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Index number =22tee1057

01.Briefly explain the atomic models with their postulates and the
shortcomings of those models. Use the appropriate diagrams for each if
possible
atomic model, in physics, a model used to describe the structure and makeup of an
atom. Atomic models have gone through many changes over time, evolving as
necessary to fit experimental data. For a more in-depth discussion of the history
ofatomic models, see atom: development of atomic theory.

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1.Dalton's Model

Model:The atom is a solid, indivisible sphere, and each element is made of atoms that are
identical in mass and properties.

Shortcomings

- Indivisibility: Dalton’s model treats atoms as indivisible, but later discoveries (e.g.,
subatomic particles like electrons, protons, and neutrons) showed that atoms are made up of
smaller particles. Isotopes Dalton assumed all atoms of a given element are identical in mass
and properties, but isotopes of an element exist, which have different masses due to differing
numbers of neutrons.

2. Thomson's Model

Model The atom is a positively charged "pudding" with negatively charged electrons embedded
in it, like "plums" in a pudding.

Shortcomings

Structure of the Atom This model could not explain the atom's stability or the results from later
experiments, such as Rutherford’s gold foil experiment.

Electron OrbitsIt failed to account for the behavior of electrons in orbit around the nucleus or
the discrete nature of atomic spectra.

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3. Rutherford’s Model

Model Based on the results of the gold foil experiment, Rutherford proposed that the atom
consists of a small, dense, positively charged nucleus at the center, with electrons moving
around it in a mostly empty space.

Shortcomings

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-Electron Stability Rutherford’s model did not explain why electrons don’t spiral into the
nucleus due to electromagnetic attraction, a problem that led to the collapse of the atom.

Atomic Spectrat also failed to explain the discrete spectral lines observed in atomic emissions
(e.g., hydrogen atom spectrum).

4 .Bohr’s Model (1913

Model: hr proposed that electrons orbit the nucleus in fixed, quantized orbits or energy levels
without emitting radiation. Electrons can jump between orbits by absorbing or emitting discrete
quanta of energy.

Shortcomings

Limited to Hydrogen While Bohr’s model worked well for hydrogen, it couldn’t accurately
explain the spectra of multi-electron atoms.

Electron Behavior The model treats electrons as particles moving in defined orbits, which
doesn’t account for their wave-like nature as described by quantum mechanics.

Electron-Orbit ; Conflict The model couldn't explain why electrons remain stable in their orbits,
given the quantum mechanical uncertainty about their position and momentum

5. Quantum Mechanical Model (Schrödinger, Heisenberg, de Broglie) (1926)

Model This is the modern model based on quantum mechanics, which uses wave functions to
describe the probability of finding electrons in various regions around the nucleus (orbitals).

*Shortcoming

Complexity While this model is the most accurate, it is mathematically complex and not easily
visualized. The probabilistic nature of electron behavior makes it difficult to picture exactly
where an electron is at any given moment.

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Interpretation: The "wave-particle" duality and interpretation of the electron’s position and
momentum (e.g., Heisenberg's Uncertainty Principle) lead to philosophical questions about the
nature of reality.

Quantum Weirdness Concepts like superposition and entanglement can seem counterintuitive,
leading to debates about how to interpret the wave function and quantum phenomena.

02. Define the following terms with suitable examples.

a. Neucleons

Nucleons are the particles that make up the nucleus of an atom. There are two types of
nucleons

1. Protons

2. Neutrons

Nuclear Force and Binding Energy

Strong Nuclear Force Protons and neutrons are held together by the strong nuclear force.
which is much stronger than the electromagnetic force that causes protons to repel each
other due to their like charges. This strong force operates over short distances, typically
within the nucleus itself.

Binding Energy The strong force binding the nucleons together in the nucleus is
associated with the binding energy. This energy is required to break apart a nucleus into
its constituent nucleons. The greater the binding energy per nucleon, the more stable the
nucleus,

Nucleons in Atomic Mass

The total number of nucleons (protons + neutrons) in a nucleus is often referred to as the
mass number (A). This number is used to distinguish isotopes of an element. For
example:

Carbon-12 has 6 protons and 6 neutrons, so its mass number is 12.

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b. Atomic number

1913, Antonius van den Broek proposed that the electric charge of an atomic nucleus,
expressed as a multiplier of the elementary charge, was equal to the element's position
on the periodic table, assuming no gaps in said table. Ernest Rutherford, referring to van
den Broek's proposal, used the term "atomic number" to refer to an element's position
on the periodic table.It was therefore Rutherford who, in a casual manner, defined
atomic number as meaning an element's position on the periodic

The atomic number or nuclear charge number

(symbol Z) of a chemical element is the charge number of its atomic nucleus. For
ordinary nuclei composed of protons and neutrons, this is equal to the proton number
(np) or the number of protons found in the nucleus of every atom of that element. The
atomic number can be used to uniquely identify ordinary chemical elements. In an
ordinary uncharged atom, the atomic number is also equal to the number of electrons.

c. Mass number
The mass number of an atom is the total number of protons and neutrons in its
nucleus. It is a whole number and can be used to distinguish between different
isotopes of the same element. The mass number is typically represented as:

Mass number (A)=Number of protons (Z)+Number of neutrons (N)\text{Mass number (A)}

= \text{Number of protons (Z)} + \text{Number of neutrons (N)}Mass number (A)=Number
of protons (Z)+Number of neutrons (N)

• Protons: The positively charged particles in the nucleus.

• Neutrons: The neutral particles in the nucleus.

d. Isotops
Isotopes are atoms of the same element that have the same number of protons (and
thus the same atomic number) but different numbers of neutrons. This means that
isotopes of an element have the same chemical properties but can differ in their physical
properties, such as mass or stability.

Every element has isotopes. The 81 stable elements have 275 isotopes. But, elements
with stable isotopes also have radioactive isotopes or radioisotopes. The radioactive
elements, on the other hand, have no stable isotopes. Over 800 radioactive isotopes

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have been identified. Some of the radioactive isotopes are natural, while others have only
been produced in the laboratory.

e. Cation

A cation is an ionic species with a positive charge. The word "cation" comes from
the Greek word kato " which means "down." A cation has more protons than
electrons, giving it a net positive charge.
Cations with multiple charges may be given special names. For example, a cation
with a +2 charge is a dication . One with a +3 charge is a trication . A zwitterion has
both positive and negative charges at different regions of the molecule, yet an
overall neutral charge. The symbol for a cation is the element symbol or molecular
formula, followed by a superscript of the charge. The number of the charge is given
first, followed by a plus symbol. If the charge isone the numeral is omitted.

f. Anion

An ‘anion’ is a type of ion that carries a negative charge. Ions are atoms or molecules that
have gained or lost one or more electrons, resulting in an overall charge. When an atom
gains electrons, it becomes negatively charged because electrons have a negative
charge, leading to the formation of an anion.

Key Features of Anions:

Negative Charge: Anions have more electrons than protons, giving them an overall
negative charge.

Formation: Anions are formed when an atom or molecule gains one or more electrons.

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03. Find the number of protons, electros and neutrons in
following elements

A.12 24Mg
P-12

E-12

N-12

B.26 56Fe

P-26

E-26

N-30

C. 14 24Si

P-14

E-14

N-10

D.27 59Co

P-27

E-27

N-32

4. Calculate the energy of one photon of red light if it has

wavelength 620 nm .( C= 3×108 ms-1 )

E=hv

V=c/ λ

V=3 ×108ms-1/620 ×10-9m

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 05. If the frequency is 3.5×1019 Hz, find the minimum energy atoms
can absorb or release (h= 6.626×10-34Js).
E=hv

(6.626 ×10-34JS) ×(3 ×108ms-1)/6.2 ×10-7m

=3.206 ×10-19J