CHAPTER 11: METAL ALLOYS

APPLICATIONS AND PROCESSING

ISSUES TO ADDRESS...
• How are metal alloys classified and how are they used?
• What are some of the common fabrication techniques?
• How do properties vary throughout a piece of material
that has been quenched, for example?
• How can properties be modified by post heat treatment?

Chapter 11- 1
Chapter 11-
 IRON-CARBON (Fe-C) PHASE DIAGRAM

(Adapted from Fig. 9.24, Callister 6e. Adapted from Fig. 9.21,Callister 6e. (Fig. 9.21
(Fig. 9.24 from Metals Handbook, 9th ed., adapted from Binary Alloy Phase Diagrams, 2nd ed.,
Vol. 9, Metallography and Vol. 1, T.B. Massalski (Ed.-in-Chief), ASM
Microstructures, American Society for International, Materials Park, OH, 1990.)
Metals, Materials Park, OH, 1985.)
Chapter 11- 21
HYPOEUTECTOID STEEL

Adapted from Figs.

9.21 and 9.26,Callister
6e. (Fig. 9.21 adapted
from Binary Alloy
Phase Diagrams, 2nd
ed., Vol. 1, T.B.
Massalski (Ed.-in-
Chief), ASM
International, Materials
Park, OH, 1990.)

Adapted from
Fig. 9.27,Callister
6e. (Fig. 9.27 courtesy Republic Steel Corporation.) Chapter 11- 22
HYPEREUTECTOID STEEL

Adapted from Figs.

9.21 and 9.29,Callister
6e. (Fig. 9.21 adapted
from Binary Alloy
Phase Diagrams, 2nd
ed., Vol. 1, T.B.
Massalski (Ed.-in-
Chief), ASM
International, Materials
Park, OH, 1990.)

Adapted from
Fig. 9.30,Callister
6e. (Fig. 9.30
copyright 1971 by United States Steel Corporation.) Chapter 11- 23
TAXONOMY OF METALS

Adapted from
Fig. 11.1,
Callister 6e.

Adapted from Fig. 9.21,Callister 6e.

(Fig. 9.21 adapted from Binary Alloy
Phase Diagrams, 2nd ed.,
Vol. 1, T.B. Massalski (Ed.-in-Chief),
ASM International, Materials Park,
OH, 1990.)

Chapter 11- 2
 STEELS

Based on data provided in Tables 11.1(b), 11.2(b), 11.3, and 11.4, Callister 6e. Chapter 11- 3
Chapter 11-
 NONFERROUS ALLOYS
• Cu Alloys • Al Alloys
Brass: Zn is subst. impurity -lower : 2.7g/cm 3
(costume jewelry, coins, -Cu, Mg, Si, Mn, Zn additions
corrosion resistant) -solid sol. or precip.
Bronze: Sn, Al, Si, Ni are strengthened (struct.
subst. impurity aircraft parts
(bushings, landing & packaging)
gear)
Cu-Be:
NonFerrous • Mg Alloys
-very low : 1.7g/cm 3
precip. hardened Alloys -ignites easily
for strength -aircraft, missles
• Ti Alloys
-lower : 4.5g/cm 3 • Refractory metals
-high melting T
vs 7.9 for steel • Noble metals -Nb, Mo, W, Ta
-reactive at high T -Ag, Au, Pt
-space applic. -oxid./corr. resistant
Based on discussion and data provided in Section 11.3, Callister 6e. Chapter 11- 4
REFINEMENT OF STEEL FROM ORE
Coke
Iron Ore Limestone

BLAST FURNACE
heat generation
gas C+O2→CO2
refractory
vessel reduction of iron ore to metal
layers of coke CO2+C→2CO
and iron ore 3CO+Fe2O3→2Fe+3CO2
air purification
slag
Molten iron CaCO3→CaO+CO2
CaO + SiO 2 +Al2O3→slag

Chapter 11- 5
 METAL FABRICATION METHODS-I

FORMING
• Forging • Rolling
(wrenches, crankshafts) (I-beams, rails)
force
die
Ao blank Ad often at
elev. T
Adapted from
force Fig. 11.7,
• Drawing • Extrusion Callister 6e.
(rods, wire, tubing) (rods, tubing)
die Ad
Ao tensile
force
die

Chapter 11- 6
 FORMING TEMPERATURE
• Hot working • Cold working
--recrystallization --more energy to deform
--less energy to deform --oxidation: good finish
--oxidation: poor finish --higher strength
--lower strength
• Cold worked microstructures
--generally are very anisotropic!
--Forged --Swaged --Fracture resistant!

(a) (b) (c)

Reprinted w/ permission from R.W. Hertzberg, "Deformation and Fracture Mechanics of Engineering
Materials", (4th ed.), John Wiley and Sons, Inc., 1996. (a) Fig. 10.5, p. 410 (micrograph courtesy of G.
Vander Voort, Car Tech Corp.); (b) Fig. 10.6(b), p. 411 (Orig. source: J.F. Peck and D.A. Thomas,
Trans. Metall. Soc. AIME, 1961, p. 1240); (c) Fig. 10.10, p. 415 (Orig. source: A.J. McEvily, Jr.
and R.H. Bush, Trans. ASM 55, 1962, p. 654.) Chapter 11- 7
METAL FABRICATION METHODS-II

CASTING
• Sand Casting • Die Casting
(large parts, e.g., (high volume, low T alloys)
auto engine blocks)

• Continuous Casting
• Investment Casting (simple slab shapes)
(low volume, complex shapes
e.g., jewelry, turbine blades)
plaster
die formed
around wax
prototype
Chapter 11- 8
METAL FABRICATION METHODS-III

FORMING CASTING JOINING

• Powder Processing • Welding
(materials w/low ductility) (when one large part is
impractical)
filler metal (melted)
base metal (melted)
fused base metal
heat affected zone
unaffected unaffected
Adapted from Fig.
piece 1 piece 2 11.8, Callister 6e.
(Fig. 11.8 from
Iron Castings
• Heat affected zone: Handbook, C.F.
Walton and T.J.
(region in which the Opar (Ed.), 1981.)
microstructure has been
changed).
Chapter 11- 9
THERMAL PROCESSING OF METALS
Annealing: Heat to Tanneal, then cool slowly.

Based on discussion in Section 11.7, Callister 6e. Chapter 11- 10

 HARDENABILITY--STEELS
• Ability to form martensite
• Jominy end quench test to measure hardenability.
1”
Adapted from Fig. 11.10,
flat ground Callister 6e. (Fig. 11.10
specimen adapted from A.G. Guy,
(heated to  4” Essentials of Materials
Science, McGraw-Hill
phase field) Book Company, New
York, 1978.)
24°C water

• Hardness versus distance from the quenched end.

Adapted from Fig. 11.11,

Callister 6e.

Chapter 11- 11
WHY HARDNESS CHANGES W/POSITION
• The cooling rate varies with position.

Adapted from Fig. 11.12, Callister 6e.

(Fig. 11.12 adapted from H. Boyer (Ed.)
Atlas of Isothermal Transformation
and Cooling Transformation Diagrams,
American Society for Metals, 1977, p.
376.)

Chapter 11- 12
 HARDENABILITY VS ALLOY CONTENT
• Jominy end quench
results, C = 0.4wt%C

Adapted from Fig. 11.13, Callister 6e.

(Fig. 11.13 adapted from figure
furnished courtesy Republic Steel
Corporation.)

• "Alloy Steels"
(4140, 4340, 5140, 8640)
--contain Ni, Cr, Mo
(0.2 to 2wt%)
--these elements shift
the "nose".
--martensite is easier
to form.
Chapter 11- 13
QUENCHING MEDIUM & GEOMETRY
• Effect of quenching medium:
Medium Severity of Quench Hardness
air small small
oil moderate moderate
water large large
• Effect of geometry:
When surface-to-volume ratio increases:
--cooling rate increases
--hardness increases
Position Cooling rate Hardness
center small small
surface large large

Chapter 11- 14
PREDICTING HARDNESS PROFILES
• Ex: Round bar, 1040 steel, water quenched, 2" diam.

Adapted from Fig. 11.18, Callister 6e.

Chapter 11- 15
 PRECIPITATION HARDENING
• Particles impede dislocations.
• Ex: Al-Cu system
• Procedure:
--Pt A: solution heat treat
(get a solid solution)
--Pt B: quench to room temp.
--Pt C: reheat to nucleate
small q crystals within
a crystals.
• Other precipitation
systems: Adapted from Fig. 11.22, Callister 6e. (Fig. 11.22 adapted
• Cu-Be from J.L. Murray, International Metals Review 30, p.5, 1985.)

• Cu-Sn
• Mg-Al

Adapted from Fig.

11.20, Callister 6e.

Chapter 11- 16
 PRECIPITATE EFFECT ON TS, %EL
• 2014 Al Alloy:
• TS peaks with • %EL reaches minimum
precipitation time. with precipitation time.
• Increasing T accelerates
process.

Adapted from Fig. 11.25 (a) and (b), Callister 6e. (Fig. 11.25 adapted from Metals Handbook:
Properties and Selection: Nonferrous Alloys and Pure Metals, Vol. 2, 9th ed., H. Baker Chapter 11- 17
(Managing Ed.), American Society for Metals, 1979. p. 41.)
SIMULATION: DISLOCATION MOTION
PEAK AGED MATERIAL
• Peak-aged
--avg. particle size = 64b
--closer spaced particles
efficiently stop dislocations.

Simulation courtesy
of Volker Mohles,
Institut für Materialphysik der
Universitåt, Münster, Germany
(http://www.
uni-munster.de/physik
/MP/mohles/). Used with
permission.

Chapter 11- 18
SIMULATION: DISLOCATION MOTION
OVERAGED MATERIAL
• Over-aged
--avg. particle size = 361b
--more widely spaced
particles not as effective.

Simulation courtesy
of Volker Mohles,
Institut für Materialphysik der
Universitåt, Münster, Germany
(http://www.
uni-munster.de/physik
/MP/mohles/). Used with
permission.

Chapter 11- 19
 SUMMARY
• Steels: increase TS, Hardness (and cost) by adding
--C (low alloy steels)
--Cr, V, Ni, Mo, W (high alloy steels)
--ductility usually decreases w/additions.
• Non-ferrous:
--Cu, Al, Ti, Mg, Refractory, and noble metals.
• Fabrication techniques:
--forming, casting, joining.
• Hardenability
--increases with alloy content.
• Precipitation hardening
--effective means to increase strength in
Al, Cu, and Mg alloys.

Chapter 11- 20
 ANNOUNCEMENTS
Reading:

Core Problems:

Self-help Problems:

Chapter 11- 0