179

Unit IX: Electronic Devices

Chapter–14
Semiconductor Electronics: Materials, Devices and Simple Circuit
FORMULAE
S.No. FORMULA SYMBOL

1 ne= nh. (Pure Semiconductor) ne= free electron density

nh.= hole density
2 ne<nh( P type Semiconductor)

3 ne>nh( N type Semiconductor)

4 ne.nh=ni2 ni= density of Intrinsic carriers

5 I=Ie+Ih Ie=current through electrons

I=neeAVd+ nheAVh Ih= current through holes
Vd=Drift velocity of electrons
Vh= Drift velocity of holes

6 σ - Conductivity

7 σ - Conductivity

9. ELECTRONIC DEVICES
(A) Energy bands in solids:
(i) In solids, the group of closely lying energy levels is known as energy band.
(ii) In solids the atoms are arranged very close to each other. In these atoms there are discrete energy levels of
electrons. For the formation of crystal these atoms come close together, then due to nucleus-nucleus, electron-
electron and electron-nucleus interactions the discrete energy levels of atom distort and consequently each
energy level spits into a large number of closely lying energy levels.
(iii) The number of split energy levels is proportional to the number of atoms interacting with each other. If two
atoms interact then each energy level splits into two out of which one will be somewhat above and another will
be somewhat below the main energy level. In solids the number of atoms is very large . Hence each energy
level splits into large number of closely lying energy levels. Being very close to each other these energy levels
assume the shape of a band.
(iv) In an energy band there are 1023 energy levels with energy difference of 10–23 eV.

Valence Band [V.B] :

The energy band occupied by valence electrons is called valance band.
This band may be completely filled or partially filled with electrons.
Electrons in this band don’t conduct electrical charge because theyare not free to move in this band.
Conduction Band [C.B] :
 The energy band which accommodates only those electrons which come out of the
valence band is called conduction band.
 These electrons are responsible for
current ina conductor.
All the electrons in this band are free electrons.
 180
Forbidden Band / Band Gap :
The energy gap between valence band and conduction band is
called band gap.

Semiconductors: The materials in which valence band is completely filled and conduction band s
empty. But energy gap is less than 3eV.

At room temperature, semiconductor behaves like a conductor but at absolute zero (0 K)

temperature, these behave as perfect insulators.
Fermi Energy It is the maximum possible energy possessed by free electrons of a material at
absolute zero temperature (i.e. 0K)

I) THE SEMICONDUCTORS ARE OF TWO TYPES.

(a) Intrinsic or pure semiconductors

(b) Extrinsic or dopes semiconductors
Properties of intrinsic semiconductors:
(a) At absolute zero temperature (0 K) there are no free electrons in them.
(b) At room temperature, the electron-hole pair in sufficient number are produced.
(c) Electric conduction takes place via both electrons and holes.
(d) The drift velocities of electrons and holes are different.
(e) The drift velocity of electrons (Ve) is greater than that of holes (Vh).
(f) The total current is I = I n+ Ip
2) Extrinsic semiconductors:
(a) Doping: The process of mixing impurities of other elements in pure semiconductors is known as doping.
(b) Extrinsic semiconductors: the semiconductors, in which trivalent and pentavalent elements are mixed as
impurities, are known as extrinsic semiconductors.
(c) The extrinsic semiconductors are of two types
(i) N-type semiconductor (ii) P-type semiconsuctor
In N-type semiconductor, majority charge carriers are electrons and minority charge carriers are holes, i.e.
ne> nh .
Here, we dope Si or Ge with a pentavalent element, then four of its electrons bond with the four silicon
neighbours, while fifth remains very weakly bound to its parent atom.

In p-type semiconductor, majority charge carriers are holes and minority charge carriers are eletron i.e. nh >
ne .In a p-type semiconductor, doping is done with trivalent impurity atoms, i.e. those atoms which have three
valence electrons in their valence shell.

SEMICONDUCTOR DIODE OR P-N JUNCTION, CONDUCTION IN P-N JUNCTION, DEPLETION

LAYER AND POTENTIAL BARRIER
 181
P-N Junction : When a single crystal of semiconductor is doped in
such a manner that one half portion of it acts as a p- type
semiconductor and other is n- type semiconductor. Then the
boundary between the two regions is called p-n junction.

DEPLETION REGION: The small charge

region on either side of the junction which gets
devoid of free charge carrier and has only
immobile ions is called depletion region.
Its thickness is of the order of 1µm (= 10–6)
On two sides of it, there are ions of opposite nature. i.e.
donor ion (+ve) on N-side and acceptor ions (– ve) on P-
side
Diffusion Current :The current induced due to majority
charge carrier is called diffusion current. It is directed from P
side to N side.
Drift Current : The current induced due to minority charge
carrier is called drift current. It is directed from N side to P type
Barrier Potential :

The potential difference between the ends of this layer is

defined as the contact potential or potential barrier (VB).
The accumulation of –ve charge in the p- region & +ve charge in the n- region sets up a potential difference
across the junction. This is called junction potential or barrier potential. It stops the free current carriers
to crossover the junction and consequently a potential barrier is formed at the junction.
t depends on:-Nature of semiconductor, Temperature & Amount of doping
(The value of VB is from 0.1 to 0.7 volt which depends on the temperature of the junction. It also
depends on the nature of semiconductor and the doping concentration. For germanium and silicon its
values are 0.3 V and 0.7 V respectively.

(ii) The direction of current flow is represented by the arrow head.

(iii) In equilibrium state current does not flow in the junction diode.
(iv) In can be presumed to be equivalent to a condenser in which the depletion layer acts as a
dielectric

Biasing of diode :Thearrangementofapplyingexternalpotentialdifferenceacrossthep-n

junction is called biasing of P-N junction.

It is of two types: Forward Biasing & Reverse Biasing

Forward Biasing :
A junction diode is said to be forward biased when
its p-side is connected to the positive (+) terminal
 182
of the battery and n- side is connected to the negative(-) terminal of the battery.
In forward biasing –Height of the potential barrier is reduced, resistance of diode is low & Charge carrier from
each side cross the junction and diode become conductive.

Reverse Biasing: A junction is said to be reverse biased when its p – side is connected to the –ve terminal and n-
side is connected to the +ve terminal of the battery.
 In reverse biasing width of potential barrier or height of potential
barrier is increased.
 Resistance of diode is high

 Charge carrier from the either side of junction can’t cross the
junction. Thus in reverse biasing diode doesn’t conduct.
CHARACTERISTICS OF JUNCTION DIODE
(i) The characteristic curves of junction diode are of two types
(a) Forward characteristic curve
(b) Reverse characteristic curve
Forward Biasing: If positive terminal of a battery is connected to the p-side and the negative
terminal to the n-side, then the junction is said to be forward biased
Forward biased characteristics: As shown in the figure a battery is connected across the p-n
junction diode to a potential divider. For different values of voltages, the value of current is
noted. A graph is plotted between V and I. This V-I graph is called forward characteristic.

Reverse Biasing: If the positive terminal of the battery is connected to the n-side and negative
terminal to the p-side, then the p-n junction is said to be reverse biased.
Reverse Bias characteristics: Figure sows the experimental arrangement for studying
characteristic curve of a p-n junction diode when it is reverse biased. Here a microammeter is
used to measure the small currents through the reverse biased diode. A V-I graph is drawn,
which is called reverse characteristic of junction diode.

SEMICONDUCTOR DIODE AS RECTIFIER

(i) Rectification: The process in which an alternating current is converted into direct current, is defined as
rectification.
(ii) Rectifier: The device employing diode, used to convert an alternating current into direct current, is known
as rectifier.
(iii) The rectifiers are of two types:
(a) Half wave rectifier (b) Full wave rectifier
Half wave rectifier: The rectifier, in which only alternate half cycles of applied alternating signal are
converted into direct current, is known as half wave rectifier.
 183
Full wave rectifier: The rectifier is which the whole cycle of applied alternating signal is converted into direct
current, is known as full wave rectifier.

S.No. Half-Wave Rectifier Full Wave Rectifier centre taped

1.

2. In this, one diode or one semiconductor In this, two diodes or one double diode or
diode is used two junction diodes are used
3. Ordinary transformer is used Centre tap transformer is used
4. It converts half cycle of applied A.C. It converts the whole cycle of applied A.C.
signal into D.C. signal signal into D.C. signal
5. Input and output curves Input and output curves

MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS

1. If nh and ne be the number of holes and conduction electrons in an extrinsic semiconductor. Then
(a) nh > ne (b) nh = ne (c) nh < ne (d) nh ≠ ne.
2. In a semiconductor, the forbidden energy gap between the valence band and the conduction band is of the
order is
(a) 1 MeV (b) 0.1 Men (c) 1 eV (d) 5 eV
3. In semiconductors, at room temperature
(a) the conduction band is completely empty
(b) the valence band is partially empty and the conduction band is partially filled
(c) the valence band is completely filled and the conduction band is partially filled
(d) the valence band is completely filled.
4. When p-n junction diode is forward biased then
(a) both the depletion region and barrier height are reduced
(b) the depletion region is widened and barrier height is reduced
(c) the depletion region is reduced and barrier height is increased
(d) Both the depletion region and barrier height are increased.
5. Electric conduction in a semiconductor takes place due to
(a) electrons only (b) holes only
(c) both electrons and holes (d) neither electrons nor holes
6. The impurity atoms with which pure silicon may be to make it a p-type semiconductor are those of
(a) phosphorus (b) boron (c) antimony (d) nitrogen
7. Number of electrons in the valance shell of a pure semiconductor is
(a) 1 (b) 2 (c) 3 (d) 4
8. A semiconductor device is connected in series circuit with a battery and a resistance. A current is found to
pass through the circuit. If the polarity of the battery is reversed, the current drops to almost zero. The device
may be a/an
(a) Intrinsic semiconductor (b) p-type semiconductor
 184
(c) n-type semiconductor (d) p-n junction diode
9. When an impurity is doped into an intrinsic semiconductor, the conductivity of the semiconductor
(a) increases (b) decreases (c) remains the same (d) becomes zero
10. If a small amount of antimony is added to germanium crystal
(a) it becomes a p–type semiconductor (b) the antimony becomes an acceptor atom
(c) there will be more free electrons than holes in the semiconductor (d) its resistance is increased
11. In Conductor, Semiconductor and Insulator, the forbidden energy gap are E1 ,E2 and E3 respectively.
Which one is correct
a) E1 < E3 (b) E1 >E2 = E3 c) E1 = E2 < E3 d) E1 >E2 > E3
12. Silicon is doped with which of the following to obtain P type semiconductor
a) Phosphorus b) Gallium c) Germanium d) Bismuth
13. A semiconductor has an electron concentration of 6 × 10 per m and hole concentration of 8.5 × 109 per
22 3

m3 .Then it is
a) N type semiconductor b) P type semi conductor c) intrinsic semiconductor d) conductor

14.In an unbiased p-n junction, holes diffuse from the p-region to n-region because
(a) free electrons in the n-region attract them. (b) they move across the junction by the potential difference.
(c) hole concentration in p-region is more as compared to n-region. (d) All the above.
15. When a forward bias is applied to a p-n junction, it
(a) raises the potential barrier. (b) reduces the majority carrier current to zero.
(c) lowers the potential barrier. (d) None of the above.
16. In a p-type silicon, which of the following statement is true :
(a) Electrons are majority carriers and trivalent atoms are the dopants.
(b) Electrons are minority carriers and pentavalent atoms are the dopants.
(c) Holes are minority carries and pentavalent atoms are the dopants.
(d) Holes are majority carries and trivalent atoms are the dopants.
17. The intrinsic semiconductor becomes an insulator at
(a) 0 0 C (b) <100 0C (c) 300 K (d) 0 0 K
18. In the forward bias arrangement of a PN-junction diode
(a) The N-end is connected to the positive terminal of the battery
(b) The P-end is connected to the positive terminal of the battery
(c) The direction of current is from N-end to P-end in the diode
(d) The P-end is connected to the negative terminal of battery
19. In a PN-junction diode
(a) The current in the reverse biased condition is generally very small ~ µA
(b) The current in the reverse biased condition is small but the forward biased current is independent of the
bias voltage
(c) The reverse biased current is strongly dependent on the applied bias voltage
(d) The forward biased current is very small in comparison to reverse biased current
Answers : 1-d, 2-c, 3-b,4-a,5-c,6-b,7-d, 8-d,9-a,10-c,11-a,12-b, 13-a,14-c,15-c,16-d,17-d,18-b ,19- a.
ASSERTION REASON QUESTIONS
Directions for (Qs. 1-10) : These questions consist of two statements, each printed as Assertion and
Reason. While answering these questions, you are required to choose any one of the following five
responses.
(a) If both Assertion and Reason are correct and the Reason is a correct explanation of the Assertion.
(b) If both Assertion and Reason are correct but Reason is not a correct explanation of the Assertion.
(c) If the Assertion is correct but Reason is incorrect.
(d) If both the Assertion and Reason are incorrect.
01. Assertion : In semi-conductor the resistivity increases with temperature.
Reason : The atoms of semi-conductor vibrate with larger amplitude at higher temperatures thereby increasing
its resistivity.
02. Assertion : In a transition the base is made thin.
Reason : A thin base makes the transistor stable.
03. Assertion : The logic gate NOT can be built using diode.
 185
Reason : The output voltage and the input voltage of the diode have 180° phase difference.
04. Assertion : The number of electrons in a p-type silicon semiconductor is less than the number of electrons
in a pure silicon semiconductor at room temperature.
Reason : It is due to law of mass action.
5. Assertion : The value of current through p-n junction in the given figure will be 10 mA. + 5V 300 W +2V
Reason : In the above figure, p-side is at higher potential than n-side. [2008]
.6, Assertion : A p-n junction with reverse bias can be used as a photo-diode to measure light intensity.
Reason: In a reverse bias condition the current is small but is more sensitive to changes in incident light
intensity.
07. Assertion : If the temperature of a semiconductor is increased then it’s resistance decreases.
Reason : The energy gap between conduction band and valence band is very small.
8. Assertion (A): A Pure semiconductor has negative temperature coefficient of
resistance.
Reason (R): On raising the temperature, more charge carriers are released,
conductance increases and resistance decreases.
09. Assertion (A): At a fix temperature, silicon will have a minimum conductivity when it has a smaller
accepter doping.
Reason (R): The conductivity of and intrinsic semiconductor is slightly higher than of
a lightly doped p-type.
10. Assertion (A): The electrons in the conduction band have higher energy than those in the valance band of a
semi-conductor.
Reason (R): The conduction band lies above the energy gap and valance band lies below the energy gap.
Answers : 1-d, 2-c,3-d,4-a,5-b, 6-a,7-a,8-a ,9-b & 10-a.
2 –MARK QUESTIONS
1. What type of extrinsic semiconductor is formed when (i) germanium is doped with indium? (ii) silicon
is doped with bismuth?
(i) Indium is trivalent, so germanium doped indium is a p-type semiconductor.
(ii) Bismuth is pentavalent, so silicon doped bismuth is an n-type semiconductor.
2. What happens to the width of depletion layer of a p-n junction when it is (i) forward biased,(ii) reverse
biased? Ans. (i) When forward biased, the width of depletion layer decreases.(ii) When reverse biased, the
width of depletion layer increases.
3. The energy gaps in the energy band diagrams of a conductor, semiconductor and insulator are E1, E2
and E3. Arrange them in increasing order.
Ans. The energy gap in a conductor is zero, in a semiconductor is ≈ 1 eV and in an insulator is ≥ 3 eV.∴ E1 = 0,
E2 = 1 eV, E3 ≥ 3 eV ∴ E1 < E2 < E3.
4. How does one understand the temperature dependence of resistivity of a semiconductor?
Ans. When temperature increases, covalent bonds of neighbouring atoms break and charge carrier become free
to cause conduction, so resistivity of semi-conductor decreases with rise of temperature.

5. Distinguishing features between conductors, semiconductors and insulators on the basis of energy band
diagrams.
S.No. Property Conductors Semi-conductors Insulators
1. Electrical Very high Between those of Negligible
conductivity conductors and
insulators
2. Resistivity Very Less Between those of Very high
conductors and
insulators
 186
3. Band structure

4. Energy gap and No energy gap Energy gap is very small Energy gap is quite large
its value
5. Current carriers Due to free Due to free electrons No conduction
and current flow electrons and very and holes.
high
6 CB & VB Either the conduction At absolute zero Conduction band is
band is partially filled conduction band is
empty & valence band is
or conduction band is empty and valance band
is filled completely filled.
overlapped with the
valance band
6. Write twoDistinction between
characteristic featuresn-type and p-type
to distinguish semiconductors
between n-type and p-type semiconductors.
n-type semiconductors p-type semiconductors
1 It is an extrinsic 1 It is an intrinsic semiconductors which
semiconductors which is is obtained by doping the impurity
obtained by doping the atoms of III group of periodic table to
impurity atoms of Vth group the pure germanium or silicon
of periodic table to the pure semiconductor.
germanium or silicon
semiconductor.
2 The impurity atoms added, 2 The impurity atoms added, create
provide extra electrons in the vacancies of electrons (i.e. holes) in the
structure, and are called structure and are called acceptor
donor atoms. atoms.
3 The electrons are majority 3 The holes are majority carriers and
carriers and holes are electrons are minority carriers.
minority carriers.
4 The electron density (ne) is 4 The hole density (ne) is much greater
much greater than the hole than the electron density (nh)i.e. nh>>
density (nh)i.e. ne>>(nh) ne
5 The donor energy level is 5 The acceptor energy level is close to
close to the conduction band valence band and is far away from the
and far away from valence conduction band.
band.

7. Can we take one slab of p-type semiconductor and physically join it to another n-type semiconductor to get
p-n junction?
 187
No! Any slab, howsoever flat, will have roughness much larger than the inter-atomic crystal spacing
(~2 to 3 Å) and hence continuous contact at the atomic level will not be possible. The junction will behave as a
discontinuity for the flowing charge carriers
8 Give any two differences between ‘intrinsic’ and ‘extrinsic’ semiconductors.

Intrinsic Extrinsic
1 It is pure semiconducting 1 It is prepared by doping a small quantity of impurity
material and no impurity atoms atoms to the pure semiconducting material.
are added to it
2 Examples are crystalline forms 2 Examples are silicon and germanium crystals with
of pure silicon and germanium. impurity atoms of arsenic, antimony, phosphorous etc. or
indium, boron, aluminum etc.
3 The number of free electron in 3 The number of free electrons and holes is never equal.
conduction band and the number There is excess of electrons in n-type semiconductors and
of holes in valence band is excess of holes in p-type semiconductors.
exactly equal and very small
indeed.
4 Its electrical conductivity is low 4 Its electrical conductivity is high.
5 Its electrical conductivity is a Its electrical conductivity depends upon the temperature
function of temperature alone as well as on the quantity of impurity atoms doped in the
structure
3-MARK QUESTIONS
1. Explain the two processes involved in the formation of a p-n junction diode.
Hence define the term ‘barrier potential’.
Refer –Minimum Learning material

2. Draw V – I characteristics of a p–n junction diode. Answer the following

questions, giving reasons:
(i) Why is the current under reverse bias almost independent of the applied potential upto a critical
voltage?
(ii) Why does the reverse current show a sudden increase at the critical voltage?
(i) In the reverse biasing, the current of order of μA is due to
movement/drifting of minority charge carriers from one region to
another through the junction.
A small applied voltage is sufficient to sweep the minority charge
carriers through the junction.So, reverse current is almost
independent of critical voltage.

(ii)At critical voltage (or breakdown voltage), a large number of

covalent bonds break, resulting in the increase of large number of charge carriers.
3. State briefly the processes involved in the formation of p-n junction explaining clearly
how the depletion region is formed.

Two processes occur during the formation of a p-n junction are diffusion and drift. Due to
the concentration gradient across p and n-sides of the junction, holes diffuse from p-side
to n-side (p → n) and electrons diffuse from n-side to p-side (n → p). This movement of
charge carriers leaves behind ionised acceptors (negative charge immobile) on the p-side and
donors (positive charge immobile) on the n-side of the junction. This space charge region on
either side of the junction together is known as depletion region.
 188
4. Explain, with the help of a circuit diagram, the working of a p-n junction diode as a half-wave rectifier.
Working

(i) During positive half cycle of input alternating voltage, the diode is forward biased and a
current flows through the load resistor RL and we get an output voltage.
(ii) During other negative half cycle of the input alternating voltage, the diode is reverse biased and it does not
conduct (under break down region).
LONG ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS

1.Draw the circuit diagram of a full-wave rectifier and explain its working. Also, give the input and output
waveforms.
Principle: Its principle is based on the fact that a diode conduct in forward biased.

Wor
king : let during positive half cycle of input A.C , S1 is at positive potential and S2 is at –ve potential w.r.t
centre tap. Due to this D1 is in forward bias and D2 is in reverse bias and we get output due to the diode D1.
During negative half cycle of input A.C , S1 is at-ve potential and S2 is at +ve potential w.r.t centre
tap. Due to this D2 is in forward bias and D1 is in reverse bias and we get output due to the diode D2.Thus ,
we get output for both input half cycle.
Filter Circuit : A circuit which filter theA.C component from the output rectifier. It decreases the ripple
factor.
 189

2. Explain briefly with the help of a circuit diagram how V-l characteristics of a p-n junction diode are
obtained in (i) forward bias and (ii) reverse bias.
. Refer –Minimum Learning material.

CASE STUDY QUESTIONS

Q.NO CASE STUDY QUESTION/QNS

I A pure semiconductor germanium or silicon, free of every
impurity is called intrinsic semiconductor. At room temperature, a pure semiconductor has
very small number of current carriers (electrons and holes) .Hence its conductivity is low.
When the impurity atoms of valance five or three are doped in a pure semiconductor, we get
respectively n- type or p- type extrinsic semiconductor. In case of doped semiconductor ne
nh=ni2. Where ne and nh are the number density
of electron and hole charge carriers in a pure semiconductor. The conductivity ofextrinsic
semiconductor is much higher than that of intrinsic semiconductor.

Answer the following questions:

Q-1 Which of the majority carrier in N-type semiconductor ?

The majority charges in n- type semiconductors are electrons.
Q-2 How to doping with pure semiconsuctor to get P-type semiconductor?
The impurity atoms with which pure Si should be doped to make a p- type semiconductor is
Boron
Q-3 Holes are majority charge carriers in N-type or P-type
Semiconductor?
P- type semiconductors
Q-4 At the absolute zero Kelvin temperature , Si acts as which form?
Insulator

II p-n junction is a semiconductor diode. It is obtained by bringing p-type semiconductor in

CASE close contact with n- type semiconductor. A thin layer is developed at the p- n junction which
is devoid of any charge carrier but has
immobile ions. It is called depletion layer. At the junction a potential barrier appears, which
does not allow the movement of majority charge carriers across the junction in the absence of
any biasing of the junction. p-n junction offers low resistance when forward biased and high
resistance when reverse biased.
Q-1 What will be the value of the potential in the middle of depletion layer of reverse biased p- n
junction.? Ans: Potential is maximum
Q-2 Name the material in which energy gap is maximum. Ans : Insulators
Q-3 On what factor primarily, the number of majority carriers crossing the junction of diode
depends?
It is the rate of thermal generation of electron –hole pairs
Q-4 Define Hole
It is a vacancy created when an electron leaves covalent bond.