MODULE FOUR

(APPLICATIONS OF
DIFFERENTIATION)

OUTLINE:
We now take the applications of differentiation by considering

the following:

A.Tangents and Normal

B. Approximation and derivative as rate of change

C. Curve Sketching :

(i). Intersection with axes

(ii). Turning points

(iii). Asymptotes

(iv). Inflection point

Dr. O. Fagbemiro
Tangent and Normal to a curve

Let us consider the curve represented by 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥).

y-axis ← Tangent

y0 𝑝(𝑥0 , 𝑦0 )

← Normal

x- axis

Figure 1

Definition: A straight line touching a curve at point 𝑃 without crossing the curve

is called tangent while a straight line which is perpendicular to the tangent is

known as normal to the curve (as shown in the figure 1).

Note, the equation of the tangent at point (𝑥0 , 𝑦0 ) is given by:

𝑦 − 𝑦0 = 𝑚(𝑥 − 𝑥0 ) (1)

𝑑𝑦 𝑦2 −𝑦1
Here 𝑚 = 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = = .
𝑑𝑥 𝑥2 −𝑥1
Also, if the gradient of the tangent at point 𝑃(𝑥0 , 𝑦0 ) is 𝑚 and the gradient (slope)

of the normal is 𝑚1 , then 𝑚𝑚1 = −1.

Clearly,

−1
𝑚1 = .
𝑚

Thus, equation of normal to the curve to curve at (𝑥0 , 𝑦0 ) is given by:

𝑦 − 𝑦0 = 𝑚1 (𝑥 − 𝑥0 ) (2)

ILLUSTRATION1:

Find the equation of tangent and equation of normal at 𝑥 = 1 to the curve

𝑦 = 3𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 − 1.

Solution:

𝑦 = 3𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 − 1.

Notice,

𝑑𝑦
= 6𝑥 + 2..
𝑑𝑥

Now, at 𝑥 = 1 we have
 𝑑𝑦
| = 6(1) + 2 = 8.
𝑑𝑥 𝑥=1

Clearly, the gradient (𝑚) = 8 is the gradient of the tangent when 𝑥 = 1.

𝑦 = 3(1)2 + 2(1) − 1 = 5 − 1 = 4.

So

(𝑥0 , 𝑦0 ) = (1,4).

Recall: the equation of the tangent at (1,4) is given by:

𝑦 − 4 = 8(𝑥 − 1)

𝑦 − 4 = 8𝑥 − 8

𝑦 = 8𝑥 − 4 .

This gives the required equation of tangent to the curve.

Next,

Recall:

𝑚𝑚1 = −1.

Here 𝑚 = 8, gradient of Tangent.

 −1
So 𝑚1 = , gradient of Normal.
8

Now the equation of Normal at the point (1,4) is given by:

−1
𝑦−4= (𝑥 − 1).
8

Therefore 8𝑦 + 𝑥 = 33.

This gives the equation of the Normal at (1,4).

Approximations

The derivative of a function is defined as:

𝑑𝑦
𝛿𝑦 = 𝛿𝑥.
𝑑𝑥

ILLUSTRATION 2:

The radius of a circle increases from 2cm to 2.03 cm. Find the approximate

increase in its area. Find the actual increase.

Solution:

Here 𝑟1 = 2𝑐𝑚 and 𝑟2 = 2.03𝑐𝑚, 𝛿𝑟 = 2.03 𝑐𝑚 − 2𝑐𝑚 = 0.03𝑐𝑚

Notice area of a circle 𝛿𝑦 = 𝐴 = 𝜋𝑟 2 .

𝑑𝐴
= 2𝜋𝑟
𝑑𝑟

𝑑𝐴
𝛿𝐴 = × 𝛿𝑟
𝑑𝑟

𝛿𝐴 = 2 × 𝜋 × 0.03

𝛿𝐴 = 0.12𝜋𝑐𝑚2 Or 𝛿𝐴 ≅ 0.377𝑐𝑚2 to 3dp.

For actual:

𝐴2 = 𝜋 × (2.03)2

𝐴2 = 4.1209𝜋

𝐴1 = 𝜋 × (2)2

𝛿𝑦𝐴1 = 4𝜋

𝐴2 − 𝐴1 = (4.1209 − 4)𝜋

𝐴2 − 𝐴1 = 0.1209𝜋 𝑐𝑚2
ILLUSTRATION 3:

The volume of water in a hemispherical bowl of radius 12cm is given by 𝑉 =

1
𝜋(36𝑥 2 − 𝑥 3 ), where 𝑥 𝑐𝑚 is the greatest depth of the water. Find the
3

approximate volume of water necessary to raise the depth from 2 𝑐𝑚 to 2.1 𝑐𝑚. If

the water is poured in at the constant rate of 3 𝑐𝑚3 /𝑠𝑒𝑐, at what rate is the level

rising when the depth is 3cm?

Solution:

1
𝑉 = 𝜋(36𝑥 2 − 𝑥 3 )
3

Here 𝑥1 = 2 𝑐𝑚 and 𝑥2 = 2.1 𝑐𝑚.

𝛿𝑥 = 2.1 𝑐𝑚 − 2𝑐𝑚 = 0.1 𝑐𝑚

𝑑𝑉 1
= 𝜋(72𝑥 − 3𝑥 2 )
𝑑𝑥 3

𝑑𝑉 1
𝛿𝑉 = × 𝛿𝑦 = × 𝜋(72 × 2 − 3 × 4) × 0.1𝑐𝑚3
𝑑𝑥 3

𝛿𝑉 = 4.4𝜋𝑐𝑚3
 𝛿𝑉
Next, if = 3𝑐𝑚3 /𝑠𝑒𝑐
𝛿𝑡

Then we can have

𝛿𝑉 𝑑𝑉 𝛿𝑥
= ×
𝛿𝑡 𝑑𝑥 𝛿𝑡

Here 𝛿𝑣 = 3𝑐𝑚3 /sec, 𝑥 = 3𝑐𝑚

So

1
3𝑐𝑚3 /sec= 𝜋(72𝑥 − 3𝑥 2 )
3

𝛿𝑥
9𝑐𝑚3 /sec = 𝜋(216 − 27) 𝑐𝑚2
𝛿𝑡

𝛿𝑥
9𝑐𝑚/sec = 189𝜋
𝛿𝑡

1 𝛿𝑥
𝑐𝑚/𝑠𝑒𝑐 = .
21𝜋 𝛿𝑡

ILLUSTRATION 4:

The radius 𝑟 of a circular disc is increasing at the rate of 0.5 𝑐𝑚/𝑠𝑒𝑐. At what rate

is the area of the disc increasing when its radius is 6 𝑐𝑚 (Area of a circle A = 𝜋𝑟 2 ).

Solution:

𝐴 = 𝜋𝑟 2 .
Here 𝛿𝑟 = 0.5 𝑐𝑚/𝑠𝑒𝑐

𝑑𝐴
= 2𝜋𝑟
𝑑𝑟

𝛿𝐴 𝑑𝐴
=
𝛿𝑟 𝑑𝑟

𝛿𝐴 = 2𝜋𝑟 × 𝛿𝑟 = 2 × 𝜋 × 6𝑐𝑚 × 0.5

𝛿𝐴 = 12𝜋 × 0.5𝑐𝑚3 /𝑠𝑒𝑐

𝛿𝐴 = 6𝜋𝑐𝑚3 /𝑠𝑒𝑐.

PRACTICE EXERCISE 1:

1. If 𝑦 = 𝑥 3 , find the approximate increase in 𝑦 when 𝑥 increases from 2 to

2.02.

2. The volume of sphere is increasing at the rate of 50𝑐𝑚3 /𝑠𝑒𝑐. At what rate is

the radius of the sphere increasing when the radius of the sphere is 5cm?

Hint: volume= 4⁄3 𝜋𝑟 3 .

3. The radius of a hemisphere is increasing at the rate of 0.5 𝑐𝑚/𝑠𝑒𝑐. Find the

rate at which the volume of the hemisphere increases if its radius is 3 cm.

Hint: volume 𝑉 = 2⁄3 𝜋𝑟 3 .

Derivative as a rate measurer

𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑚
Here = × .
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑚 𝑑𝑥

ILLUSTRATION 5:

At what rate is the area of a circle changing with respect to its radius when the

radius is 5cm?

Solution:

Recall Area =𝐴 = 𝜋𝑟 2 .

𝐴 = 𝜋𝑟 2

𝑑𝐴
= 2𝜋𝑟.
𝑑𝑟

Now when 𝑟 = 5𝑐𝑚.

𝑑𝐴
= 2 × 𝜋 × 5𝑐𝑚 = 10𝜋𝑐𝑚.
𝑑𝑟
ILLUSTRATION 6:

The radius of a circle is increasing at the rate of 0.5𝑐𝑚/𝑠𝑒𝑐. At what rate is the

area increasing at the instant when 𝑟 = 25𝑐𝑚.

Solution:

Here 𝐴 = 𝜋𝑟 2

𝑑𝑟
Notice = 0.5𝑐𝑚/𝑠𝑒𝑐
𝑑𝑡

𝑑𝐴
= 2𝜋𝑟
𝑑𝑟

By Chain rule we have

𝑑𝐴 𝑑𝐴 𝑑𝑟
= ×
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑟 𝑑𝑡

𝑑𝐴
= 2 × 𝜋 × 𝑟 × 0.5𝑐𝑚/𝑠𝑒𝑐
𝑑𝑡

When 𝑟 = 25𝑐𝑚

𝑑𝐴
= 25𝜋𝑐𝑚2 /𝑠𝑒𝑐.
𝑑𝑡
ILLUSTRATION 7:

Water is poured into a vessel, in the shape of a right circular cone of vertical

angle 900 , with the axis vertical, at the rate of 8𝐼𝑛3 /𝑠𝑒𝑐. At what rate is the water

surface rising when the depth of the water is 4𝐼𝑛?

Solution:

Recall:

1
Volume of cone = 𝜋𝑟 2 ℎ
3

Here ℎ = 𝑑.

So,

1
Volume of cone = 𝜋𝑟 2 𝑑
3

Notice vertical angle = 900 . Given.

So for semi – vertical angle we have the angle = 450

This implies that 𝑟 = 𝑑.

Now the volume becomes

 1
𝑉 = 𝜋𝑟 3
3

𝑑𝑣 𝑑𝑣 𝑑𝑟
= ×
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑟 𝑑𝑡

𝑑𝑟
8 = 𝜋𝑟 2 ×
𝑑𝑡

When (a,b) 𝑟=4

8 𝑑𝑟
=
16𝜋 𝑑𝑡

𝑑𝑟
= 0.159𝐼𝑛/𝑠𝑒𝑐.
𝑑𝑡

Curve Sketching

Let us consider the curve of 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) given below:

𝑦 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠

𝑦=ℎ

𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥)

(𝑥1 , 0) (𝑥2 , 0) (𝑥3 , 0) 𝑥 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠

(𝑐, 𝑑)
𝑥=𝑣
A critical investigation of figure 2 above would help us to deduce the following

basic important inferences from the graph which would enhance good curve

sketching and establish them as the prime properties that ensures good curve

sketching.

The important properties from the graph are:

1. Intersection with axes

a. 𝑿 -intercept: Point(s) at which the curve crosses the 𝑥-axis. Here, this is

found by making 𝑦 = 0, then we obtain a value for 𝑥. From the graph, the

𝑥-intercept are (𝑥1 0), (𝑥2 0) and (𝑥3 0).

b. 𝒀-intercept: The point(s) at which the curve crossed the 𝑥-axis. Here,

this is found by making 𝑥 = 0, then we obtain a value for 𝑦. From the

graph, the 𝑦-intercept is (0, 𝑦1 ).

2. Turning points

The maximum and minimum point represent the turning points of the curve

of the function 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥). From the graph, the turning points are: (𝑎, 𝑏)

and (𝑐, 𝑑). Here, the maximum point is (𝑎, 𝑏) and the minimum point

is (𝑐, 𝑑).

Note, there are conditions that guarantee the existence of maximum and

minimum points of a curve. These conditions are given below:

 a. A point (𝑥0 , 𝑦) is maximum if

𝑑𝑦
| = 0 and
𝑑𝑥 𝑥=𝑥0

𝑑2𝑦
| < 0.
𝑑𝑥 2 𝑥=𝑥0

b. A point (𝑥0 , 𝑦) is minimum if

𝑑𝑦
| = 0 and
𝑑𝑥 𝑥=𝑥0

𝑑 2𝑦
| > 0.
𝑑𝑥 2 𝑥=𝑥0

3. Horizontal asymptote:

a. A horizontal line to which the curve approaches without touching or

crossing it. From the graph, the dotted straight line 𝑦 = ℎ is the

horizontal asymptote of the curve 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥).

b. Vertical asymptote:

A vertical line to which the curve approaches without touching or

crossing it. From the graph, the dotted straight line 𝑥 = 𝑣 is the vertical

asymptote.
ILLUSTRATION 8:

If 𝑦 = 𝑥 3 + 3𝑥 2 . Determine the maximum and minimum points of the function.

Solution:

𝑦 = 𝑥 3 + 3𝑥 2 Given.

𝑑𝑦
= 3𝑥 2 + 6𝑥. (1)
𝑑𝑥

𝑑𝑦
Now, let = 0 in equation 1.
𝑑𝑥

This implies that 3𝑥 2 + 6𝑥 = 0.

So, 𝑥 = 0 or 𝑥 = −2.

Now, let us find 𝑦 at 𝑥 = 0

Here, we shall use 𝑦 = 𝑥 3 + 3𝑥 2 .

So 𝑦 = 03 + 302 = 0.

Therefore, (𝑥, 𝑦) = (0,0)

Next, let us check whether the point (0,0) is a maximum or minimum point.

𝑑𝑦
Recall: = 3𝑥 2 + 6𝑥
𝑑𝑥
 𝑑2𝑦
So the second derivative gives = 6𝑥 + 6
𝑑𝑥 2

At 𝑥=0

We have

𝑑2𝑦
| = 6𝑥 + 6
𝑑𝑥 2 𝑥=0

Observe that 6 > 0.

𝑑2𝑦
Clearly, > 0 implies that the point (0,0) is a minimum
𝑑𝑥 2

point.

Next, at 𝑥 = −2

We shall use 𝑦 = 𝑥 3 + 3𝑥 2 .

So 𝑦 = (−2)3 + 3(−2)2 = 4.

Therefore, (𝑥, 𝑦) = (−2,4) and this gives the second point on the curve.

Now, let us check whether the point (−2,4) is a maximum or minimum point.

At 𝑥 = −2

We have
 𝑑𝑦 2
| = 6(−2) + 6 = −6
𝑑𝑥 2 𝑥=−2

Observe that −6 < 0.

𝑑2𝑦
Clearly, < 0 implies that the point (−2,4) is a maximum
𝑑𝑥 2

point.

ILLUSTRATION 9:

𝑥+1
Let 𝑦= .
𝑥 2 −1

Find:

i. 𝑥 and 𝑦 intercept

ii. Vertical and horizontal asymptotes

iii. Maximum and minimum

iv. Sketch the graph

Solution:

i. When 𝑦 = 0

𝑥+1
We have 0 = .
𝑥 2 −1
 This implies that 0 × (𝑥 2 − 1) = 𝑥 + 1.

So, clearly we have 𝑥 + 1 = 0.

Hence 𝑥 = −1 is where the 𝑥- intercept occurred.

Now, when 𝑥 = 0
0+1
We have 𝑦= .
0−1

This implies that 𝑦 = −1 and this is where the 𝑦- intercept occurred.

ii. Here, let us consider the vertical asymptote.

𝑥+1
Recall: 𝑦= .
𝑥 2 −1

We now set the denominator to zero.

𝑥 2 − 1 = 0 and this could be expressed in the form:

(𝑥 − 1)(𝑥 + 1) = 0

Clearly 𝑥 = 1 and 𝑥 = −1 are the points where the vertical asymptotes

occurred for the given curve.

Now, let us consider the horizontal asymptote.

𝑥+1
Recall 𝑦= .
𝑥 2 −1
 Here, the idea is to divide by the highest power of 𝑥 and in this case the

highest power is 𝑥 2 .

1 1
+
𝑥 𝑥2
𝑦= 1
1− 2
𝑥

Now, observe that as 𝑥 → ∞,

0+0 0
𝑦= = =0.
1−0 1

Notice that the horizontal asymptote occurred at 𝑦 = 0 it clearly coincides with

𝑥- axis.

iii. We now consider the maximum and minimum point.

𝑥+1
Recall 𝑦 =
𝑥 2 −1

From here we now seek the derivative

𝑑𝑦 (𝑥 2 − 1)(1) − (𝑥 + 1)(2𝑥) 𝑥 2 − 1 − 2𝑥 2 − 2𝑥
= =
𝑑𝑥 (𝑥 2 − 1)2 (𝑥 2 − 1)2

−𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 − 1
=
(𝑥 2 − 1)2

𝑑𝑦 (−1)(𝑥 + 1)(𝑥 + 1) −1
= =
𝑑𝑥 (𝑥 − 1)2 (𝑥 + 1)2 (𝑥 − 1)2
 𝑑𝑦
Now, let = 0.
𝑑𝑥

Clearly 0 × (𝑥 − 1)2 = −1. This implies that the value of x cannot be found and

hence no maximum and minimum point.

Vertical asymptote→ ← Vertical asymptote

-1 1 ↓Horizontal asymptote

(-1,0) (0,1)

ILLUSTRATION 10:

𝑥2
Let 𝑦= .
𝑥 2 −1

Find:

i. 𝑥 and 𝑦 intercept

ii. Vertical and horizontal asymptotes

iii. Maximum and minimum

 iv. Sketch the graph

Solution:

i. When 𝑦=0

𝑥2
We have 0= .
𝑥 2 −1

This implies that 0 × (𝑥 2 − 1) = 𝑥 2 .

So, clearly we have 𝑥 = 0.

Hence at 𝑥 = 0 we have the 𝑥- intercept.

Now, when 𝑥=0

02
We have 𝑦= .
0−1

This implies that at 𝑦 = 0 we have the 𝑦- intercept.

ii. Here, let us consider the vertical asymptote.

 𝑥2
Recall: 𝑦= .
𝑥 2 −1

We now set the denominator to zero.

𝑥 2 − 1 = 0 and this could be expressed in the form:

(𝑥 − 1)(𝑥 + 1) = 0

Clearly 𝑥 = 1 and 𝑥 = −1 are the points where the vertical asymptotes occurred

for the given curve.

Now, let us consider the horizontal asymptote.

𝑥2
Recall 𝑦= .
𝑥 2 −1

Here, the idea is to divide by the highest power of 𝑥 and in this case the highest

power is 𝑥 2 .

1
𝑦= 1
1− 2
𝑥

Now, observe that as 𝑥 → ∞,

1 1
𝑦= = =1.
1−0 1

Notice that the horizontal asymptote occurred at 𝑦 = 1.

 iii. We now consider the maximum and minimum point.

𝑥2
Recall 𝑦 =
𝑥 2 −1

From here we now seek the derivative

𝑑𝑦 (𝑥 2 − 1)(2𝑥) − (𝑥 2 )(2𝑥) 2𝑥 3 − 2𝑥 − 2𝑥 3
= =
𝑑𝑥 (𝑥 2 − 1)2 (𝑥 2 − 1)2

𝑑𝑦 −2𝑥
= 2
𝑑𝑥 (𝑥 − 1)2

𝑑𝑦
Now, let = 0.
𝑑𝑥

Clearly, 0 × (𝑥 2 − 1)2 = −2𝑥

This implies that 𝑥=0.

Now, at 𝑥 = 0, we have

02
𝑦= = 0.
02 −1

We now have point (𝑥, 𝑦) = (0,0).

Next, we seek for second derivative.

𝑑2𝑦 (𝑥 2 −1)2 (−2)−(−2𝑥)2(𝑥 2 −1)(2𝑥) −2(𝑥 2 −1)2 +8𝑥 2 (𝑥 2 −1) −2(𝑥 2 −1)+8𝑥 2
= = = .
𝑑𝑥 2 (𝑥 2 −1)4 (𝑥 2 −1)4 (𝑥 2 −1)3
 𝑑2𝑦 −2𝑥 2 +2+8𝑥 2 6𝑥 2 +2
= = ,
𝑑𝑥 2 (𝑥 2 −1)3 (𝑥 2 −1)3

𝑑2𝑦 6(0)2 +2 2
|
2 𝑥=0
= = = −2 < 0
𝑑𝑥 (02 −1)3 −1

𝑑2𝑦
Clearly <0.
𝑑𝑥 2

This suggest that the point (𝑥, 𝑦) = (0,0) is a maximum point.

Y=1 ↓Horizontal asymptote

Vertical asymptote→ → Vertical asymptote

-1 (0,1) +1
Remark:

Observe that the vertical asymptote can only be determined when the given

function takes the form

𝑓(𝑥)
𝑦= . It is from this form we proceed by setting 𝑔(𝑥) = 0 in order to
𝑔(𝑥)

determine the value of 𝑥 for the vertical asymptote.

Note, if a function does not have denominator, it follows that there is no vertical

asymptote.

INFLECTION POINT:

𝑑2 𝑦
Inflection point occurs if 𝑑𝑥 2 |𝑥=𝑥0 = 0 and its sign changes when investigated in the interval 𝑐 − 𝜖 < 𝑐 <

𝑐 + 𝜖.

ILLUSTRATION 11:

Find the inflection point of the function 𝑦 = 𝑥 3 − 6𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 .

Solution:

𝑦 = 𝑥 3 − 6𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 Given.
 𝑑𝑦
= 3𝑥 2 − 12𝑥 + 2,
𝑑𝑥

𝑑2𝑦
= 6𝑥 − 12.
𝑑𝑥 2

𝑑2𝑦
Now, we set = 0.
𝑑𝑥 2

Clearly, this gives 6𝑥 − 12 = 0.

This implies that 𝑥 = 2.

So, when 𝑥 = 2, we have

𝑦 = 23 − 622 + 2(2) = 8 − 24 + 4 = −12.

This now gives the point (2, −12).

We shall now investigate whether the point (2, −12) is an inflection point or not.

Next, we shall now follow the definite interval given below:

𝑐−𝜖 <𝑐 <𝑐+𝜖

Here, our 𝑥 = 𝑐 = 2.

So, we have:

2−𝜖 <2<2+𝜖 (*)

We now choose

𝜖 = 0.01

This represent a very small number. You can always make use of this specific

value for 𝜖. The only exception to this hint is only when we have the case that the

value of 𝜖 is given in the question.

So, our equation (*) becomes

2 − 0.01 < 2 < 2 + 0.01

This implies

1.99 < 2 < 2.01

Now,

𝑑2𝑦
| = 6(1.99) − 12 = −0.06.
𝑑𝑥 2 𝑥=1.99

Also, we take

𝑑2𝑦
| = 6(2.01) − 12 = 0.06
𝑑𝑥 2 𝑥=2.01

𝑑2𝑦
Notice, has changed its sign.
𝑑𝑥 2
Hence, the point (2, −12) is an inflection point.

Practice:

2𝑥 2 −1
1. Let 𝑦 = , find (i) 𝑥 and 𝑦 intercepts (ii) vertical and horizontal
𝑥 2 −5𝑥+6

asymptotes (iii) Maximum and minimum points (iv) sketch the graph

𝑥2
2. Let 𝑦 = , find (i) 𝑥 and 𝑦 intercepts (ii) vertical and horizontal
16−𝑥 2

asymptotes (iii) Maximum and minimum points (iv) sketch the graph

3. Find the inflection points of the following: (i) 𝑦 = 𝑥 4 − 12𝑥 3 + 54𝑥 2 +

𝑥2 6
72𝑥 + 31 (ii) 𝑦 = + 3𝑥 2 − 6𝑥 − .
2 4