MONDAY 13-01-2025

DEPARTMENT OF GEOSPATIAL AND SPACE TECHNOLOGY

ENGINEERING SURVEY CAT
FGE 431
LECTURER: MR. BENSON OKUMU

BY GROUP 1

F19/2361/2021 SARAH AWINO OGUTU

F19/2126/2020 KONDE JAMES KIMARI
F19/2372/2021 JEPTOO FREDAH
F19/2383/2021 NDUNDA GEORGE MUTUA
F19/2355/2021 MOUREEN WANJIKU NJOROGE
F19/6656/2021 ODIWUOR MOSES OCHIENG
F19/2150/2020 KIMENGECH BRENDA
F19/2353/2021 MUSILI JULIUS KYALO
F19/1798/2021 SIALO BONIFACE CHESINGEI
F19/2373/2020 JOSEPH NYANYUKI NYABUTI

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QUESTION ONE
(a) There are basically three instrument errors associated with electromagnetic distance
measurements for engineering surveying. Discuss these errors in terms of causative agents,
relative orders of magnitude, ameliorative measures taken to either minimize or eliminate
them and, calibration approaches aimed at determining their magnitudes.
Scale Error (K1) Frequency Drift
- Caused by modulation frequency not corresponding exactly with design
frequency value.
- The error is proportional to distance measured.
- Effect is more noticeable on long lines and can sometimes be as high as 20-
30ppm for short-range instruments.
- It should be negligible.
- Expressed in ppm (d).
- Determined in the lab by comparing observed modulation frequency with a time
reference frequency.
Zero Error (Additional Constant, Index, Reflector/Prism Offset) K2
- Occurs if there are differences in electrical centre of the EDM instrument and
reflectors and includes the prism constant.
- Error is of constant magnitude and is not dependent on range.
- The value of a zero-error obtained from a calibration procedure usually applies to an
instrument and reflector and if the reflector is changed, the zero constant changes.
- Calibration is on a baseline. Combinations of distances along a known or unknown
baseline segments are measured and the representative difference deduced.
Cyclic Error (Periodic, Revolver, Non-linearity)
- Caused by internal electrical contamination between transmitter and receiver
circuitry.
- Smaller in magnitude than the other two.
- Calibrated by use of a graduated bar and superior instrument. The effect of scale
error is assumed zero.

QUESTION TWO

(a) Give the four methods used in setting out linear features in civil engineering.

- Distance only (tape-tape) - This traditional method requires two tapes. It is suitable
for short curves or for curves of small radius such as boundary walls and kerb lines at
road intersections. It may be used to set out additional points between
those previously established by the tangential angles method or by
coordinate methods.

- Angle and distance (Theodolite and distancer) – This method uses a theodolite and
a tape. Chords from tangent point, angle obtained from arc length and distance from
chord length.

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 - Two-angle (Theodolite only) – This variation is deployed when the ground between
the tangent points is of such a character that taping proves difficult, for example, very
steep slopes, undulating ground, ploughed fields or if the curve is partly over marshy
ground. One disadvantage of the method is that two of everything are required, for
example, two engineers, two instruments and, preferably, two assistants to locate
the pegs.

- By coordinate (Derivative)
- Use angle-distance - bearing and distance (polar rays) using EDM instruments
or total stations from control points in the main survey network.

- Use angle only - Using intersection only using two theodolites from two of the
control points in the main survey network surrounding the proposed scheme

(c) Show the basic field procedures used to carry out the setting out of the small radius curve
on the ground.

I. Define the baseline from which all offsets are reckoned.

II. Obtain the point on the curve by locating a point on the baseline then measure offset
distance from the baseline.

QUESTION FOUR

(a) Give the highlights of the main features of Compound and Reserve curves as used in
connecting two straights.

Compound Curve

- Series of simple circular curves running in same direction with common tangent.
- Used when simple circular curve is not sufficient.
- Use dictated by topography.
- Involves curves of unequal radii.
Reverse Curve

- Formed by two circular curves with common tangent.

- Joins nearly parallel straights.
- Commonly used in railway designs.
- Consists of setting out two circular curves from two tangent points.

(b) Differentiate between the following terms/ scenarios used in engineering surveying.

i. Passive and active EDMs

Passive EDMs are unmanned EDM reflectors while active EDMs are manned
instruments.

ii. Carrier and Modulation signals

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 Carrier signals are visible, infrared and microwave rays generated by both
passive and active EDMs while in modulation signals the wavelength is short
(0.5mm-30mm) and is a measurement modulation signal superimposed onto the
carrier signal.

iii. Retro-reflector and Remote in EDM devices.

Retro-reflector reflects with electro-optical while remote retransmits with
microwaves.

iv. Known and unknown baselines

Known baselines require periodic monitoring of interpillar distances while in
unknown baselines the stability of pillars of baselines are only required for the
duration of survey observation only.

v. Modular and Integrated EDMs

Modular EDMs are designed such that the electronic theodolite and EDM
instrument are a separate unit which can be independently operated while Integrated EDMs
are designed such that the electronic theodolite and EDM form a single integrated unit.

vi. Mid-ordinate and Apex distances

Mid-ordinate (Middle-ordinate/rise) distances are represented by R(1-cos(ϴ/2))
while apex (external) distances are represented by R(sec(ϴ/2)-1).

QUESTION FIVE
(b) Outline the principle of transition curve and the requirements of a transition curve design.
To ensure gradual change of direction from straight to curve and permit gradual application of
superelevation to counteract centrifugal force.
Requirements of a transition curve design
- Value of minimum safe radius, R.
- Length of the curve, L.

(c) Compare and contrast composite and wholly transition curves as they are used in highway
curve design and setting out.
Composite Transition Curves Wholly transition curves
Two transition curves and a circular curve Two transition curves adjoined.
intervening.

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 Longer danger length since curve length is Increased safety due to absence of minimum
finite. r.

QUESTION SEVEN

(a) Explain the two types of transition curves commonly used in road design mentioning the
merits/demerits in each case.
1. Composite Transition Curves
A composite transition curve combines different geometric elements, typically a straight
alignment (tangent), a transition curve, a circular curve, and another transition curve.
Merits
1. Ease of Design:
o Combines well-defined geometric elements, making design calculations
straightforward.
o Standard formulas and procedures are well-documented for such curves.
2. Cost-Effective:
o Requires less land for construction compared to wholly transition curves due to
shorter lengths.
3. Versatile Application:
o Suitable for most highway and railway projects where design speed and comfort
levels are moderate.
4. Ease of Setting Out:
o Surveying and setting out are simpler due to distinct segments with predictable
geometry.
Demerits
1. Abrupt Changes in Forces:
o Lateral forces change abruptly at the junctions between the transition and
circular arc, reducing passenger comfort.
2. Limited Comfort at High Speeds:
o At higher speeds, the abrupt changes in curvature can cause discomfort and
potential safety concerns.

2. Wholly Transition Curves

A wholly transition curve has no constant-radius (circular) segment. The curvature varies
continuously along the entire length of the curve, transitioning smoothly from a straight
alignment to the required curvature.
Merits
1. Maximum Comfort:
o Provides a smooth and gradual change in curvature, eliminating abrupt lateral
forces.
o Ideal for high-speed highways and railways.
2. Improved Safety:
o Continuous variation in curvature and superelevation reduces the risk of
skidding or overturning.
3. Aesthetic Appeal:
o Produces a visually pleasing alignment that blends naturally with the landscape.
Demerits
1. Complex Design:

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 oRequires advanced mathematical and computational methods due to
continuously varying curvature.
2. Higher Cost:
o Often requires more land and construction resources due to its longer length.
3. Challenging Setting Out:
o Field implementation is more complex as it involves setting out a curve with
continuously changing parameters.

(b) Explain the two methods, in each case, used in determining the length and minimum safe
radius of a transition curve.
Length of curve by;

I. Rate of application of super elevation rse

1:200 motorways, 1:100 all purpose roads, 1:480 railways

For rse=1:200 with given se= 0.3

L= 60m
II. Rate of change of radial acceleration, shortt’s Factor. 0.3,0.45,0.6m/s3
Rate of change of RA which would be unnoticeable to passenger when travelling

L = V3/Rq = V3/3.63.R.q

RA = V2 RA 1/ R Radial Acceleration

R
Rate of change of RA= RA/(L/V)

TC to be long enough to ensure rate of change of R hence RA, is unnoticeable to

passengers.

- Show q = v3/RL.

Minimum Safe Radius From;

I. Centrifugal Ratio

P =cr= V2 V in km/hr
W 127R

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 - Commonly used values

p
/w = v2
Rg 0.21 to 0.25 on roads
0.125 on railways
For cr=0.22 V=64km/hr

R=146.6m

II. Coefficient of Friction

V2/127R > tan  + u. values obtained at Transport Office

ϴ = superelevation angle
μ = coefficient of friction
Make R the subject of the formular
(c) Summarize the attributes of the vertical curves used in civil engineering
VC Attributes
• Used to connect gradients.
• In route design they are provided at all changes of gradient.
• Sufficiently large curvature for safety.
• That is low rate of change.
• Afford adequate sight distance for safe stopping at a given V.
• Simple parabola to connect grades g1,g2

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