Helmut Gröttrup

Helmut Gröttrup (12 February 1916 – 4 July 1981)

was a German engineer, rocket scientist and inventor Helmut Gröttrup
of the smart card. During World War II, he worked in
the German V-2 rocket program under Wernher von
Braun. From 1946 to 1950 he headed a group of 170
German scientists who were forced to work for the
Soviet rocketry program under Sergei Korolev. After
returning to West Germany in December 1953, he
developed data processing systems, contributed to
early commercial applications of computer science and
coined the German term "Informatik". In 1967
Gröttrup invented the smart card as a "forgery-proof
key" for secure identification and access control (ID
card) or storage of a secure key, also including
inductive coupling for near-field communication
(NFC). From 1970 he headed a start-up division of
Giesecke+Devrient for the development of banknote
processing systems and machine-readable security Gröttrup, c. 1977
features. Born Helmut Gröttrup
February 12, 1916
Cologne, Kingdom of Prussia,
Education German Empire
Died July 4, 1981 (aged 65)
Helmut Gröttrup's father Johann Gröttrup (1881–1940)
Munich, West Germany
was a mechanical engineer. He worked full-time at the
Bund der technischen Angestellten und Beamten Nationality German
(Butab), a federation for technical staff and officials of Citizenship Germany
the social democratic trade union in Berlin. His mother Alma mater Technische Hochschule Berlin
Thérèse Gröttrup (1894–1981), born Elsen, was active
Occupation Engineer
in the peace movement. Johann Gröttrup lost his job in
1933 when the Nazi Party came into power. Spouse(s) Irmgard Rohe (married 1940-
1964)
From 1935 to 1939 Helmut Gröttrup studied applied Christine Storzum (married 1964-
physics at the Technische Hochschule in 1981)
Charlottenburg (now Technische Universität Berlin) Children Peter Gröttrup
and made his thesis with professor Hans Geiger, the Ursula Gröttrup
Johannes Gröttrup
Bernhard Gröttrup
Elisabeth Gröttrup
co-inventor of the Geiger counter. He also worked for Manfred von Ardenne's research laboratory
Forschungslaboratorium für Elektronenphysik.

German rocketry program

From December 1939, Helmut Gröttrup worked in the German V-2 rocket program at the Peenemünde
Army Research Center with Walter Dornberger and Wernher von Braun. In December 1940, he was made
department head under Ernst Steinhoff for developing remote guidance and control systems.

Since October 1943 Gröttrup had been under SD surveillance. A report stated that he, his wife Irmgard,
Wernher von Braun, and his colleague Klaus Riedel were said to have expressed regret at an engineer's
house one evening that they were not working on a spaceship and that they felt the war was not going
well; this was considered a "defeatist" attitude. A young female dentist who was an SS spy reported their
comments.[1]: 38–40 Combined with Himmler's false charges that they were communist sympathizers and
had attempted to sabotage the V-2 program, the Gestapo detained them on March 21, 1944,[2] and took
them to a Gestapo cell in Stettin (now Szczecin, Poland), where they were held for two weeks without
knowing the charges against them. Walter Dornberger and major Hans Georg Klamroth, representative of
counterintelligence at Peenemünde, obtained their conditional release so that the V-2 program could
continue.

Soviet rocketry program

After World War II, Gröttrup refused to join Wernher von Braun who contracted US missile development
together with 120 high-level specialists from Peenemünde. This was because family members had to stay
in Germany. Instead, in September 1945, Gröttrup decided to work for the reconstruction and
manufacturing of the V-2 rockets as head of the Büro Gröttrup[3] in Bleicherode in Thuringia within the
Soviet Occupation Zone. Although most of the rocket specialists were retained by the US in West
Germany, he was able to attract outstanding scientists for work in Bleicherode, among them Kurt
Magnus, Werner Albring, Johannes Hoch, Waldemar Wolff to reconstruct the development documents of
the V-2 rocket and improve the control system based on gyroscope for the inertial navigation system.[4] In
March 1946, he was appointed German head of Institut Nordhausen[5] and, in May 1946, General
Manager of the Zentralwerke which occupied more than 5,000 employees for the manufacturing of the V-
2 rockets and included suppliers of the earlier Mittelwerk, V-2 test sites and Institut Berlin for the
reconstruction of the Wasserfall surface-to-air missile.[6]: p. 92-101 Gröttrup worked under the supervision
of Sergei Korolev and Boris Chertok who reported to the Soviet military government of Maj. Gen. Lev
Gaidukov and Dmitry Ustinov, the Minister of Armaments.[7]

During the night on 22 October 1946, a selected group of around 200 German scientists and engineers -
plus equipment - from the Zentralwerke were unexpectedly and forcibly (at gunpoint) moved to the
USSR as part of Operation Osoaviakhim by 92 trains with more than 2,300 German specialists including
other domains of German technology.[8] From 1946 until September 1950, Gröttrup headed the more than
170 German specialists working in Podlipki in the north east section of Moscow as part of Korolev's NII-
88 and in Branch 1 of NII-88 on Gorodomlya Island in Lake Seliger. The German team was indirectly
overseen by Sergei Korolev, the "chief designer" of the Soviet rocketry program. In September 1950,
Gröttrup was discharged as head of the German team because he refused to continue work on other
Soviet projects, and was replaced by Johannes Hoch and later Waldemar Wolff.[4]: pp. 220-223

In 1947-48, Gröttrup and his team helped Korolev with the R-1 project, a recreation of the V-2 missile
using Russian manufacturing and materials.[9] At Kapustin Yar, he helped Korolev supervise the
launching of 20 rebuilt V-2 rockets and analyze failure causes. In October 1947 they succeeded for the
first time. As a reality check on Korolev's missile proposals, official Dmitriy Ustinov asked Gröttrup and
his small team to design several improved missile systems, including the R-10 (G-1), R-12 (G-2),[10] the
R-14 (G-4),[11] and the R-15 (G-5) which was similar to the A9/A10 long range missile von Braun
designed during the war.[12][13][14] None of these projects went beyond the design stage. However, the
theoretical work of the German scientists proposed improved solutions due to lack of material, and new
ideas significantly contributed to the later success of Soviet space program. Some ideas were
incorporated in the R-2 and R-5 missile systems.[15] The launcher for Sputnik 1's orbital flight in October
1957 was based on R-7 Semyorka with a bundling (packeting) of a total of 20 engines with conical rocket
bodies, as already proposed by the German scientists in 1949 in Gorodomlja. For political reasons,
however, the contributions made by the German collective of rocket scientists to Soviet missile
development have long been considered insignificant by the public in East and West.[16]

Return to Germany
For secrecy reasons, German specialists were not allowed to work on important missile technologies after
1951, but they were kept in the USSR for a 1.5 year "cooling off" period so they could not give timely
information to British Intelligence or American Intelligence. The majority of the Gorodomlya group was
released in June 1952. Fritz Karl Preikschat, who managed the high frequency lab under Gröttrup from
1946-1952 on Gorodomlya Island, and several other specialists made it to West Germany, and were
interrogated as "defectors" by the CIA and MI6 (as part of the operation "Dragon Return" on the Soviet
rocketry program.[17]

Gröttrup and twenty other German scientists (among them Kurt Magnus, Karl-Joachim Umpfenbach)[18]
were kept until November 1953, based on their knowledge and Soviet concerns that they would move to
West Germany.[19] Gröttrup and his family returned to East Germany on 22 November 1953, among the
last group from Gorodomlya Island, and, within two weeks, escaped to Cologne in West Germany with
the support of British and American Intelligence. In the interrogations he reported the details of German
studies and concepts of long-range missiles R-12 (G-2), the R-14 (G-4).[20] The MI6 rated him as "the
best-informed" of the German returnees from Gorodomlya and that he provided "useful pointers
regarding parallel Russian developments".[17]: p. 224-225 which Korolev eventually demonstrated with
successfully launching the Sputnik 1 satellite to orbit in November 1957.

Again, Helmut Gröttrup refused to work for the US missile program and, together with his family, was
immediately put on the street.[21]

Invention of the smart card

From 1954 to 1958, Gröttrup worked for Standard Elektrik Lorenz in Pforzheim. He participated in
developing the ER56, the first fully transistorized data processing system in Germany. With this, he
installed one of the first commercial applications of data processing for managing the logistics of Quelle's
mail-order business. In 1956, he and the German informatician Karl Steinbuch coined the word
Informatik when they developed the Informatik-Anlage[22] for Quelle's mail-order management, one of
the earliest commercial applications of data processing. In 1959, he joined the Produktograph company of
Joseph Mayr, which was later taken over by Siemens & Halske, for production data acquisition and
monitoring. In 1965, he formed a company called DATEGE in the data processing industry. In February
1966, he filed the patent application "Identification Switch" for releasing a tapping process at a petrol
station.

In February 1967, Gröttrup introduced the idea of incorporating an integrated circuit chip onto a plastic
carrier and filed the patent DE1574074[23] in West Germany for a tamper-proof identification switch
based on a semiconductor device. The parallel application DE1574075[24] described contactless
communication via inductive coupling which became the basis for near-field communication (NFC) and
radio-frequency identification (RFID) technology.[25] The German Patent and Trade Mark Office has
acknowledged these patent applications as the invention of the smart card.[26] The primary use of the
invention intended to provide identification by individual copy-protected keys for releasing the tapping
process at unmanned gas stations or ID Card applications. In September 1968, Gröttrup, together with
Jürgen Dethloff as an investor, filed further patents for this identification switch, first in Austria[27] and in
1969 as subsequent applications in West Germany (DE1945777),[28] the United States (US3678250[29]
and US3678250[30]), Great Britain (GB1317915[31] and GB1318850[32]), and other countries.[33]

Banknote processing
In 1970, Giesecke & Devrient (G&D) took over DATEGE and founded the Gesellschaft für Automation
und Organisation (GAO). Gröttrup was managing director in charge of developing machine-readable
security features to prevent counterfeit money together with half- and fully automated banknote
processing systems (such as ISS 300 and ISS/BPS 3000). The Banknote Processing division (since April
2018 G+D Currency Technology) has become the world market leader for banknote processing
equipment since the mid-1990s and has developed single note inspection systems for banknote printing
companies. In 1979, G&D presented the first smart card which later became the basic product of G+D
Mobile Security.[34] Gröttrup retired in 1980.
Helmut Gröttrup explaining the Functional prototype of Giesecke
basic principles of rockets (1958) & Devrient's first banknote
processing system ISS 300
(1974)

Sensor section of ISS 300 Banknote Processing System ISS

prototype (1974) 300PS exhibited at Deutsches
Museum, Munich (1986)

First smart card manufactured by

Giesecke & Devrient in 1979

Publications
Gröttrup, Helmut. "Aus den Arbeiten des deutschen Raketenkollektivs in der Sowjet-Union"
(https://owncloud.birkenwald.de/owncloud/index.php/s/BHp4MDDZZTcGnpG) [From the
work of the German rocket collective in the Soviet Union] (PDF). Raketentechnik und
Raumfahrtforschung (in German). 1958 (2). Deutsche Gesellschaft für Raketentechnik und
Raumfahrt (DGRR): 58–62. Retrieved 2023-11-24.
Gröttrup, Helmut (1959). Über Raketen. Eine allgemeinverständliche Einführung in Physik
und Technik der Rakete (https://owncloud.birkenwald.de/owncloud/index.php/s/BHp4MDDZ
ZTcGnpG) [About rockets - General introduction to the physics and technology of rockets]
(in German). Berlin: Ullstein. Retrieved 2023-11-17.
Gröttrup, Irmgard (1959). Die Besessenen und die Mächtigen. Im Schatten der roten Rakete
[Rocket Wife. An Account of the Enforced Sojourn in Russia of German Rocket Scientists'
 Families]. Translated by Hughes, Susi. London: André Deutsch. ASIN B0000CKD8Y (https://
www.amazon.com/dp/B0000CKD8Y).
Gröttrup, Helmut (1968). Die automatisierte Entscheidung. Aspekte der Automatisierung von
Verwaltungsvorgängen [The automated decision. Aspects of the automation of
administrative processes]. Studium Generale (in German). Vol. 21. Berlin: Springer.
pp. 1107–1129.

See also
Space Race

References
1. Ward, Bob (2005). Dr. Space: The Life of Wernher von Braun. Naval Institute Press.
ISBN 978-1-591-14926-2.
2. "Highlights in German Rocket Development from 1927–1945" (https://web.archive.org/web/2
0120320195333/http://history.msfc.nasa.gov/vonbraun/highlights.html). MSFC History
Office. NASA Marshall Space Flight Center. Archived from the original (https://history.msfc.n
asa.gov/vonbraun/highlights.html) on 2012-03-20. Retrieved 2019-06-20.
3. Michels, Jürgen (1997). Peenemünde und seine Erben in Ost und West. Entwicklung und
Weg deutscher Geheimwaffen [Peenemünde and its inheritors in East and West.
Development and path of German secret missiles] (in German). Bonn: Bernard & Graefe
Verlag. pp. 188–189. ISBN 3-7637-5960-3.
4. Magnus, Kurt (1993). Raketensklaven. Deutsche Forscher hinter rotem Stacheldraht
[Rocket slaves: German research behind red barbwire] (in German). Stuttgart: Deutsche
Verlagsanstalt. ISBN 978-3421066350.
5. Mick, Christoph (2000). Forschen für Stalin. Deutsche Fachleute in der sowjetischen
Rüstungsindustrie 1945-1958 [Research for Stalin. German specialists within the Soviet
defense industry] (in German). Munich: Deutsches Museum. pp. 55–58. ISBN 3-486-29003-
7.
6. Uhl, Matthias (1997). Stalin's V-2. Der Technologietransfer der deutschen
Fernlenkwaffentechnik in die UdSSR und der Aufbau der sowjetischen Raketenindustrie
1945 bis 1959 [The technology transfer of German guided long-range missiles to the USSR
and the setup of the Soviet rocket industry from 1945 to 1959] (in German) (licensed by
Bernard & Graefe ed.). Bonn: Helios-Verlag. ISBN 978-3-86933-176-8.
7. Hall, Peter (2011). "Institut Nordhausen" (http://www.peterhall.de/srbm/v2/v2ussr/v2ussr2.ht
ml) (in German). Retrieved 2022-09-29. "In the subpage, Gröttrup is named as the head of
Institut Nordhausen (1946)"
8. Schmidt, Nadin (2015). Die Deportation der wissenschaftlichen Intelligenz an den
Universitäten der SBZ nach 1945 und deren Re-Integration an den Universitäten der
Bundesrepublik Deutschland und der Deutschen Demokratischen Republik (https://ul.qucos
a.de/api/qucosa%3A15594/attachment/ATT-0/) [The deportation of German intelligence at
the universities of the Soviet Occupation Zone after 1945 ...] (in German). Leipzig University
(published 2017-03-01). p. 59.
9. Wade, Mark (2019). "R-1 (part of V-2)" (http://www.astronautix.com/r/r-1.html). Encyclopedia
Astronautica. Retrieved 2023-10-07.
10. Wade, Mark (2019). "G-2 (part of Gröttrup)" (http://www.astronautix.com/g/g-2.html).
Encyclopedia Astronautica. Retrieved 2023-10-07.
11. Wade, Mark (2019). "G-4 (part of Gröttrup)" (http://www.astronautix.com/g/g-4.html).
Encyclopedia Astronautica. Retrieved 2023-10-07.
12. Zak, Anatoly, ed. (2012). "Description of the G-4 rocket" (http://www.russianspaceweb.com/g
orodomlya.html#g4specs).
13. Korolev, Alexander (2019). "Начало ракетных работ на Городомле" (https://rvsn.ruzhany.i
nfo/0_2018/gorodomlja_01_00.html#my01_05) [Start of rocket work at Gorodomlya] (in
Russian). Retrieved 2022-09-29.
14. "Development of guided missiles at Bleicherode and Institut 88" (https://archive.org/details/C
IA-RDP80-00810A003300530005-2). CIA. 22 January 1954 [1954-01-22]. Retrieved
2022-09-29.
15. Claus Reuter (2000-05-01). The V2 and the German, Russian and American Rocket
Program (https://books.google.com/books?id=Sr6JtOoWghkC). S.R. Research &
Publishing. pp. 146–148. ISBN 978-1-894-64305-4.
16. Zak, Anatoly. "German contribution in the Soviet rocketry: Myth and Reality" (http://www.russ
ianspaceweb.com/gorodomlya.html#contribution).
17. Maddrell, Paul (February 2006). Spying on Science: Western Intelligence in Divided
Germany 1945-1961. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-199-26750-7.
18. "Organization and Personnel at Branch No. 1, Institute 88, Gorodomlya Island" (https://www.
cia.gov/readingroom/docs/CIA-RDP80-00810A001500470005-9.pdf) (PDF). 1953-07-03.
Retrieved 2023-10-07.
19. Michael Uhl (2001). Stalins V-2 (in German). Bonn: Bernard & Graefe. ISBN 3-7637-6214-0.
20. "Development of Guided Missiles at Bleicherode and Institute 88" (https://www.cia.gov/readi
ngroom/docs/CIA-RDP80-00810A003300530005-2.pdf) (PDF). CIA. 1954-01-22. Retrieved
2023-10-07.
21. Helmut Gröttrup's inheritance at Deutsches Museum. Munich, NL 281
22. Biener, Klaus (December 1997). "Karl Steinbuch – Informatiker der ersten Stunde
Hommage zu seinem 80. Geburtstag" (https://www.itiv.kit.edu/downloads/KarlSteinbuchInfo
1StundeHU.pdf) (PDF) (in German). Retrieved 2021-10-08. "Steinbuch coined this
expression together with Helmut Gröttrup, an employee from Peenemünde."
23. DE application 1574074 (https://worldwide.espacenet.com/textdoc?DB=EPODOC&IDX=DE
1574074), Gröttrup, Helmut, "Nachahmungssicherer Identifizierungsschalter", published
1971-11-25
24. DE application 1574075 (https://worldwide.espacenet.com/textdoc?DB=EPODOC&IDX=DE
1574075), Gröttrup, Helmut, "Identifizierungsschalter mit induktiver Zuordnung", published
1971-11-25
25. "Chipkarte Helmut Gröttrup "Identifizierungsschalter" " (https://www.dpma.de/docs/postergal
erieneu/34_chipkarte.pdf) [Helmut Gröttrup "Identification Switch"] (PDF). German Patent
and Trade Mark Office (in German). 2021. Retrieved 2023-03-31.
26. "Chipkarte. Helmut Gröttrup, München 1969" (https://www.dpma.de/docs/postergalerieneu/3
4_chipkarte.pdf) (PDF). DPMA (in German). 2021. Retrieved 2023-10-17.
27. AT patent 287366 (https://worldwide.espacenet.com/textdoc?DB=EPODOC&IDX=AT28736
6), Dethloff, Jürgen & Gröttrup, Helmut, "Identifizierungsschalter", issued 1971-01-21,
assigned to Intelectron Patentverwaltung
28. DE patent 1945777 (https://worldwide.espacenet.com/textdoc?DB=EPODOC&IDX=DE1945
777), Dethloff, Jürgen & Gröttrup, Helmut, "Identifizierungsschalter", published 1979-12-13,
issued 1982-04-01, assigned to Jürgen Dethloff
29. US patent 3641316 (https://worldwide.espacenet.com/textdoc?DB=EPODOC&IDX=US3641
316), Dethloff, Jürgen & Gröttrup, Helmut, "Identification System", issued 1972-02-08
30. US patent 3678250 (https://worldwide.espacenet.com/textdoc?DB=EPODOC&IDX=US3678
250), Dethloff, Jürgen & Gröttrup, Helmut, "Identification Switch", issued 1972-07-18
31. "Espacenet - Original document" (http://worldwide.espacenet.com/publicationDetails/original
Document?FT=D&date=19730523&DB=EPODOC&locale=en_EP&CC=GB&NR=1317915A
&KC=A&ND=4).
32. "Espacenet - Bibliographic data" (http://worldwide.espacenet.com/publicationDetails/biblio?
DB=EPODOC&II=80&ND=3&adjacent=true&locale=en_EP&FT=D&date=19730531&CC=G
B&NR=1318850A&KC=A).
33. Böttge, Horst; Mahl, Tobias; Kamp, Michael (2013). Giesecke+Devrient (ed.). From
Eurocheque Card to Mobile Security 1968–2012. Battenberg Gietl Verlag. ISBN 978-
3866465497.
34. Böttge, Horst; Mahl, Tobias; Kamp, Michael (2013). Giesecke & Devrient (ed.). From
Eurocheque Card to Mobile Security 1968–2012 (in English and German). München:
Battenberg Gietl Verlag. ISBN 978-3-86646-549-7.

Further reading
Gröttrup, Ursula (2017-02-03). "Wissenschaftliches Arbeiten in einer Diktatur" (https://owncl
oud.birkenwald.de/owncloud/index.php/s/NWbxo4XkpW86WfC) [Scientific work in a
dictatorship] (PDF) (in German). Retrieved 2023-10-16.
Przybilski, Olaf (2017-02-03). "Gröttrups Konstruktionsphilosophien für Raketen" (https://ow
ncloud.birkenwald.de/owncloud/index.php/s/QD7rdfAXcMrfWps) [Gröttrup's design
philosophies for rockets] (in German). Retrieved 2023-10-16.
Ordway III, Frederick I.; Sharpe, Mitchell R. Sharpe (1979). The Rocket Team. From the V-2
to the Saturn moon rocket ― the inside story of how a small group of engineers changed
world history. New York: Crowell. pp. 46–48, 318–343. ISBN 0-690-01656-5.
Borisova, Jelena (2016). Звездные страницы (70 Years of Gorodomlya, Facility Zwezda)
(https://owncloud.birkenwald.de/owncloud/index.php/s/o8TDDTKN3NH3PFr) (PDF) (in
Russian). Solnechny, Tver Oblast. Retrieved 2023-11-17.
Albring, Werner (2016) [1991]. Gorodomlya Island. German Rocket Scientists in Russia.
Translated by Kuhlmann-Walter, Ursula. Books on Demand. ISBN 978-3-7412-1823-1.
Includes supplement "Archival Findings on the Activities of the German Rocket Specialists
on Gorodomlya Island from 1946-1953.
Boris Chertok (August–November 2004). "German influence in USSR". Acta Astronautica.
55 (3–9): 735–740. Bibcode:2004AcAau..55..735C (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2004
AcAau..55..735C). doi:10.1016/j.actaastro.2004.05.025 (https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.actaast
ro.2004.05.025). ISSN 0094-5765 (https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0094-5765).
Boris Chertok (June 2006). Rockets and People — Volume 2: Creating a Rocket Industry (ht
tps://history.nasa.gov/SP-4110/vol2.pdf) (PDF). The NASA History Series. National
Aeronautics and Space Administration.
Asif Azam Siddiqi (December 2004). "Russians in Germany: Founding the Post-war Missile
Programme". Europe-Asia Studies. 56 (8): 1131–1156. doi:10.1080/1465342042000308893
(https://doi.org/10.1080%2F1465342042000308893). ISSN 0966-8136 (https://search.world
cat.org/issn/0966-8136). S2CID 153619680 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:1536
19680).

External links
History of Gorodomlya Island (https://web.archive.org/web/20160303210456/http://www.russ
ianspaceweb.com/gorodomlya.html)
Groettrup @ Astronautix.com (https://web.archive.org/web/20060525055113/http://www.astr
onautix.com/astros/grottrup.htm)
Russia - Early Ballistic Missiles @ Astronautix.com (http://www.astronautix.com/r/russia-earli
sticmissiles.html)
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