Instrumentation and measurement

for
Mechanical Engineering students

CHAPTER–TWO

Instrument types and performance

characteristics
Prepared by: Mulat Shitye (MSc.)
 2.1 Review of instrument types
Instruments can be subdivided into separate classes according to several criteria. These sub classifications are useful in broadly
establishing several attributes of particular instruments such as accuracy, cost, and general applicability to different applications.

Active and passive instruments

Instruments are divided into active or passive ones according to whether the instrument output is entirely produced by the quantity
being measured or whether the quantity being measured simply modulates the magnitude of some external power source.

An example of a passive instrument is the pressure-measuring device shown in Figure 2.1. The pressure of the fluid is translated
into a movement of a pointer against a scale. The energy expended in moving the pointer is derived entirely from the change in
pressure measured: there are no other energy inputs to the system.
 An example of an active instrument is a float-type petrol tank level indicator. Here, the
change in petrol level moves a potentiometer arm, and the output signal consists of a
proportion of the external voltage source applied across the two ends of the potentiometer.
The energy in the output signal comes from the external power source: the primary
transducer float system is merely modulating the value of the voltage from this external
power source. Fig. 2.1 Passive pressure gauge.
 In active instruments, the external power source is usually in electrical form, but in some cases, it can be other forms of energy
such as a pneumatic or hydraulic one.

 One very important difference between active and passive instruments is the level of measurement resolution that can be
obtained. With the simple pressure gauge shown, the amount of movement made by the pointer for a particular pressure change
is closely defined by the nature of the instrument. Whilst it is possible to increase measurement resolution by making the
pointer longer, such that the pointer tip moves through a longer arc, the scope for such improvement is clearly restricted by the
practical limit of how long the pointer can conveniently be. In an active instrument, however, adjustment of the magnitude of
the external energy input allows much greater control over measurement resolution. Whilst the scope for improving
measurement resolution is much greater incidentally, it is not infinite because of limitations placed on the magnitude of the
external energy input, in consideration of heating effects and for safety reasons.

 In terms of cost, passive instruments are normally of a more simple

construction than active ones and are therefore cheaper to manufacture.
Therefore, choice between active and passive instruments for a particular
application involves carefully balancing the measurement resolution
requirements against cost. Fig. 2.2 Petrol-tank level indicator.
 Null-type and deflection-type instruments
The pressure gauge just mentioned is a good example of a deflection type of instrument, where the value of the quantity being
measured is displayed in terms of the amount of movement of a pointer. An alternative type of pressure gauge is the deadweight
gauge shown in Figure 2.3, which is a null-type instrument. Here, weights are put on top of the piston until the downward force
balances the fluid pressure. Weights are added until the piston reaches a datum level, known as the null point. Pressure
measurement is made in terms of the value of the weights needed to reach this null position.

Deflection-type Null-type
 Analogue and digital instruments
 An analogue instrument gives an output that varies continuously as the quantity being measured changes. The output can have
an infinite number of values within the range that the instrument is designed to measure. The deflection-type of pressure gauge
described earlier in this chapter (Figure 2.1) is a good example of an analogue instrument. As the input value changes, the
pointer moves with a smooth continuous motion. Whilst the pointer can therefore be in an infinite number of positions within
its range of movement, the number of different positions that the eye can discriminate between is strictly limited, this
discrimination being dependent upon how large the scale is and how finely it is divided.

 A digital instrument has an output that varies in discrete steps and so can only have a finite number of values. The rev counter
sketched in Figure 2.4 is an example of a digital instrument.

Fig. 2.4 Rev counter.

 Indicating instruments and instruments with a signal output

The final way in which instruments can be divided is between those that merely give an audio or visual indication of the
magnitude of the physical quantity measured and those that give an output in the form of a measurement signal whose magnitude
is proportional to the measured quantity.

The class of indicating instruments normally includes all null-type instruments and most passive ones. Indicators can also be
further divided into those that have an analogue output and those that have a digital display. A common analogue indicator
is the liquid-in-glass thermometer. Another common indicating device, which exists in both analogue and digital forms, is the
bathroom scale.

Instruments that have a signal-type output are commonly used as part of automatic control systems. In other circumstances,
they can also be found in measurement systems where the output measurement signal is recorded in some way for later use.
 Smart and non-smart instruments
Smart instruments
Can provide additional data, such as diagnostics, in addition to their primary purpose. They can detect faults in
installation or problems with the application. Smart instruments can also be connected to site networks using
protocols like Ethernet/IP.

Non-smart instruments
Also known as dumb instruments, they can't perceive any process information other than input from their direct
sensors.
 2.2 Static characteristics of instruments
2.2.1 Accuracy and inaccuracy (measurement uncertainty)

The accuracy of an instrument is a measure of how close the output reading of

the instrument is to the correct value. In practice, it is more usual to quote the
inaccuracy figure rather than the accuracy figure for an instrument. Inaccuracy is
the extent to which a reading might be wrong, and is often quoted as a
percentage of the full-scale (f.s.) reading of an instrument. If, for example, a
pressure gauge of range 0–10 bar has a quoted inaccuracy of ±1.0% f.s.
(±1.0% of full-scale reading), then the maximum error to be expected in any
reading is 0.1 bar.
2.2.2 Precision/repeatability/reproducibility

Precision is a term that describes an instrument’s degree of freedom from

random errors. If a large number of readings are taken of the same quantity by a
high precision instrument, then the spread of readings will be very small.
Precision is often, though incorrectly, confused with accuracy. High precision
does not imply anything about measurement accuracy. A high precision
instrument may have a low accuracy. Low accuracy measurements from a high
precision instrument are normally caused by a bias in the measurements, which
is removable by recalibration.
 Repeatability describes the closeness of output readings when the same input is applied repetitively over a short
period of time, with the same measurement conditions, same instrument and observer, same location and same
conditions of use maintained throughout.
 Reproducibility describes the closeness of output readings for the same input when there are changes in the
method of measurement, observer, measuring instrument, location, conditions of use and time of measurement.
Both terms thus describe the spread of output readings for the same input. This spread is referred to as
repeatability if the measurement conditions are constant and as reproducibility if the measurement conditions vary.
2.2.3 Tolerance
Tolerance is a term that is closely related to accuracy and defines the maximum error that is to be expected in some
value. Whilst it is not, strictly speaking, a static characteristic of measuring instruments, it is mentioned here
because the accuracy of some instruments is sometimes quoted as a tolerance figure. When used correctly,
tolerance describes the maximum deviation of a manufactured component from some specified value. For instance,
crankshafts are machined with a diameter tolerance quoted as so many microns (10−6 𝑚), and electric circuit
components such as resistors have tolerances of perhaps 5%. One resistor chosen at random from a batch having a
nominal value 1000 W and tolerance 5% might have an actual value anywhere between 950 W
and 1050 W.
2.2.4 Range or span
The range or span of an instrument defines the minimum and maximum values of a quantity that the instrument is
designed to measure.

2.2.5 Linearity
It is normally desirable that the output reading of an
instrument is linearly proportional to the quantity being
measured. The Xs marked on Figure 2.6 show a plot of the
typical output readings of an instrument when a sequence of
input quantities are applied to it. Normal procedure is to draw
a good fit straight line through the Xs, as shown in Figure 2.6.
The non-linearity is then defined as the maximum deviation of
any of the output readings marked X from this straight line.
Non-linearity is usually expressed as a percentage of full-scale
reading.
2.2.6 Sensitivity of measurement
The sensitivity of measurement is a measure of the change in instrument output that occurs when the quantity being
measured changes by a given amount. Thus, sensitivity is the ratio:

The sensitivity of measurement is therefore the slope of the straight line drawn
on Figure 2.6. If, for example, a pressure of 2 bar produces a deflection of 10
degrees in a pressure transducer, the sensitivity of the instrument is 5
degrees/bar (assuming that the deflection is zero with zero pressure applied).

Example 2.1: The following resistance values of a platinum resistance thermometer were measured at a range of
temperatures. Determine the measurement sensitivity of the instrument in ohms/°C.

Solution: If these values are plotted on a graph, the straight-line

relationship between resistance change and temperature change is obvious.
For a change in temperature of 30°C, the change in resistance is 7 . Hence
7
the measurement sensitivity = = 0.233Ω /℃.
30
2.2.7 Threshold
If the input to an instrument is gradually increased from zero, the input will have to reach a certain minimum
level before the change in the instrument output reading is of a large enough magnitude to be detectable. This
minimum level of input is known as the threshold of the instrument. Manufacturers vary in the way that they
specify threshold for instruments. Some quote absolute values, whereas others quote threshold as a percentage of
full-scale readings. As an illustration, a car speedometer typically has a threshold of about 15 km/h. This means
that, if the vehicle starts from rest and accelerates, no output reading is observed on the speedometer until the
speed reaches 15 km/h.
2.2.8 Resolution
When an instrument is showing a particular output reading, there is a lower limit on the magnitude of the change
in the input measured quantity that produces an observable change in the instrument output. Like threshold,
resolution is sometimes specified as an absolute value and sometimes as a percentage of f.s. deflection. One of
the major factors influencing the resolution of an instrument is how finely its output scale is divided into
subdivisions.
2.2.9 Sensitivity to disturbance
All calibrations and specifications of an instrument are only valid under controlled conditions of temperature,
pressure etc. These standard ambient conditions are usually defined in the instrument specification. As variations
occur in the ambient temperature etc., certain static instrument characteristics change, and the sensitivity to
disturbance is a measure of the magnitude of this change. Such environmental changes affect instruments in two
main ways, known as zero drift and sensitivity drift. Zero drift is sometimes known by the alternative term, bias.

Zero drift or bias describes the effect where the zero reading of an instrument is modified by a change in ambient
conditions. This causes a constant error that exists over the full range of measurement of the instrument. Zero drift is
normally removable by calibration.

Sensitivity drift (also known as scale factor drift) defines the amount by which an instrument’s sensitivity of
measurement varies as ambient conditions change. It is quantified by sensitivity drift coefficients that define how
much drift there is for a unit change in each environmental parameter that the instrument characteristics are sensitive
to.
Example 2.2: A spring balance is calibrated in an environment at a temperature of 20°C and has the following
deflection/load characteristic.
2.2.10 Hysteresis effects

Figure 2.8 illustrates the output characteristic of an instrument

that exhibits hysteresis. If the input measured quantity to the
instrument is steadily increased from a negative value, the
output reading varies in the manner shown in curve (a). If the
input variable is then steadily decreased, the output varies in
the manner shown in curve (b). The non-coincidence between
these loading and unloading curves is known as hysteresis.
Two quantities are defined, maximum input hysteresis and
maximum output hysteresis, as shown in Figure 2.8. These are
normally expressed as a percentage of the full-scale
input or output reading respectively. Fig. 2.8 Instrument characteristic with hysteresis.
2.2.11 Dead space
Dead space is defined as the range of different input values over which there is no change in output value. Any
instrument that exhibits hysteresis also displays dead space, as marked on Figure 2.8. Some instruments that do not
suffer from any significant hysteresis can still exhibit a dead space in their output characteristics, however.
Backlash in gears is a typical cause of dead space, and results in the sort of instrument output characteristic shown
in Figure 2.9. Backlash is commonly experienced in gear sets used to convert between translational and rotational
motion (which is a common technique used to measure translational velocity).
 2.3 Dynamic characteristics of instruments
The static characteristics of measuring instruments are concerned only with the steadystate reading that the
instrument settles down to, such as the accuracy of the reading etc. The dynamic characteristics of a measuring
instrument describe its behavior between the time a measured quantity changes value and the time when the
instrument output attains a steady value in response. As with static characteristics, any values for dynamic
characteristics quoted in instrument data sheets only apply when the instrument is used under specified
environmental conditions. Outside these calibration conditions, some variation in the dynamic parameters can be
expected.

In any linear, time-invariant measuring system, the following general relation can be written between input and
output for time (t) > 0:

Where 𝑞𝑖 is the measured quantity, 𝑞𝑜 is the output reading and 𝑎𝑜 . . . 𝑎𝑛 , 𝑏𝑜 . . . 𝑏𝑚 are constants.
If we limit consideration to that of step changes in the measured quantity only, then equation (2.1) reduces to:

2.3.1 Zero order instrument

If all the coefficients 𝑎1 . . . . 𝑎𝑛 other than 𝑎𝑜 in equation (2.2) are assumed zero, then:

Where; 𝐾 is a constant known as the instrument sensitivity as defined earlier.

Any instrument that behaves according to equation (2.3) is said to be of zero order type. A potentiometer, which
measures motion, is a good example of such an instrument, where the output voltage changes instantaneously as the
slider is displaced along the potentiometer track.

2.3.2 First order instrument

If all the coefficients 𝑎1 . . . . 𝑎𝑛 except 𝑎𝑜 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑎1 in equation (2.2) are assumed zero, then:
Any instrument that behaves according to equation (2.4) is known as a first order instrument. If 𝑑/𝑑𝑡 is replaced by
the 𝐷 operator in equation (2.4), we get:

Fig. 2.10 Zero order instrument characteristic.

If equation (2.6) is solved analytically, the output quantity 𝑞𝑜 in response to a step change in qi at time ′′𝑡′′ varies
with time in the manner shown in Figure 2.11. The time constant 𝜏 of the step response is the time taken for the
output quantity 𝑞𝑜 to reach 63% of its final value.

Fig. 2.11 First order instrument characteristic.

2.3.3 Second order instrument
If all coefficients 𝑎3 . . . 𝑎𝑛 other than 𝑎0, 𝑎1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑎2 in equation (2.2) are assumed zero, then we get:

Applying the D operator again: 𝑎2 𝐷 2 𝑞𝑜 + 𝑎1 𝐷𝑞𝑜 + 𝑎𝑜 𝑞𝑜 = 𝑏𝑜 𝑞𝑖 , and rearranging:

It is convenient to re-express the variables 𝑎𝑜 , 𝑎1 , 𝑎2 and 𝑏𝑜 in equation (2.8) in terms of three parameters 𝐾 (static
sensitivity), 𝜔 (undamped natural frequency) and 𝜉 (damping ratio), where:

Re-expressing equation (2.8) in terms of K, ω and 𝜉 we get:

Fig. 2.12 Response characteristics of second order instruments.
2.4 Necessity for calibration
It can normally be assumed that a new instrument will have been calibrated when it is obtained from an instrument
manufacturer, and will therefore initially behave according to the characteristics stated in the specifications. During
use, however, its behavior will gradually diverge from the stated specification for a variety of reasons. Such reasons
include mechanical wear, and the effects of dirt, dust, fumes and chemicals in the operating environment. The rate
of divergence from standard specifications varies according to the type of instrument, the frequency of usage and
the severity of the operating conditions. However, there will come a time, determined by practical knowledge,
when the characteristics of the instrument will have drifted from the standard specification by an unacceptable
amount. When this situation is reached, it is necessary to recalibrate the instrument to the standard specifications.
Such recalibration is performed by adjusting the instrument at each point in its output range until its output readings
are the same as those of a second standard instrument to which the same inputs are applied.