1. What is computer Network?

Ans: A computer network is a group of computers that share resources and communicate with
each other using common protocols. Computers in a network are connected by physical wires,
optical fibers, or radio-frequency signals.
How do computers communicate in a network?

 Computers use communication protocols to send and receive data

 Network addresses identify computers in a network
 Hostnames are memorable labels for computers in a network
 Address Resolution Protocol (ARP) converts IP addresses to physical addresses

Types of computer networks

 Local Area Network (LAN): A network that connects computers in a single building or
office. LANs are used for local data transmission.

  Wide Area Network (WAN): A network that connects computers over a large geographic
area, such as a city, country, or the world. WANs are used for long-distance communication. The
internet is a common example of a WAN.
  Personal Area Network (PAN): A type of computer network
  Metropolitan Area Network (MAN): A type of computer network
Network operating systems

 Network operating systems (NOS) are special operating systems that support network
activities, file and data sharing, and network security. Examples of NOS include
Windows Server and Cisco.

2. Differences between Computer Networks and Distributed

Systems. The primary purpose of computer networks is to enable communication and
resource sharing among devices. Distributed systems are designed to perform complex tasks by
distributing the workload across multiple nodes.

Connection-oriented and connectionless are two ways to send data between

devices on a network. Connection-oriented services are more reliable, but connectionless
services are faster.
Connection-oriented
  Connection establishment: A connection is established between the sender and receiver
before data is sent.

  Connection maintenance: The connection is maintained throughout the communication.

  Connection termination: The connection is released after the communication is
complete.
  Reliability: Connection-oriented services are more reliable because they ensure the
sequence and reliability of data transmission.
  Examples: Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) is an example of a connection-oriented
protocol.

Connectionless

 Connection establishment: No connection is established between the sender and

receiver before data is sent.

  Packet transmission: Each packet is sent as an independent unit.

  Packet delivery: There is no guarantee that all packets will be delivered, or that they will
be delivered in order.
  Reliability: Connectionless services are less reliable because they don't perform error
checking or flow control.
  Examples: User Datagram Protocol (UDP) is an example of a connectionless protocol.

Service Primitives: Service generally includes set of various primitives. A primitive simply
means Operations. A Service is specified by set of primitives that are available and given to user or other
various entities to access the service. All these primitives simply tell the service to perform some action
or to report on action that is taken by peer entity.
OSI Model
 OSI stands for Open System Interconnection is a reference model that describes how
information from a software application in one computer moves through a physical
medium to the software application in another computer.
 OSI consists of seven layers, and each layer performs a particular network function.
 OSI model was developed by the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) in
1984, and it is now considered as an architectural model for the inter-computer
communications.
 OSI model divides the whole task into seven smaller and manageable tasks. Each layer is
assigned a particular task.
 Each layer is self-contained, so that task assigned to each layer can be performed
independently.

Protocols Used in the OSI Layers

Protocol Data
Layer Working Protocols
Unit
1 – Physical Establishing Physical Connections USB, SONET/SDH,
Bits
Layer between Devices. etc.
 Protocol Data
Layer Working Protocols
Unit
2 – Data Link
Node to Node Delivery of Message. Frames Ethernet, PPP, etc.
Layer
3 – Network Transmission of data from one host to IP, ICMP, IGMP,
Packets
Layer another, located in different networks. OSPF, etc.
Take Service from Network Layer Segments (for
4 – Transport TCP, UDP, SCTP,
and provide it to the Application TCP) or Datagrams
Layer etc.
Layer. (for UDP)
Establishes Connection, Maintenance,
5 – Session NetBIOS, RPC,
Ensures Authentication and Ensures Data
Layer PPTP, etc.
security.
6 – Data from the application layer is TLS/SSL, MIME,
Presentation extracted and manipulated in the Data JPEG, PNG, ASCII,
Layer required format for transmission. etc.
7 – Application Helps in identifying the client and FTP, SMTP, DNS,
Data
Layer synchronizing communication. DHCP, etc.

Advantages of OSI Model

The OSI Model defines the communication of a computing system into 7 different layers. Its
advantages include:

 It divides network communication into 7 layers which makes it easier to understand and
troubleshoot.

 It standardizes network communications, as each layer has fixed functions and protocols.

 Diagnosing network problems is easier with the OSI model.

 It is easier to improve with advancements as each layer can get updates separately.

Disadvantages of OSI Model

 The OSI Model has seven layers, which can be complicated and hard to understand for
beginners.

 In real-life networking, most systems use a simpler model called the Internet protocol suite
(TCP/IP), so the OSI Model is not always directly applicable.

 Each layer in the OSI Model adds its own set of rules and operations, which can make the
process more time-consuming and less efficient.

 The OSI Model is more of a theoretical framework, meaning it’s great for understanding
concepts but not always practical for implementation.
Difference Between OSI and TCP/IP Model
OSI Model TCP/IP Model
TCP/IP stands for Transmission Control
OSI stands for Open Systems Interconnection.
Protocol/Internet Protocol.
OSI model has 7 layers. TCP/IP model consists of 4 layers.
Package delivery is not guaranteed in the TCP/IP
Package delivery is guaranteed in OSI Model.
Model.
In the OSI model, only layers 1,2 and 3 are All layers of the TCP/IP model are needed for
necessary for data transmission. data transmission.
Protocols at each layer is independent of the Layers are integrated; some layers are required by
other layer. other layers of TCP/IP model.
OSI Model is a conceptual framework, less Widely used in actual networks like Internet and
used in practical applications. Communication Systems.

internet architecture
The internet architecture is made up of several layers, including the application layer, transport layer,
link layer, and the physical layer. It also includes different types of network architectures, such as client-
server architecture and cloud-based architecture.

The Internet architecture is based on a simple idea: ask all networks to carry a single packet
type, a specific format, the IP protocol. Besides, this IP packet must have an address defined
with sufficient generality to identify each computer and terminals scattered throughout the world.
This architecture is illustrated in Figure.
Types of Transmission Media
Last Updated : 27 Dec, 2024

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Transmission media refers to the physical medium through which data is transmitted from one
device to another within a network. These medium can be wired or wireless. The choice of
medium depends on factors like distance, speed, and interference. In this article, we will discuss
the transmission media. In this article we will see types of transmission media in detail.

What is Transmission Media in Computer Networks?

A transmission medium is a physical path between the transmitter and the receiver i.e. it is the
channel through which data is sent from one device to another. Transmission Media is broadly
classified into the following types:

1. Guided Media

Guided Media is also referred to as Wired or Bounded transmission media. Signals being
transmitted are directed and confined in a narrow pathway by using physical links.

Features:

 High Speed

 Secure

 Used for comparatively shorter distances

There are 3 major types of Guided Media:

Twisted Pair Cable

It consists of 2 separately insulated conductor wires wound about each other. Generally, several
such pairs are bundled together in a protective sheath. They are the most widely used
Transmission Media. Twisted Pair is of two types:

 Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP):UTP consists of two insulated copper wires twisted around one
another. This type of cable has the ability to block interference and does not depend on a
physical shield for this purpose. It is used for telephonic applications.

Unshielded Twisted Pair

Advantages of Unshielded Twisted Pair

 Least expensive

 Easy to install

 High-speed capacity

Disadvantages of Unshielded Twisted Pair

 Lower capacity and performance in comparison to STP

 Short distance transmission due to attenuation

Shielded Twisted Pair

Shielded Twisted Pair (STP): Shielded Twisted Pair (STP) cable consists of a special jacket (a
copper braid covering or a foil shield) to block external interference. It is used in fast-data-rate
Ethernet and in voice and data channels of telephone lines.

Advantages of Shielded Twisted Pair

 Better performance at a higher data rate in comparison to UTP

 Eliminates crosstalk

 Comparatively faster

Disadvantages of Shielded Twisted Pair

 Comparatively difficult to install and manufacture

 More expensive

 Bulky

Coaxial Cable

Coaxial cable has an outer plastic covering containing an insulation layer made of PVC or Teflon
and 2 parallel conductors each having a separate insulated protection cover. The coaxial cable
transmits information in two modes: Baseband mode(dedicated cable bandwidth) and Broadband
mode(cable bandwidth is split into separate ranges). Cable TVs and analog television networks
widely use Coaxial cables.
Advantages of Coaxial Cable

 Coaxial cables has high bandwidth .

 It is easy to install.

 Coaxial cables are more reliable and durable.

 Less affected by noise or cross-talk or electromagnetic inference.

 Coaxial cables support multiple channels

Disadvantages of Coaxial Cable

 Coaxial cables are expensive.

 The coaxial cable must be grounded in order to prevent any crosstalk.

 As a Coaxial cable has multiple layers it is very bulky.

 There is a chance of breaking the coaxial cable and attaching a “t-joint” by hackers, this
compromises the security of the data.

Optical Fiber Cable

Optical Fibre Cable uses the concept total internal reflection of light through a core made up of
glass. The core is surrounded by a less dense glass or plastic covering called the coating. It is
used for the transmission of large volumes of data. The cable can be unidirectional or
bidirectional. The WDM (Wavelength Division Multiplexer) supports two modes, namely
unidirectional and bidirectional mode.

Advantages of Optical Fibre Cable

 Increased capacity and bandwidth

  Lightweight

 Less signal attenuation

 Immunity to electromagnetic interference

 Resistance to corrosive materials

Disadvantages of Optical Fibre Cable

 Difficult to install and maintain

 High cost

Applications of Optical Fibre Cable

 Medical Purpose: Used in several types of medical instruments.

 Defence Purpose: Used in transmission of data in aerospace.

 For Communication: This is largely used in formation of internet cables.

 Industrial Purpose: Used for lighting purposes and safety measures in designing the interior and
exterior of automobiles.

Stripline

Stripline is a transverse electromagnetic (TEM) transmission line medium invented by Robert M.

Barrett of the Air Force Cambridge Research Centre in the 1950s. Stripline is the earliest form of
the planar transmission line. It uses a conducting material to transmit high-frequency waves it is
also called a waveguide. This conducting material is sandwiched between two layers of the
ground plane which are usually shorted to provide EMI immunity.

Microstripline

A microstripline is a type of transmission media used to carry high-frequency signals,

commonly found in microwave and radio frequency circuits. It consists of a flat, narrow
conducting strip (usually made of metal) placed on top of a dielectric material (an insulating
layer), with a metal ground plane on the other side.

2. Unguided Media

It is also referred to as Wireless or Unbounded transmission media . No physical medium is

required for the transmission of electromagnetic signals.
Features of Unguided Media

 The signal is broadcasted through air

 Less Secure

 Used for larger distances

There are 3 types of Signals transmitted through unguided media:

Radio Waves

Radio waves are easy to generate and can penetrate through buildings. The sending and receiving
antennas need not be aligned. Frequency Range:3KHz – 1GHz. AM and FM radios and cordless
phones use Radio waves for transmission.

Radiowave

Microwaves

It is a line of sight transmission i.e. the sending and receiving antennas need to be properly
aligned with each other. The distance covered by the signal is directly proportional to the height
of the antenna. Frequency Range:1GHz – 300GHz. Micro waves are majorly used for mobile
phone communication and television distribution.
Infrared

Infrared waves are used for very short distance communication. They cannot penetrate through
obstacles. This prevents interference between systems. Frequency Range:300GHz – 400THz. It
is used in TV remotes, wireless mouse, keyboard, printer, etc.

Difference Between Radio Waves, Micro Waves, and Infrared Waves

Basis Radiowave Microwave Infrared wave

These are
These are omni-directional in These are unidirectional in
Direction unidirectional in
nature. nature.
nature.

At low frequency, they can

At low frequency, they can
penetrate through solid They cannot penetrate
penetrate through solid objects
Penetration objects and walls. at high through any solid
and walls but high frequency
frequency, they cannot object and walls.
they bounce off the obstacle.
penetrate.

Frequency range: 3 KHz to Frequency range: 1 GHz to 300 Frequency range: 300
Frequency range
1GHz. GHz. GHz to 400 GHz.

These offers high

Security These offers poor security. These offers medium security.
security.

Attenuation Attenuation is high. Attenuation is variable. Attenuation is low.

Government Some frequencies in the radio- Some frequencies in the There is no need of
License waves require government microwaves require government license to
license to use these. government license to use
Basis Radiowave Microwave Infrared wave

these. use these waves.

Setup and usage Cost is

Usage Cost Setup and usage Cost is high. Usage Cost is very less.
moderate.

These are not used in

These are used in long distance These are used in long
Communication long distance
communication. distance communication.
communication.

Circuit switching is a network configuration that creates a dedicated path between two
endpoints for the duration of a connection. It's a connection-oriented technology that's used for
voice phone service and early videoconferencing systems.
How it works

 Before two nodes can communicate, a dedicated circuit is established between them.

  The circuit guarantees the full bandwidth of the channel for the duration of the
communication session.
  Once the connection is established, the data is transmitted exclusively over the dedicated
channel.
  When the connection ends, the circuit is returned to the network's pool.

Advantages

 Reliable and predictable communication flow

 Fixed bandwidth
 Essential for real-time, continuous data transmission

Disadvantages Expensive to set up and maintain, Susceptible to failure, Not suitable for high
traffic, and Inefficient resource utilization.
History

 Circuit switching originated in analog telephone networks

 Alexander Bell built his telephone using circuit switching technology
Packet switching is a method of transferring data across computer networks by breaking it into
packets and sending them individually. Packets can take different paths to their destination, and
are reassembled at the receiving end.
How it works

 Packet creation

Data is divided into packets, which are made up of a header and a payload. The header
contains information about the packet, such as its destination address.

  Packet transmission
Packets are sent across the network, and can take different paths to their destination.
  Packet reception
Packets are received by networking hardware, such as switches and routers.
  Packet reassembly
Once all the packets for a file have arrived, they are reassembled into the original file.

Benefits

 Efficient routing

Packets can take different paths to their destination, allowing for efficient routing.

  Resource allocation
Packet switching allocates resources as needed, using statistical multiplexing and dynamic
bandwidth allocation.
  Minimized transmission latency
Packet switching minimizes transmission latency by dividing data into small, variable-length
units.


Challenges

 Variable latency: Packet switching can introduce variable latency due to different
routing paths and network conditions. This can be problematic for time-sensitive services
like voice or video communications.

Data Link Layer Design Issue:

The data link layer in the OSI (Open System Interconnections) Model, is in between the physical
layer and the network layer. This layer converts the raw transmission facility provided by the
physical layer to a reliable and error-free link.

The main functions and the design issues of this layer are

 Providing services to the network layer

 Framing
 Error Control
 Flow Control
Services to the Network Layer

In the OSI Model, each layer uses the services of the layer below it and provides services to the
layer above it. The data link layer uses the services offered by the physical layer.The primary
function of this layer is to provide a well defined service interface to network layer above it.

The types of services provided can be of three types −

 Unacknowledged connectionless service

 Acknowledged connectionless service
 Acknowledged connection - oriented service

Framing

The data link layer encapsulates each data packet from the network layer into frames that are
then transmitted.

A frame has three parts, namely −

 Frame Header
 Payload field that contains the data packet from network layer
 Trailer

Error Control

The data link layer ensures error free link for data transmission. The issues it caters to with
respect to error control are −

 Dealing with transmission errors

 Sending acknowledgement frames in reliable connections
 Retransmitting lost frames
 Identifying duplicate frames and deleting them
 Controlling access to shared channels in case of broadcasting
Flow Control

The data link layer regulates flow control so that a fast sender does not drown a slow receiver.
When the sender sends frames at very high speeds, a slow receiver may not be able to handle it.
There will be frame losses even if the transmission is error-free. The two common approaches
for flow control are −

 Feedback based flow control

 Rate based flow control

Framing Methods:

Methods of Framing :
There are basically four methods of framing as given below –

1. Character Count
2. Flag Byte with Character Stuffing
3. Starting and Ending Flags, with Bit Stuffing
4. Encoding Violations

These are explained as following below.

1. Character Count :
This method is rarely used and is generally required to count total number of characters
that are present in frame. This is be done by using field in header. Character count
method ensures data link layer at the receiver or destination about total number of
characters that follow, and about where the frame ends.

There is disadvantage also of using this method i.e., if anyhow character count is
disturbed or distorted by an error occurring during transmission, then destination or
receiver might lose synchronization. The destination or receiver might also be not able to
locate or identify beginning of next frame.
2. Character Stuffing :
Character stuffing is also known as byte stuffing or character-oriented framing and is
same as that of bit stuffing but byte stuffing actually operates on bytes whereas bit
stuffing operates on bits. In byte stuffing, special byte that is basically known as ESC
(Escape Character) that has predefined pattern is generally added to data section of the
data stream or frame when there is message or character that has same pattern as that of
flag byte.

But receiver removes this ESC and keeps data part that causes some problems or issues.
In simple words, we can say that character stuffing is addition of 1 additional byte if there
is presence of ESC or flag in text.
3. Bit Stuffing :
Bit stuffing is also known as bit-oriented framing or bit-oriented approach. In bit stuffing,
extra bits are being added by network protocol designers to data streams. It is generally
insertion or addition of extra bits into transmission unit or message to be transmitted as
simple way to provide and give signaling information and data to receiver and to avoid or
ignore appearance of unintended or unnecessary control sequences.

It is type of protocol management simply performed to break up bit pattern that results in
transmission to go out of synchronization. Bit stuffing is very essential part of
transmission process in network and communication protocol. It is also required in USB.

4. Physical Layer Coding Violations :

Encoding violation is method that is used only for network in which encoding on physical
medium includes some sort of redundancy i.e., use of more than one graphical or visual
structure to simply encode or represent one variable of data.
What is Sliding Window Protocol?

The Sliding Window Protocol is a key computer networking technique for controlling the flow of
data between two devices. It guarantees that data is sent consistently and effectively, allowing
many packets to be sent before requiring an acknowledgment for the first, maximizing the use of
available bandwidth.

Terminologies Related to Sliding Window Protocol

Transmission Delay (Tt) – Time to transmit the packet from the host to the outgoing link. If B
is the Bandwidth of the link and D is the Data Size to transmit

Tt = D/B

Propagation Delay (Tp) – It is the time taken by the first bit transferred by the host onto the
outgoing link to reach the destination. It depends on the distance d and the wave propagation
speed s (depends on the characteristics of the medium).
 Tp = d/s

Efficiency – It is defined as the ratio of total useful time to the total cycle time of a packet. For
stop and wait protocol,

Total time(TT) = Tt(data) + Tp(data) +

Tt(acknowledgement) + Tp(acknowledgement)
= Tt(data) + Tp(data) + Tp(acknowledgement)
= Tt + 2*Tp

Since acknowledgements are very less in size, their transmission delay can be neglected.

Advantages of Sliding Window Protocol

 Efficiency: The sliding window protocol is an efficient method of transmitting data across a
network because it allows multiple packets to be transmitted at the same time. This increases
the overall throughput of the network.

 Reliable: The protocol ensures reliable delivery of data, by requiring the receiver to
acknowledge receipt of each packet before the next packet can be transmitted. This helps to
avoid data loss or corruption during transmission.

 Flexibility: The sliding window protocol is a flexible technique that can be used with different
types of network protocols and topologies, including wireless networks, Ethernet, and IP
networks.

 Congestion Control: The sliding window protocol can also help control network congestion by
adjusting the size of the window based on the network conditions.

Disadvantages of Sliding Window Protocol

 Complexity: The sliding window protocol can be complex to implement and can require a lot of
memory and processing power to operate efficiently.

 Delay: The protocol can introduce a delay in the transmission of data, as each packet must be
acknowledged before the next packet can be transmitted. This delay can increase the overall
latency of the network.

 Limited Bandwidth Utilization: The sliding window protocol may not be able to utilize the full
available bandwidth of the network, particularly in high-speed networks, due to the overhead of
the protocol.

 Window Size Limitations: The maximum size of the sliding window can be limited by the size of
the receiver’s buffer or the available network resources, which can affect the overall
performance of the protocol.