Disposing of condensed water works by firstly collecting the condensed water and then heating it to
above boiling point. The condensed water is eventually evaporated, thereby disposing of it.

Consumers are reluctant to employ this system because of the high rate of energy used just to dispose of
this water.

Cascading
The cascading method works by flowing the condensed water directly onto the hot coils of the air
conditioner. This eventually evaporates the condensed water.

The downside of this technology is that the coils have to be at extremely high temperature for the
condensed water to be evaporated. There is a chance that the water might not evaporate entirely and that
would cause water to overflow onto the exterior of the car.

Drainage system
Drainage system works by creating a sump to collect the condensed water and using a pump to dispose of
it through a drainage system.
It is an efficient method, but it comes at a heavy price because of the cost of building the sump.
Moreover, maintaining the pump to make sure it operates is very expensive. Furthermore, the pipes used
for drainage would look ugly on the exterior. This system also cannot be implemented on a built project.

ISO 22559
The mechanical and electrical design of elevators is dictated according to various
standards (aka elevator codes), which may be international, national, state, regional
or city based. Whereas once many standards were prescriptive, specifying exact
criteria which must be complied with, there has recently been a shift towards more
performance-based standards where the onus falls on the designer to ensure that the
elevator meets or exceeds the standard.

National elevator standards:

Australia – AS1735
A international
Canada – CAN/CSA B44
symbol for
Europe – EN 81 series (EN 81-20, EN 81-21, EN 81-28, EN 81-70, EN
elevator
12015, EN 12016, EN 13015, etc.)
India – Indian Standard – Installation and Maintenance of home lifts
(Code of practice 2002)[97]
US – ASME A17
converged in ISO 22559 series, "Safety requirements for lifts (elevators)":[98][99]

Part 1: Global essential safety requirements (GESRs).

Part 2: Safety parameters meeting the global essential safety requirements (GESRs).
Part 3: Global conformity assessment procedures (GCAP) – Prerequisites for certification of
conformity of lift systems, lift components and lift functions
Part 4: Global conformity assessment procedures (GCAP) – Certification and accreditation
requirements
ISO/TC 178 is the Technical Committee on Lifts, escalators and moving walks.[100][101]

Because an elevator is part of a building, it must also comply with building code standards relating to
earthquake resilience, fire standards, electrical wiring rules and so forth.

The American National Elevator Standards Group (ANESG) sets an elevator weight standard to be
1,000 kg (2,200 lb).

Additional requirements relating to access by disabled persons, may be mandated by laws or regulations
such as the Americans with Disabilities Act. Elevators marked with a Star of Life are big enough for a
stretcher.[102]

U.S. and Canadian standard specifics

In most US and Canadian jurisdictions, passenger elevators are required to conform to the American
Society of Mechanical Engineers' Standard A17.1, Safety Code for Elevators and Escalators. As of 2006,
all states except Kansas, Mississippi, North Dakota, and South Dakota have adopted some version of
ASME codes, though not necessarily the most recent.[103] In Canada the document is the CAN/CSA B44
Safety Standard, which was harmonized with the US version in the 2000 edition. In addition, passenger
elevators may be required to conform to the requirements of A17.3 for existing elevators where
referenced by the local jurisdiction. Passenger elevators are tested using the ASME A17.2 Standard. The
frequency of these tests is mandated by the local jurisdiction, which may be a town, city, state or
provincial standard.

Passenger elevators must also conform to many ancillary building codes including the local or state
building code, National Fire Protection Association standards for electrical, fire sprinklers and fire
alarms, plumbing codes, and HVAC codes. Also, passenger elevators are required to conform to the
Americans with Disabilities Act and other state and federal civil rights legislation regarding accessibility.

Residential elevators are required to conform to ASME A17.1. platform and wheelchair elevators are
required to comply with ASME A18.1 in most US jurisdictions.

Most elevators have a location in which the permit for the building owner to operate the elevator is
displayed. While some jurisdictions require the permit to be displayed in the elevator cab, other
jurisdictions allow for the operating permit to be kept on file elsewhere – such as the maintenance office
– and to be made available for inspection on demand. In such cases instead of the permit being displayed
in the elevator cab, often a notice is posted in its place informing riders of where the actual permits are
kept.

Unique installations

World statistics

Country Number of elevators installed

Italy 900,000

United States 900,000

China 4,000,000

530,000
South Korea 700,000 (as of June 2019)

Russia 520,000

Spain 950,000[104]

As of January 2008, Spain is the nation with the most elevators installed per capita[105] in the world, with
950,000 elevators installed[106] that run more than one hundred million lifts every day, followed by
United States with 700,000 elevators installed and China with 610,000 elevators installed since 1949.[107]
In Brazil, it is estimated that there are approximately 300,000 elevators currently in operation.[108][109]
The world's largest market for elevators is Italy, with more than 1,629 million euros of sales and 1,224
million euros of internal market.
In Spain, the elevators in maintenance invoice €4 million a year, and €250 million in repairs. In 2012,
Spain exported €300 million in elevators.

In South Korea there are 530,000 elevators in operation, with 36,000 added in 2015. Hyundai elevators
has 48% market share ThyssenKrupp Elevator Korea (formerly the Dongyang Elevator Co.) 17%, Otis
Elevator Korea (formerly the elevator division of LG Industrial Systems) 16%, as of 2015. South Korea
record 50,000 elevators sales in 2018 with 700,000 accumulated operation as of June,2019. Korean
annual elevator maintenance market is around US$1 billion.

Eiffel Tower
The Eiffel Tower has Otis double-deck elevators built into the legs
of the tower, serving the ground level to the first and second
levels. Even though the shaft runs diagonally upwards with the
contour of the tower, both the upper and lower cars remain
horizontally level. The offset distance of the two cars changes
throughout the journey.

There are four elevator cars of the traditional design that run from
the second level to the third level. The cars are connected to their
An elevator pulley in the Eiffel Tower
opposite pairs (opposite in the elevator landing/hall) and use each
other as the counterweight. As one car ascends from level 2, the
other descends from level 3. The operations of these elevators are synchronized by a light signal in the
car.

Statue of Unity
The Statue of Unity, the world's tallest statue at 182 metres (597 ft) high, has 10 high speed (4-metre-per-
second (13 ft/s)) elevators leading up to a viewing gallery 153 metres (502 ft) high.[110]

Taipei 101
Double deck elevators, installed by Toshiba using Kone EcoDisc
machinery, are used in the Taipei 101 office tower. Tenants of even-
numbered floors first take an escalator (or an elevator from the parking
garage) to the 2nd level, where they will enter the upper deck and arrive at
their floors. The lower deck is turned off during low-volume hours, and
the upper deck can act as a single-level elevator stopping at all adjacent
floors. For example, the 85th floor restaurants can be accessed from the
60th floor sky-lobby. Restaurant customers must clear their reservations at
the reception counter on the 2nd floor. A bank of express elevators stop
only on the sky lobby levels (36 and 60, upper-deck car), where tenants
can transfer to "local" elevators.
The observation deck
The high-speed observation deck elevators accelerate to a former world- elevator floor indicator in
record certified speed of 1,010 metres per minute (61 km/h) in 16 seconds, the Taipei 101
and then it slows down for arrival with subtle air pressure sensations. The
door opens after 37 seconds from the 5th floor. Special features include
aerodynamic car and counterweights, and cabin pressure control to help passengers adapt smoothly to
pressure changes. The downwards journey is completed at a reduced speed of 600 meters per minute,
with the doors opening at the 52nd second. Many high speed elevators also have aerodynamic cab
exteriors.[111]

Gateway Arch
The Gateway Arch in St. Louis uses a unique tram system to transport
visitors to the observation deck. Passengers enter horizontal compartments
that form a train, tilting to maintain level orientation as they ascend the
curved tracks within the Arch. Two tramways operate at each end, offering
views of the Arch's interior structure through windowed doors. The cars
transition from hanging below the cables to resting atop them during the
journey.

New City Hall, Hanover, Germany

The elevator in the New City Hall in Hanover, Germany is a technical
rarity, and unique in Europe, as the elevator starts straight up but then
changes its angle by 15 degrees to follow the contour of the dome of the
The interior of one of the
hall. The cabin therefore tilts 15 degrees during the ride. The elevator Gateway Arch tramway cars
travels a height of 43 meters. The new city hall was built in 1913. The
elevator was destroyed in 1943 and rebuilt in
1954. The elevator at the New City Hall, Hanover, Germany

Luxor incline elevator

The Luxor Hotel in Las Vegas, Nevada, United
States has inclined elevators. The shape of this
casino is a pyramid, and the elevator travels up
the side of the pyramid at a 39-degree angle.
Other locations with inclined elevators include
the Cityplace Station in Dallas, Texas, the
Huntington Metro Station in Huntington,
Virginia, and the San Diego Convention Center
in San Diego, California.

Radisson Blu, Berlin, Germany View up the shaft The cabin at the
bottom and the
At the Radisson Blu hotel in Berlin, Germany,
top
the main elevator was surrounded by an
aquarium; 82 feet tall, the aquarium contained
more than a thousand different fish until it shattered in December 2022. The design offered views of the
fish to people using the elevator. The special elevator was built by the German company GBH-Design
GmbH[112]

The Twilight Zone Tower of Terror

The Twilight Zone Tower of Terror is an attraction found in three Disney parks, featuring a simulated
free-fall using a high-speed elevator system. Passengers are seated and secured for safety. The unique
elevator design allows for rapid descent and ascent, exceeding normal gravity. Passenger cabins are
separate from the lift mechanism, enabling continuous operation and movement through show scenes.
Automated guided vehicles transport passengers into the elevator shaft. Open doorways at the top provide
views from the structure.

"Top of the Rock" elevators

Guests ascending to the 67th, 69th, and 70th level observation decks (dubbed "Top of the Rock") atop the
GE Building at Rockefeller Center in New York City ride a high-speed glass-top elevator. When entering
the cab, it appears to be any normal elevator ride. However, once the cab begins moving, the interior
lights turn off and a special blue light above the cab turns on. This lights the entire shaft, so riders can see
the moving cab through its glass ceiling as it rises and lowers through the shaft. Music plays and various
animations are also displayed on the ceiling. The entire ride takes about 60 seconds.

The Haunted Mansion

Part of the Haunted Mansion attraction at Disneyland in Anaheim, California, and Disneyland in Paris,
France, takes place on an elevator.[113] The ride's "stretching room" is actually an elevator that descends
while giving the illusion of stretching upwards. This effect is achieved by having an open ceiling and
decorated shaft, allowing passengers to see the walls move as they descend.[114][115]

For urban transport

In some towns where terrain is difficult to navigate, elevators are used as part of urban transport systems.

Examples:

Almada, Portugal – Boca do Vento Elevator

Bad Schandau, Germany – Bad Schandau Elevator
Brussels, Belgium – Poelaert Elevators
Bürgenstock, Switzerland – Hammetschwand Elevator
Coimbra, Portugal – Elevador do Mercado
Lisbon, Portugal – Elevador de Santa Justa, Castelo (planned), Chiado (closed),
Município/Biblioteca (demolished)
Luxembourg City, Luxembourg – Pfaffenthal Panoramic Elevator
Nagasaki, Japan – Skyway
Oregon City, Oregon, US – Oregon City Municipal Elevator
Porto, Portugal – Elevador da Ribeira
Salvador, Bahia, Brazil – Elevador Lacerda
 Salzburg, Austria - MönchsbergAufzug
Stockholm, Sweden – Katarina Elevator
Valletta, Malta – Barrakka Lift, which connects the Upper Barrakka Gardens (on the top of
the fortifications) to the harbor[116]
Whanganui, New Zealand – Durie Hill Elevator; originally built by subdividers of suburb
Lynchburg, Virginia, US - Lynchburg Public Elevator Connects pedestrians from Church
street on the lower level to Court Street on the upper level.

IOT elevators
Internet of things (IOT) technology application is being used in elevators to improve performance,
operations, monitoring, maintenance with help of remote diagnostics, real time notifications and
predictive behavioral insights.[117]

World's fastest elevators

The Guangzhou CTF Finance Centre holds the current record of world's fastest elevators with their cars
traveling at 75.6 km/h (47.0 mph). The elevator, which was tested out the speed in June 2017, was
manufactured by Hitachi, and was confirmed a Guinness World Record Sept. 2019.[118]

However, on the way down, the elevators at Yokohama Landmark Tower, manufactured by Mitsubishi
Electric, descend at 45 km/h (28 mph), and still hold the record for the fastest descending elevator in the
world.[119]

See also
Building transportation systems Schmid peoplemover
Double-deck elevator Shopping cart conveyor
Elevator consultant Space elevator
Elevator mechanic Stairlift
Elevator paradox Wheelchair lift
Elevator surfing Lists
Incline elevator List of elevator accidents
Paternoster lift List of elevator manufacturers

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Bibliography
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2014) 309 pages; scholarly architectural and technological history; also examines literary
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Traffic Performance of Elevators with Destination Control
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article.php?L=14&C=220). Archived from the original (http://continuingeducation.constructio
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Further reading
Gray, Lee (2002). From Ascending Rooms to Express Elevators: A History of the Passenger
Elevator in the 19th Century (https://books.google.com/books?id=Qq4gVSkfnPcC). Mobile,
Alabama: Elevator World. ISBN 9781886536463. OCLC 52335945 (https://search.worldcat.
org/oclc/52335945).
Nick Paumgarten, The New Yorker, 21 April 2008, Up And Then Down: The lives of
elevators (http://www.newyorker.com/reporting/2008/04/21/080421fa_fact_paumgarten?curr
entPage=all)
Karin Tetlow, Comparisons of different types of Elevators (https://www.construction.com/ce/a
rticles/0709kone-6.asp) September 2007.

External links
ACE3 (https://aceee.org/files/pdf/white-paper/elevators2005.pdf) Opportunities for Elevator
Energy Efficiency Improvements
Why do we behave so oddly in lifts? (https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/magazine-19846214)
BBC News Online (2012-10-08)

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