*Disclaimer: these are the

detailed notes which covers

each and every basic topic
Week2: by: Manisha Pal using examples and basic
explanation
2.1
Basic Sets

• Set of Real Numbers (R): The set of all real numbers.

• Set of Positive Real Numbers Including 0 (R+): The set of real numbers greater than or equal to 0.

• Set of Integers (Z): The set of all integers.

• Set of Positive Integers Including 0 (Z+): The set of integers greater than or equal to 0.

• Closed Interval [a, b]: The set of real numbers between a and b, including the boundary points a and b.

• Open Interval (a, b): The set of real numbers between a and b, excluding the boundary points a and b.

Set operations:

Metric Spaces
1. Definition
A metric space is a mathematical setup where we have a set of points and a way to measure the distance
between any two points in that set. Think of it as a playground where you can measure how far apart
different things are from each other.
Example: Imagine a flat piece of land where you have a few houses. This piece of land is your "set of
points," and you can measure how far apart any two houses are using a ruler or tape measure. This setup
where you can measure distances between points is a metric space.
2. Distance Function (D)
The distance function, often denoted as D

Formula:
3. Open Ball
An open ball is a set of points that are all within a certain distance from a central point, but it does not
include the boundary.
Example: Imagine House A (2, 3) is the center of a circular area with radius 3 units. The open ball B(A,3)B(A,
3)B(A,3) includes all the points within a circle of radius 3 units around House A, but not the points exactly
on the boundary of this circle.
4. Closed Ball
A closed ball is similar to an open ball, but it also includes the boundary.

Example: Using the same central point House A (2, 3) and radius 3 units, the closed ball
B‾(A,3)\overline{B}(A, 3)B(A,3) includes all points within and on the edge of the circle of radius 3 units
around House A.

Sequence
A sequence is just a list of elements arranged in a specific order. The elements can be numbers, points, or
other objects, and the order matters.
Sequences in Metric Spaces
In a metric space, the elements of the sequence are not just numbers but could be points in a space with a
defined "distance" between them. Convergence in metric spaces means that the points of the sequence get
closer and closer to a specific point as you move further along the sequence.

Convergence and Non-Convergence

• Convergent Sequence: If the elements of a sequence get closer to a particular point as you move
along the sequence, the sequence is said to converge to that point.
• Non-Convergent Sequence: If the elements do not settle on a specific point, the sequence is said to
be non-convergent or divergent.
Univariate Calculus
What is Continuity?
Continuity of a function means that there are no sudden jumps or breaks in the graph of the function.
Imagine you’re drawing the graph of a function without lifting your pen off the paper; if you can do this, the
function is continuous.In simpler terms, if the input values approach a certain point, the output values
should approach the output at that point.
Differentiability: A Detailed Explanation
Differentiability
Differentiability of a function at a specific point means that you can find the slope of the function at that
point. In simpler terms, it means that the function has a clear direction or rate of change at that point. If a
function is differentiable at a point, you can draw a tangent line at that point, and the slope of that tangent
line is the derivative of the function at that point.

2. Relationship Between Continuity and Differentiability

• Continuity: A function is continuous at a point if there is no sudden jump or break in the graph at
that point.
• Differentiability: For a function to be differentiable at a point, it must be continuous at that point.
However, not all continuous functions are differentiable.
Key Point:
 • If a function is not continuous at a point, it cannot be differentiable at that point.
• A function can be continuous at a point but still not be differentiable there.

2.3
Linear Approximation
Linear approximation is a method used in calculus to estimate the value of a function near a specific point
using a linear function (a straight line).
Vector Spaces
What is a Vector Space?
Imagine a big playground where you can move around freely. In this playground, you can move left or right,
up or down, or even in a diagonal direction. Now, let's say you have a special set of rules for how you can
move and combine different directions. This playground with its rules is what we call a "vector space."
A vector space is a mathematical structure that deals with vectors (which can be thought of as arrows with
both direction and magnitude). These vectors follow certain rules for how they can be added together and
multiplied by numbers (called scalars).
Maxima, Minima, and Saddle Points
• Critical Points: Where f′(x∗)=0, the function can have maxima, minima, or saddle point
• Local Maximum: This is a peak. At this point, the function's value is higher than at nearby points.
Imagine you’re standing on a hilltop – you’re at the local maximum because you’re higher than the
ground around you.
• Local Minimum: This is a valley. At this point, the function's value is lower than at nearby points.
Think of standing at the bottom of a valley – you’re at the local minimum because you’re lower than
the surrounding land.
• Saddle Point: This is a point that is not a peak or a valley but is more like a point of inflection. It can
be like a saddle on a horse, where it curves up in one direction and down in another. It’s a bit of a flat
spot that doesn’t seem to be a high or low point but changes direction.

2. Linear Approximation and Critical Points

When we use linear approximation (the tangent line at a point), it helps us understand what the function
looks like near that point. If the first derivative is zero, we’re at a critical point.
Local Maxima and Minima

• Local Maximum:
o Imagine you’re climbing a mountain. If you reach a peak that is higher than the surrounding
ground, you’ve reached a local maximum.
o In a graph, this is a point where the function reaches a higher value compared to the points
immediately around it. It’s like the top of a hill or a small peak in a hilly area.
• Local Minimum:
o Now, imagine you’re in a valley between two hills. If you’re at the lowest point of this valley,
you’ve reached a local minimum.
o In a graph, this is a point where the function reaches a lower value compared to the points
immediately around it. It’s like the bottom of a valley or a dip in a hilly area.

Global Maxima and Minima

• Global Maximum:
o This is the highest point overall in the entire area you’re looking at, not just in a small
section. Imagine if you could see the whole mountain range from above and find the tallest
peak – that’s the global maximum.
o In a graph, it’s the highest value the function reaches over the entire domain of the function.
No other point on the graph is higher than this one.
• Global Minimum:
o This is the lowest point overall in the entire area you’re looking at. If you could see the whole
valley system from above and find the deepest valley – that’s the global minimum.
o In a graph, it’s the lowest value the function reaches over the entire domain. No other point
on the graph is lower than this one.

o If you have a curve that starts at a low point, rises to a peak, and then falls back down, the
highest point on the entire curve is the global maximum, and the lowest point is the global
minimum.
Summary

• Local Maximum: Highest point in a small neighborhood of the curve.

• Local Minimum: Lowest point in a small neighborhood of the curve.
• Global Maximum: Highest point overall in the entire curve or function. And is only one in whole
graph if it is not extendable. If it is extendable like eg: x^2 it has no global maxima(like in figure b)
• Global Minimum: Lowest point overall in the entire curve or function. Only one global minima also

Multiple Global Maxima or Minima:

• If the function has multiple peaks of the same highest value or multiple valleys of the same lowest
value, all of those points can be considered global maxima or minima.

Gradient and Linear Approximation:

1. Gradient Vector

Imagine you’re hiking on a hill, and you want to find the steepest path to climb higher. The gradient vector
is like a compass that tells you which direction to move to get the fastest ascent.

For a function f of several variables, the gradient at a point gives us the direction in which the function
increases the most rapidly.

• Gradient: A vector containing all the partial derivatives of the function at a given point.
• Partial Derivatives: These measure how the function changes as you move in one direction while
keeping other variables constant.

2.Linear Approximation in Multiple Dimensions = Linear approximation is a way to estimate the value of a
function near a specific point using a linear function. Think of it as approximating a curvy hill with a flat
surface around a point to make it easier to understand locally.
Tangent Plane Interpretation:

1. Concept of a Tangent Plane:

Imagine you have a bumpy surface, like the top of a hill or a smooth but curvy sheet of metal. At any
specific point on this surface, you can think of a plane that just "touches" the surface at that point without
cutting through it. This touching plane is called the tangent plane.

2. Linear Approximation:
The tangent plane is like a "flat" version of the bumpy surface right at the point you’re interested in. This
plane doesn’t exactly match the bumpy surface everywhere, but it does a good job of approximating (or
mimicking) the surface very close to the point of tangency.

o Example: Picture a ball sitting on a flat table. If you want to approximate the shape of the
ball at the spot where it’s touching the table, you could use a flat surface (the table) as a
simple approximation. The table doesn’t cover the entire ball, but it closely matches the ball’s
shape right at the touch point.

Contour Sets and Gradient Perpendicularity

Contour Sets

Imagine you're looking at a topographic map, which shows hills and valleys. The lines on this map that
connect points of equal height are called contour lines. They show how the height changes as you move
across the map.

Contour Set: In a more general sense, a contour set (or level set) is a set of points where a function f is
constant. For example, if you have a function f(x,y) that represents the temperature at each point in a room, a
contour set would be a set of points where the temperature is the same, say 70°F.

Gradient and Perpendicularity

The gradient of a function f at a point (x,y) is a vector that points in the direction of the steepest increase of
the function's value. The gradient vector essentially tells you how the function's value changes as you move
in different directions from that point.

Perpendicularity to Contours: The key idea is that the gradient vector at any point is always perpendicular
(at a right angle) to the contour line that passes through that point. Wondering why???

That’s why:

Why is the Gradient Perpendicular to Contours?

Conceptual Understanding:

1. Contour Lines: Imagine you're hiking on a hill where the elevation stays the same along certain
paths (contour lines). If you're walking on a path where the elevation is constant, you're not climbing
up or down, just moving horizontally.
2. Gradient Vector: The gradient vector at a point on this hill tells you the direction in which the hill
rises the most steeply. This direction is the steepest ascent and is perpendicular to the paths (contour
lines) where the elevation is the same.
Why Perpendicular?

The reason the gradient vector is perpendicular to the contour line has to do with the nature of how functions
change:

• Along the Contour Line: When you're moving along a contour line, the function value stays
constant. So, the change in function value is zero in this direction. In mathematical terms, the
derivative (rate of change) along the contour line is zero.
• Direction of Maximum Increase: The gradient vector points in the direction where the function
increases most rapidly. If you move in this direction, you will experience the most significant change
in function value.

Directional derivative = gradient( I have explained above)