Chapter One

Data Communication and Computer Networking Basics

Outline
 Data Communication and Computer Networking

 Computer Network and its applications

 Type of network

 Network topology

 Protocols and standards

 Network models

 Transmission media

2
Data Communication and Computer Networking Basics
Data communications are the exchange of data between two devices via some form of
transmission medium such as a wire cable.

It includes :
Writing and talking
Nonverbal communication (such as facial expressions, body language)
Visual communication (the use of images photography, video or film)
Electronic Communication such as telephone calls, electronic mail, cable
television, satellite broadcasts.

 For data communications to occur, the communicating devices must be part

of a communication system made up of a combination of hardware (physical

equipment) and software (programs).
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 Types communications
Serial vs. parallel
 In serial communications

 A single bit will be transferred at a time using the communication

channel
 Bits will be reassembled at the destination

 Mostly used by computer peripherals like printers,

 In parallel communications

 Multiple bits (Eight bits) will be transferred at a time

 Needs multiple (parallel) communication channels

4
Contd.

5
Definitions of Terms
 Data It is a collection of raw facts that describe the feature/
characteristics of people, places, objects or events.

 Signal: the electrical wave that is used to represent the data. It Can be
analog or digital signal
 Data has to be interpreted, managed or converted by software instructions
so that it becomes information.
 Electronic transmissions have to be encoded into a language that can be
transmitted.
 Signals are the electric or electromagnetic impulses used to encode and
transmit data.
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Cont…
 Data communications (Transmission) are the exchange of data

between two devices via some form of transmission medium

such as a wire cable or wireless media using appropriate signal.

 Network is a system in which a number of independent computers

are linked together to share data such as hard disks and printers.

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Data Representation Techniques
 The type of data to be transmitted in the form of text, audio, and video in

the form of electrical signal, radio, laser, or other radiated energy source.

 Data can be analog or digital

 The term analog data refers to information that is continuous and measuring

values;

 digital data refers to information that has discrete states and counting

values.

 Example: analog clock (with second, minute and hour hands) and digital

clock

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Analog Signals
Are Continuous signal wave that carries information by altering the

characteristics of waves.

Analog means that the original information is retransmitted to the

receiver/listener without any manipulation.

Here the signal can take on any value (within the limits set by the

recording equipment and the transmitter).

It measures rather than counts

For instance, Voice and all sounds are analog, traveling to human ears

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in the forms of waves.
 Cont.
 Radio, telephone and recording equipment historically have
been analog, but they are beginning to change.

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 Digital Signals
 Digital signal is signal that is a representation of a sequence of

discrete values (a quantified discrete-time signal).

 It is continuous time waveform signal used in any form of

digital communication.
 Are a discrete series of pulses - either high or low - on or off -

sometimes expressed as binary code 1s and 0s.

 It counts but not measures

 Discrete pulses of data transmission rather than continues

wave
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 Cont..
 More prevalent in computer based devices

 Flashing light and telegraph message are traditional examples of

on-off pulses, although not in binary code.

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 Analog vs. Digital
Analog Digital
Signal Analog signal is a continuous Digital signals are discrete time
signal which represents physical signals generated by digital
measurements. modulation.
Representatio Uses continuous range of values Uses discrete or discontinuous
n to represent information values to represent
information
Example Human voice in air, analog Computers, CDs, DVDs, and
electronic devices. other digital electronic
devices.
Response to More likely to get affected Less affected since noise
Noise reducing accuracy response are analog in nature
Flexibility Analog hardware is not flexible. Digital hardware is flexible in
implementation.
13 Memory Stored in the form of wave signal Stored in the form of binary
bit
Signal Encoding techniques

 Digital data:- information that has discrete states

 Analog Data:- information that is continuous

 Digital Signal:- can have only a limited number of defined values.

 Although each value can be any number, it is often as simple as 1 and 0.

 Analog signal:- has infinitely many levels of intensity over a period of time.

 As the wave moves from value A to value B, it passes through and includes

an infinite number of values along its path.

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 Transmission Impairments
 Is The signal received may differ from the signal transmitted.

 The effect will degrade the signal quality for analog signals

and introduce bit errors for digital signals.

 Types of Transmission impairments are

1. Attenuation,

2. Delay distortion, and

3. Noise
 Attenuation
 Attenuation – is the loss of signal strength in networking cables or

connections.reduction of the amplitude of an electrical signal -

logarithmic in nature

 Three considerations with attenuation:

 Received signal must have sufficient strength

 Signal must maintain sufficiently higher level than noise

 It is an increasing function of frequency  distortion

 Analog signal will become weaker (attenuated) after a certain

distance.
 To achieve longer distances, the analog transmission system
includes amplifiers that boost the energy in the signal.
Delay distortion
This distortion can only occur in guided media

 Propagation velocity varies with frequency

 Various frequency components of a signal will arrive at the

receiver at different times.

 Delay distortion occurs when signal velocity and frequency vary.

 This means that all signals do not arrive at the same time,
resulting in distortion of the signal.
 In digital data transmission, bit position will spill over into
other bit positions  inter-symbol interference.
 Equalizing techniques can be used for delay distortion.
 Noise
 Noise - undesired signals that are inserted during transmission

 Thermal noise (white noise) - due to thermal agitation of

electrons; covers wide frequency
 Inter-modulation noise - sum or difference or multiple of original
frequencies of signals at different frequencies that share the same
transmission medium
 Crosstalk - due to electric coupling between nearby twisted
pairs (A signal from one line is picked up by another)
 Impulse noise - is sharp quick spikes on the signal caused from
electromagnetic interference, lightning, sudden power switching,
electromechanical switching, etc.
Modes of Data Transmission
 There are 3 different transmission modes characterized

according to the direction of the exchanges:

1. A simplex connection is a connection in which the data flows in

only one direction, from the transmitter to the receiver.

 This type of connection is useful if the data do not need to

flow in both directions (for example, from your computer to

the printer or from the mouse to your computer...).

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 Contd.

2. A half-duplex connection (sometimes called an alternating connection or semi-

duplex) is a connection in which the data flows in one direction or the other,

but not both at the same time.

 With this type of connection, each end of the connection transmits in turn.

 This type of connection makes it possible to have bidirectional

communications using the full capacity of the line.

 In a half-duplex transmission, the entire capacity of a channel is taken over

by whichever of the two devices is transmitting at the time.

 Walkie-talkies and CB (citizens band) radios are both half-duplex systems.

 The half-duplex mode is used in cases where there is no need for
communication in both directions at the same time; the entire capacity of the
channel can be utilized for each direction.
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3. Full-Duplex: In full-duplex mode (also called duplex), both stations can transmit
and receive simultaneously
 The full-duplex mode is like a two-way street with traffic flowing in both

directions at the same time.

 This sharing can occur in two ways: Either the link must contain two physically

separate transmission paths, one for sending and the other for receiving; or the
capacity of the channel is divided between signals travelling in both directions.
 One common example of full-duplex communication is the telephone network.

When two people are communicating by a telephone line, both can talk and listen
at the same time.
 The full-duplex mode is used when communication in both directions is required

all the time.

 The capacity of the channel, however, must be divided between the two
21 directions.
Contd.

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 Five (5) Components of data communication
 Message , Sender ,Receiver , Transmission medium and Protocol.

 Message: is the information (data) to be communicated.

 Popular forms of information include text, numbers, pictures,

audio, and video.
 Sender: is the device that sends the data message.

 It can be a computer, workstation, telephone handset, video

camera, and so on.
 Receiver: is the device that receives the message.

 It can be a computer, workstation, telephone handset,

television, and so on.
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 Cont.
 Transmission medium: is the physical path by which a message

travels from sender to receiver.

 Some examples of transmission media include twisted-pair

wire, coaxial cable, fiberoptic cable, and radio waves.

 Protocol: is a set of rules that govern data communications.

 It represents an agreement between the communicating

devices.

 Without a protocol, two devices may be connected but not

communicating.
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 Data communication component…
Example: Suppose you want to convey your grade reports to your

family. You call your family via Telephone.

 Determine the components of data communication.

Your mark is the message

You are the sender

Your family is the receiver

The Telephone line is the medium

The language in which you are conversing is the protocol

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 Protocols and Standards
 A protocol is a set of rules that govern data communications. It

defines what is communicated, how it is communicated, and

when it is communicated.

 The key elements of a protocol are syntax, semantics, and

timing
 Syntax – structure or format of data

 Semantics – meaning of each field

 Timing –when data should be sent and how fast they can be sent.

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 Purposes of network protocol
 Computers need to send data between themselves so that,

 For example, email can be exchanged and the Internet can

function.

 When two devices want to successfully communicate, they

must agree to follow some rules about the way they will do
it.

 These are known as protocols.

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 Protocols and Standards (Cont’d)
 Standards provide guidelines to manufacturers, vendors,
government agencies, and other service providers to ensure
interconnectivity.

 Data communication standards fall into two categories:

 De facto – are those that have not been approved by an organized

body but have been adopted as standards through widespread use.

 De jure – these have been legislated by an officially recognized body.

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 Types of Network Protocols
 Communication protocols include basic data
communication tools like TCP/IP and HTTP.

 Security protocols include HTTPS, SFTP, and SSL.

 Management protocols maintain and govern the network

through protocols such as ICMP and SNMP.

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 Common network protocols
Address Resolution Protocol (ARP) ...

Domain Name System (DNS) ...

File Transfer Protocol/Secure (FTP/S) ...

Hypertext Transfer Protocol/Secure (HTTP/S) ...

Internet Message Access Protocol (IMAP) ...

Post Office Protocol (POP3) ...

Remote Desktop Protocol (RDP) ...

Session Initiation Protocol (SIP)

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 Circuit switching and Packet switching,
 A circuit-switched network relies on a physical

connection between two nodes, which requires the link

to be set up before the nodes can communicate.

 In contrast, a packet-switched network is a digital

network that manages data transfer in the form of small

and optimized packets, an improvement from older
network types

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32
 Computer Network and its Applications
 Computer is an electronic device for storing and processing data, typically in
binary form, according to instructions given to it in a variable program.
 Network consists of two or more computers that are linked in order to share
resources (such as printers and CDs), exchange files, or allow electronic
communications.
 Computer Network is a group of computers that use a set of common
communication protocols over digital interconnections for the purpose of
sharing resources located on or provided by the network nodes.
 At its most elementary level, a computer network consists of two computers
connected to each other by a cable that allows them to share data.
 All computer networking, no matter how sophisticated, stems from that simple
system.
 Computer networking arose as an answer to the need to share data in a timely
fashion.
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 Contd.

 Connecting together of computers and other devices is called

a network, and the concept of connected computers sharing

resources is called networking.

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 Contd.
 Two computers are said to be interconnected if they are able to

exchange information

Components of a computer networks

Hardware:
 Computer Media:
 Network card Cable
 Routers Wire
 Modem … Microwave …

Software: Network Design:

 Network OS Logical layout
 Utilities … Physical layout …

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 Uses of Computer Networks
Resource sharing
Centralizing administration and support
Means of communication
1. Resource sharing
 the goal of network is to make all programs, equipment, and especially data
available to anyone on the network without regard to the physical location of the
resource and the user.
 An obvious and widespread example is having a group of office workers share a
common printer.
 None of the individuals really needs a private printer, and a high-volume networked
printer is often cheaper, faster, and easier to maintain than a large collection of
individual printers.
 Information sharing is more important than physical resource sharing

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 Contd.
2. Means of communication
 E-mail
 Videoconferencing
 Chatting
 E-commerce
 Game
 ….
3. Centralizing administration and support
 Database
 Banks
 ….

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 Types of Network
 There are basically Four categories of networks based on

its size and geographical coverage

1. Personal Area Network (PAN)

2. Local Area Network (LAN)

3. Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)

4. Wide Area Network (WAN)

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 Personal Area Network (PAN)
 PAN means for one person;
 e.g. a wireless network connecting a computer with its mouse,
keyboard, mobile phone and printer

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 Local Area Network (LAN)
 A local area network (LAN) is the basic building block of any
computer network.
 A LAN can range from simple (two computers connected by a cable) to
complex (hundreds of connected computers and peripherals throughout
a major corporation).
 The distinguishing feature of a LAN is that it is confined to a limited
geographic area.
 A local area network (LAN) is usually privately owned and links the
devices in a single office, building, or campus.
 Depending on the needs of an organization and the type of technology
used, a LAN can be as simple as two PCs and a printer in someone's
home office; or it can extend throughout a company and include audio
and video peripherals.
 Currently, LAN size is limited to a few kilometers
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 Contd.

41
 Contd.
 LANs are designed to allow resources to be shared between personal
computers or workstations. The resources to be shared can include
hardware (e.g., a printer), software (e.g., an application program), or
data.
 In addition to size, LANs are distinguished from other types of networks

by their transmission media and topology.

 In general, a given LAN will use only one type of transmission
medium.The most common LAN topologies are bus, ring, and star.
 Early LANs had data rates in the 4 to 16 megabits per second (Mbps)
range.Today, however, speeds are normally 100 or 1000 Mbps.
 Wireless LANs are the newest evolution in LAN technology.
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 Wide Area Network (WAN)
 A wide area network (WAN) provides long-distance

transmission of data, image, audio, and video information over

large geographic areas that may comprise a country, a continent,
or even the whole world.

 A WAN can be as complex as the backbones that connect the

Internet or as simple as a dial-up line that connects a home

computer to the Internet. We normally refer to the first as a
switchedWAN and to the second as a point-to-point WAN

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 Contd.

 The switched WAN connects the end systems, which usually comprise

a router (internetworking connecting device) that connects to another

LAN orWAN.

 The point-to-point WAN is normally a line leased from a telephone

or cable TV provider that connects a home computer or a small LAN to

an Internet service provider (lSP). This type of WAN is often used to

provide Internet access.

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 Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)
 A metropolitan area network (MAN) is a network with a size between a LAN
and aWAN.
 It normally covers the area inside a town or a city.

 It is designed for customers who need a high-speed connectivity,

normally to the Internet, and have endpoints spread over a city or part of city.
 A good example of a MAN is the part of the telephone company network that
can provide a high-speed DSL line to the customer (we will discuss DSL in
later chapters) .
 Another example is the cable TV network that originally was designed for
cable TV, but today can also be used for high-speed data connection to the
Internet.
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 Network Type Based on Connection
 A network is two or more devices connected through links.

 A link is a communications pathway that transfers data from one

device to another.
 For visualization purposes, it is simplest to imagine any link as a
line drawn between two points.
 For communication to occur, two devices must be connected in
some way to the same link at the same time.
 There are two possible types of connections: point-to-point and
multipoint.
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 1. Point-to-Point
 A point-to-point connection provides a dedicated link between two devices.

 The entire capacity of the link is reserved for transmission between those two
devices.
 Most point-to-point connections use an actual length of wire or cable to
connect the two ends, but other options, such as microwave or satellite links,
are also possible.
 When you change television channels by infrared remote control, you are
establishing a point-to-point connection between the remote control and the
television's control system.

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 2. Multipoint
 A multipoint (also called multidrop) connection is one in which more than
two specific devices share a single link.
 In a multipoint environment, the capacity of the channel is shared, either
spatially or temporally.
 If several devices can use the link simultaneously, it is a spatially shared
connection.
 If users must take turns, it is a timeshared connection.

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 Network Topology
 The term topology refers to the way in which a network is laid out physically.

 Two or more devices connect to a link; two or more links form a

topology.

 The topology of a network is the geometric representation of the

relationship of all the links and linking devices (usually called nodes) to

one another.

 There are four basic topologies possible: mesh, star, bus, and ring

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 A. Star Topology
 In a star topology, each device has a dedicated point-to-point link
only to a central controller, usually called a hub/switch.
 The term dedicated means that the link carries traffic only between the two
devices it connects.
 The devices are not directly linked to one another.

 Unlike a mesh topology, a star topology does not allow direct traffic
between devices.
 The controller acts as an exchange: If one device wants to send
data to another, it sends the data to the controller, which then relays the
data to the other connected device
50
 Contd.
 A star topology is less expensive than a mesh topology.

 In a star, each device needs only one link and one I/O port to connect it to

any number of others.

 This factor also makes it easy to install and reconfigure.

 Far less cabling needs to be housed, and additions, moves, and deletions

involve only one connection: between that device and the hub.

 Other advantages include robustness. If one link fails, only that link is

affected. All other links remain active. This factor also lends itself to easy
fault identification and fault isolation. As long as the hub is working,
it can be used to monitor link problems and bypass defective links.
51
Contd.

A SIMPLE STAR TOPOLOGY

A HIERARCHICAL STAR TOPOLOGY
52
 Contd.
 One big disadvantage of a star topology is the dependency of the
whole topology on one single point, the hub.
 If the hub goes down, the whole system is dead.

 Although a star requires far less cable than a mesh, each node
must be linked to a central hub.
 For this reason, often more cabling is required in a star than in
some other topologies (such as ring or bus).
 The star topology is used in local-area networks (LANs).

 High-speed LANs often use a star topology with a central hub.

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 B. Bus Topology
 A bus topology, is multipoint connection.

 One long cable acts as a backbone to link all the devices in a network

 Nodes are connected to the bus cable by drop lines and taps.

 A drop line is a connection running between the device and the main

cable.

54
Contd.
 A tap is a connector that either splices into the main cable or

punctures the sheathing of a cable to create a contact with the

metallic core.

 As a signal travels along the backbone, some of its energy is

transformed into heat.

 Therefore, it becomes weaker and weaker as it travels farther and

farther.

 For this reason there is a limit on the number of taps a bus can

support and on the distance between those taps.

55
Advantages of Bus Topology.
 Advantages of a bus topology include ease of installation.

 Backbone cable can be laid along the most efficient path, then connected
to the nodes by drop lines of various lengths.
 In this way, a bus uses less cabling than mesh or star topologies.

 In a star, for example, four network devices in the same room require
four lengths of cable reaching all the way to the hub.
 In a bus, this redundancy is eliminated. Only the backbone cable stretches
through the entire facility.
 Each drop line has to reach only as far as the nearest point on the
backbone.
56
Disadvantages of Bus Topology.
1. Difficult reconnection and fault isolation. A bus is usually designed to be optimally
efficient at installation.
 It can therefore be difficult to add new devices.
2. Signal reflection at the taps can cause degradation in quality. This degradation can be
controlled by limiting the number and spacing of devices connected to a given length
of cable.
 Adding new devices may therefore require modification or replacement of the
backbone.
 In addition, a fault or break in the bus cable stops all transmission, even between
devices on the same side of the problem.
 The damaged area reflects signals back in the direction of origin, creating
noise in both directions.
 Bus topology was one of the first topologies used in the design of early local area
57 networks. Ethernet LANs can use a bus topology, but they are less popular now.
 C. Ring Topology
 In a ring topology, each device has a dedicated point-to-point

connection with only the two devices on either side of it.

 A signal is passed along the ring in one direction, from device to

device, until it reaches its destination.

 Each device in the ring incorporates a repeater.

 When a device receives a signal intended for another device, its

repeater regenerates the bits and passes them along

58
Contd.

 A ring is relatively easy to install and reconfigure.

 Each device is linked to only its immediate neighbors (either physically or
logically).
 To add or delete a device requires changing only two connections.
59
Contd.
 The only constraints are media and traffic considerations

(maximum ring length and number of devices).

 Generally in a ring, a signal is circulating at all times.

 In a simple ring, a break in the ring (such as a disabled station) can

disable the entire network.

 Today, the need for higher-speed LANs has made this topology less

popular.

60
D. Mesh topology
 In a mesh topology, every device has a dedicated point-to-point link

to every other device.

 To find the number of physical links .

 Node 1 must be connected to n - I nodes, node 2 must be connected to n –

1 nodes, and finally node n must be connected to n - 1 nodes.

 We need n(n - 1) physical links.

 However, if each physical link allows communication in both

directions (duplex mode), we can divide the number of links by 2.

In other words, we can say that in a mesh topology,
61
 we need n(n -1) /2 duplex-mode links.
Contd.
 One practical example of a mesh topology is the connection of telephone
regional offices in which each regional office needs to be connected to
every other regional office

Mesh topology

62
 E. Hybrid Topology
 A network can be hybrid the collection of other Network topology

 For example, we can have a main star topology with each branch

connecting several stations in a bus topology (star-bus topology)

63
Network Models by Capability
1. Client/Server Model
 Microcomputer users, or clients, share services of a centralized
computer called a server.

64
Contd.
2. Peer-to-Peer Model

 Computers share equally with one another without having to rely on a

central server.

65
 Client-server model

Fig. Two clients using a single server at a time

66
 Client/Server vs. Peer-to-Peer: Advantages and
Disadvantages
Client/Server Model Peer-to-Peer Model
Advantages: Advantages:
Very secure OS. Uses less expensive networks.
Better performance. Easy to administer.
Centralized servers, easy Contain both network operating
to manage. system and application software.
Centralized backups. Ideal for small business and home
High reliability. users (up to 10 computers).

Disadvantages: Disadvantages:
Expensive administration. Individual user performance easily
More hardware intensive. affected.
Not very secure.
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Hard to back up.
 Network Models
 Two Types Network Models:

 OSI and

 TCP/IP

 OSI (Open System Interconnect) consists of 7 layers:

 Application Set (Application, Presentation and Session)

 Transport Set (Transport , Network, Data link and Physical)

68
 OSI model

 The OSI model is divided into two layers: upper layers and
lower layers.

 The upper layer of the OSI model mainly deals with the
application related issues, and they are implemented only in the
software.

 The application layer is closest to the end user.

 Both the end user and the application layer interact with the
software applications.

 An upper layer refers to the layer just above another layer.

69
 OSI model Cont…..

 The lower layer of the OSI model deals with the data transport issues.

 The data link layer and the physical layer are implemented in
hardware and software.

 The physical layer is the lowest layer of the OSI model and is closest
to the physical medium.

 The physical layer is mainly responsible for placing the information

on the physical medium.

70
 The OSI reference model Cont…

 Network software operates at many different levels within the

sending and receiving computers.

 Each of these levels, or tasks, is governed by one or more

protocols.

 These protocols, or rules of behaviour, are standard

specifications for formatting and moving the data.

71
 The OSI reference model Cont…

 When the sending and receiving computers follow the same

protocols, communication is assured.

 For example, a protocol that is responsible for sending an

email from one mail server to another is very different from a
protocol that is responsible for transmitting the binary 1s and
0s onto the network cabling.

72
 OSI - a layered architecture

 The OSI reference model architecture divides network

communication into seven layers. Each layer covers different
network activities, equipment, or protocols.

 Layering specifies different functions and services as data moves

from one computer through the network cabling to another
computer.

 The OSI reference model defines how each layer communicates

and works with the layers immediately above and below it.

 For example, the session layer communicates and works with the
presentation and transport layers. 73
 The 7 layers of the OSI reference model

 Each layer provides some service or action that prepares the

data for delivery over the network to another computer.

74
 TCP/IP Model
 The TCP/IP protocol suite was • Troubleshooting,
Application file sharing,
developed prior to the OSI model. internet

 Therefore, the layers in the

Transport
• Flow control, error
TCP/IP protocol suite do not control
match exactly with those in the
OSI model. • IP addressing and
Internet routing of network
traffic
 The original TCP/IP protocol
suite was defined as four layers.
Network • Interface with the
Today, however, TCP/IP is Access physical network

thought of as a five-layer model. 75

Comparison between OSI and TCP/IP

OSI Model TCP/IP Model

Application

Presentation Application
Session

Transport Transport
Network
Internet
Data Link
Network Access
Physical

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 Transmission Media
 Physical paths for the communication signal

 Two categories: guided and unguided

 Guided media or bounded media use cables (copper or

optical fibber ) to guide the signals.

 Unguided media transmit the signal through space.

E.g. wireless LAN, infra-red, radio wave, microwave

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 Guide media
Coaxial Cable
 ThickNet coaxial cable

 Max. segment length = 500 m

 Min. distance b/n receivers = 2.5 m

 Max. number of nodes / segment = 100

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 ThinEthernet
 Max segment length = 185m

 Max devices per segment = 30

 Max.distance between connections = 0.5 m

 BNC Connector

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 Advantages of coaxial cables:
 Highly insensitive to electromagnetic interference (EMI)

 Supports high bandwidths

 Heavier types of coax are sturdy and can withstand harsh environments

 Mature technology

Disadvantages of coaxial cables

 They are still vulnerable to EMI in harsh conditions such as factories.

 Coax can be bulky

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 Twisted Pair (TP) Cables
 TP consist of color-coded pairs of insulated copper wires (Ø= 0.4

to 0.8 mm) twisted around one another.

 Twisting the wires reduces susceptibility to crosstalk and noise.

 There are two types:

 Shielded Twisted Pair (STP), and

 Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP)

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 STP includes metal shielding over each individual pair of copper
wires.
 Shielding protects cable from external Electromagnetic
Interferences (EMI) can be used in noisy area.
 Standard for IBM Token Ring networks and for Apple's LocalTalk.

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 UTP:
 contains no shielding

 includes four pairs of wires enclosed in a common sheath

 is a very flexible, low cost media, and can be used for either

voice or data communications

 is widely used for cabling LANs

 uses RJ connectors

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 Advantages of TPs
 Telephone cable standards are mature

 Possible to use in-place telephone wiring if it is of sufficiently high

quality.
 UTP represents the lowest cost cabling.

Disadvantages of TPs
 STP can be expensive and difficult to work with.

 UTP may be unsuitable for use in high-EMI environments.

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 Fiber-Optic Cables
Fiber-optic cables consist of:
 a fine cylinder of glass (core)
 surrounded by another glass cylinder (cladding). Cladding
has lower index of refraction than core.
 layers of protective materials

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 Advantages of Optical Fiber Cables

 Are lighter and occupy smaller spaces

 Offer very high bandwidth
 Longer cable run
 Are immune to EMI => suitable in noisy areas
 Not possible to intercept =>extremely secure

Disadvantages of Optical Fiber Cables

 Require greater skill
 Is expensive compared to the other media

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 Unguided Media
 Radiate electromagnetic energy from antennae.

 Different Technologies:

Infrared – for very short distance (e.g. remote control)

Radio wave – omni directional, 3kHz-1GHz

o Lower frequency signals are reflected off the

ionosphere
o above 30MHz are not reflected =>line of sight

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 Microwave
 Terrestrial

 line of sight of parabolic dish antenna

 Series of relay stations

 For voice and television transmission and private communications

and telephone networks, e.g. emergency services, utilities etc.

 2 to 40 GHz but is susceptible to attenuation (esp. the higher range)

and interference
 Attenuation can rise markedly in poor atmospheric conditions, e.g.

rain

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 Satellite
 No line of sight problems

 can be used for point to point or broadcast transmission

 uses a downlink frequency of 4GHz and an uplink frequency

of 6GHz

 Typical use: television distribution, long distance telephone

transmission, and private business networks for global

organizations

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 Thank You!!

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