Experimental Psychology

(Research in Psychology: Methods and Design, 8th Edition

Chapter 1: Scientific Thinking in

Psychology
draw a sound or good conclusion.

I. Why take this course? - Requires being able to judge the

quality of the evidence used to
A. The difference between the support a claim being fair and
methods course and other courses unbiased when examining
in the psychology curriculum is conflicting claims and drawing
essentially the difference reasonable conclusions based on
between process and content. the evidence at hand.

 Through research, you will - You will learn to become skeptical

be able to be familiar with about the claims.
all the languages describe
in studies and asking those C. There is a practical reason for taking a
“next step” kinds of research methods course; hence, a
questions. course in methodology is an obvious
first step to learning the necessary skills.
B. Knowledge of research methods
will make you a more informed - The methods course was ranked
and critical thinker. Any good second just behind statistics, while
course in psychology will specific content courses (e.g.,
improve your thinking skills, but developmental and abnormal
a methodology course will be psychology) lagged far behind and
especially effective at enhancing were not even required by many
your skills in evaluating research programs.
and claims about psychology that
appear to be based on research. D. A course in research methods
introduces you to a particular type of
 Critical Thinking thinking.
- A form of precise
thinking “in which a - Other psychology courses deals
person reasons about with specific content areas and
relevant evidence to
 concentrate on what is known about - The value of logically drawn
topic X. On the other hand, the conclusion depends on the truth of
methods course, focuses more on the premises, and it takes more
the process by which knowledge of than logic to determine whether
X is acquired. the premises have merit.

- According to Charles Peirce,

another difficulty with the use of
II. Ways of Knowing reason and logic is that it can be
used to reach opposing
A. Authority conclusions.

- Accept the validity of  Priori Method

information from a source - The use of reason, and a
that we judge to be an developing consensus
expert, then we are relying among those debating the
on authority as a source of merits of one belief over
our knowledge. another for acquiring
knowledge.
- On the contrary, relying on
the authority of others to - Beliefs are deduced from
establish our beliefs statements about what is
overlooks the fact that thought to be true
authorities can be wrong; according to the rules of
hence, an important aspect logic. That is, a belief
of the attitude of a critical develops as the result of
thinker is the willingness to logical argument, before
question authority. a person has direct
experience with the
phenomenon at hand.
B. Use of Reason
- A priori is translated
- Statements are sometimes from the Latin as “from
called premises. what comes before”

- The conclusion depends of - This method was favored

the truth of the first two by metaphysical
statements. philosophers, who could
reason eloquently to
reach some truth, only to
 be contradicted by other knowledge, and hold on
philosophers who doggedly to a belief,
reasoned just as even in the face of
eloquently to the evidence that would
opposite truth. convince most people
that the belief is false.
- The outcome of the a
priori approach is that the - It is likely that these
philosophical beliefs go beliefs form when the
in and out of fashion, individual hears some
with no real “progress” “truth” being
toward truth. continuously repeated, in
the absence of contrary
information.
C. Empiricism
- Strongly held prejudices
- The process of learning things include both belief
through direct observation or perseverance and
experience, and reflection on confirmation bias.
those experiences; however, our
experiences are necessarily  Availability Heuristic
limited and our interpretations of - Occurs when we
our experiences can be experience unusual or
influenced by a number of very memorable events
“social cognition biases” and then overestimate
how often such events
 Confirmation Bias typically occur.
- Tendency to seek and
pay special attention to - For instance, some
information that supports people cannot believe the
one’s beliefs, while fact that air travel is
ignoring information that considerably safer than
contradicts a belief. travel by automobile.

- Often combines with - Similarly, such instance

belief perseverance. is also relevant to the
belief of students that the
 Belief Perseverance most frequent outcome of
- Motivated by a desire to answer changing is that
be certain about one’s an initially correct
 answer will be changed or a favored methodology long
to a wrong one. Students after others have abandoned it,
tend to hold that belief and they occasionally seem to be
because it is painful; less than willing to entertain new
thus, memorable. ideas.

- “go with your initial gut - Thomas Kuhn (1970) argued

feeling” refers as the that refusing to give up on a
“first instinct” fallacy. theory, in the face of a few
experiments questioning that
- Our experiences can be an theory’s validity, can have the
indispensable and important guide beneficial effect of ensuring that
to life’s difficulties, but we also the theory receives a thorough
need to be aware of their limits. evaluation.

- Scientists are guided by the motto

D. The Ways of Knowing and Science engraved on the entrance to the
headquarters of the British Royal
- According to Charles Peirce, the Society—“Nullius in Verba” —
most reliable way to develop a which encourages them to “take
belief. Its procedures allow us to nobody’s word for it; see for
know “real things, whose yourself”
characters are entirely
independent of our opinions - Although scientific thinking
about them” includes elements of the
nonscientific ways of knowing
- Moreover, Peirce believed that described thus far, it has a number
the chief advantage of science is of distinct attributes. It is to the
in its objectivity. To be objective nature of science that we now
means to avoid completely any turn.
human bias or preconception.

- Modern philosophers of science

recognize that because scientists
III. Science as a Way of Knowing
are just as human as everyone
else, the ideal of a pure
objectivity among scientists is  Determinism – Events, including
psychological ones, have causes.
impossible.

- Concerning bias, scientists  Discoverability – Using agreed-

sometimes hold to a pet theory upon scientific methods, these
 causes can be discovered with - In statistical determinism,
some degree of confidence. argues that events can be
predicted, but only with a
 Even with the best probability greater than chance.
methods, research Research psychologists take
psychologists do not this position and use this
expect to predict definition of determinism in
psychological phenomena their science.
with 100% certainty, but
they have faith that - The concept of determinism,
psychological phenomena even the “less than 100%”
occur with some regularity variety, is troubling because it
and that the regularities seems to require that we
can be investigated abandon our belief in free will.
successfully.
- If every event has a cause, so
the argument goes, ”how can
A. Science Assumes Determinism one course of action be freely
chosen over another?”
- Students sometimes assume— Moreover, psychologists would
after reading that human reply, “if determinism is not
behavior as “determined” —it true at least to some degree,
means “predestined” or then how can we ever know
“predetermined” or that anything about behavior?”
“determinism” is contrasted There are multiple factors
with “free will” influencing behavior, and it is
difficult to know for sure what
- A believer in absolute someone will do at any one
predestination thinks that every moment. Nonetheless, behavior
event us determined ahead of follows certain patterns and is
time, perhaps by God, and clearly predictable.
develops a fatalistic conviction
that one can do little but accept - Whether the choices we make
life as it presents itself; in life are freely made or not is
however, the traditional a philosophical matter, and our
concept of determinism personal belief about free will
contends simply that all events must be an individual decision,
have causes. arrived at through the use of
reason.
 - A belief in free will has value, C. Science Produces Public Knowledge
perhaps increasing the chances
that people will behave - It can be publicly verified.
ethically.
- Emphasized objectivity
- Encouraging a belief in
determinism increased the - Being objective meant
eliminating such human factors
tendency for subjects to cheat
as expectation and bias.
on academic-type tasks,
whereas subjects believing in
- Today, however, nobody
free will and reading believes that scientists can
statements promoting free will separate themselves from their
were less likely to cheat. already‐existing attitudes, and
to be objective does not mean
to be devoid of such normal
B. Science Makes Systematic human characteristics. Rather,
Observations an objective observation, as the
term is used in science, is
- A major attribute of science as simply one that can be verified
a way of knowing is the by more than one observer.
manner which science goes
about the business of searching - In science this usually takes the
for regularities in nature. form of defining the terms and
research procedures precisely
enough so that any other
- The scientist’s systematic
person can repeat the study,
observations include using: (a)
presumably achieving the same
precise definitions (a) precise observable outcome.
definitions of the phenomena
being measured, (b) reliable  Replication
and valid measuring tools that - Process of repeating a
yield useful and interpretable study to determine if
data, (c) generally accepted its result occur
research methodologies, and reliably.
(d) a system of logic for
drawing conclusions and fitting - A failure to replicate
those conclusions into general is also how scientific
theories. fraud is sometimes
suspected and then
uncovered.
 - Replication of study - The problem with
have rules which are introspection was that
presented in great detail although introspectors
in the Publication underwent rigorous
Manual of the training that sought to
American eliminate bias in their
Psychological self‐observations, the
Association (American method was
Psychological fundamentally
Association, 2010), a subjective—I cannot
useful resource for verify your
anyone reporting introspections and you
research results or cannot verify mine.
writing any other type
of psychology paper. - If psychology was to be
truly “scientific,”
Watson argued, it
- Moreover, when psychology needed to drop
first emerged as a new science, introspection and
it defined itself as the “science measure something that
of mental life” and one of its was directly observable
early method was and could therefore be
introspection. verified objectively. For
Watson, the answer was
 Introspection simple: just measure
- Varied considerably behavior.
from one laboratory to
another, but it was
basically a form of D. Science Produces Data-Based
precise self-report. Conclusions

- The difficulty in - Researchers are data driven as

keeping multiple tasks they expect conclusions about
equally “clear in behavior to be supported by
consciousness” led evidence gathered through
Dallenbach to conclude some systematic procedure.
that attention was
severely limited, a
- Researchers try to judge
finding later
whether the data given to
rediscovered by later
research on “selective” support claim are adequate for
attention. the claim to be made.
 Sir Francis Galton E. Science Produces Tentative
- A 19th‐century British Conclusions
jack‐of‐all‐sciences,
whose interests ranged - Conclusions drawn from data
from geography to are always tentative, subject to
meteorology to revision based on future
psychology. research.

- Was obsessed with the - According to Damasio (1994),

idea of collecting data science is self-correcting
and making data‐based enterprise and its conclusions
conclusions. Thus, he are not absolute, yet there is
once measured interest confidence that research will
in various theater eventually get one ever closer
productions by counting to the truth; thus, the tentative
the number of yawns nature of scientific research is a
that he could detect feature of scientific thinking
during performances. that is often difficult for the
general public to understand.
- Like his cousin, Charles
Darwin, Galton was - Compared to most people,
skeptical about religion scientists have a relatively high
and decided to test tolerance for ambiguity and a
empirically the notion willingness to be patient with
that prayers “worked.”; the progress of science.
hence, he was
understandably - Beliefs not based in science
criticized for his rather tend to be resistant to change,
simplistic idea of the because they bring social
purpose of prayer, and cognition biases into play.
his article on prayer Beliefs rooted in scientific
was initially rejected methodology, however, are
(three times) as being always subject to change based
“too terribly conclusive on new data.
and offensive not to
raise a hornet’s nest” - We should always be open to
new data and new ideas,
willing to change our minds in
the face of good (i.e.,
scientifically sound) evidence.
F. Science Asks Answerable Questions hypotheses are statements
about what a scientists think
- Empirical questions are those may occur in a particular
that can answered through situation.
systematic observations and
techniques that characterize  Theory
scientific methodology. They - Hypotheses
are questions that are precise sometimes develop as
enough to allow specific logical deductions
predictions to be made. from a theory.

- We can begin to get an idea - Defined as a set of

about what constitutes statements that
empirical questions, however, summarize what is
by contrasting them with known about some
questions that cannot be phenomena and
answered empirically. For propose working
instance, on whether the mind explanations for those
and the body are two separate phenomena.
essences or one is simply not
an empirical question. - A critically important
However, a number of attribute of a good
empirical questions can be theory is that it must
asked that are related to the be precise enough so
mind‐body issue, including that it can be refuted,
asking about the influence of at least in principle.
This concept is often
mental activity (mind) on
referred to as
physical health (body)
falsification.

 Falsification
G. Science Develops Theories That Can
- Theories must
Be Falsified generate hypotheses
producing research
- When designing research results that could
studies, an early step in the come out as the
process is to reshape the hypothesis predicts
empirical question into a (i.e., support the
hypothesis. hypothesis and
increase confidence in
- Empirical questions are just the theory) or could
that, questions, whereas come out differently
 (i.e., fail to support
the hypothesis and A. Recognizing Pseudoscience
raise questions about - Both 19th‐century phrenology
the theory). and 21st‐century graphology are
pseudoscientific, however, and
- Research that both illustrate the main features
consistently fails to of pseudoscience.
support hypotheses
derived from a theory - The origins of a pseudoscience
eventually calls a can be found in true science; in
theory into question other instances, the
and can lead to its pseudoscience confuses its
modification or concepts with genuine scientific
outright ones.
abandonment.
1. Phrenology
- Originated in legitimate
attempts to demonstrate
IV. Psychological Science and that different parts of
Pseudoscience the brain had
identifiably distinct
 Pseudoscience functions, and it is
- Many claims are made in considered one of the
the name of psychological first systematic theories
science using methods and about the localization of
ways of thinking that are brain function (Bakan,
not truly scientific but 1966).
merely pseudoscientific.
- It was believed that: (a)
- “pseudo” is from the different personality
Greek word for “false”. and intellectual
attributes (“faculties”)
- Applied to any field of were associated with
inquiry that appears to use different parts of the
scientific methods and brain, (b) particularly
tries hard to give that strong faculties resulted
impression, but is actually in larger brain areas,
based on inadequate, and (c) skull
unscientific methods and measurements yielded
makes claims that are estimates of the relative
generally false or, at best, strengths of faculties.
overly simplistic.
 - Remained popular in the analysis itself, with
the early years of the measurements taken of
20th century even such variables as slant,
though it had been letter size, pen pressure,
discredited several spacing between letters,
times by Pierre etc. With actual physical
Flourens in mid-1800s. measurements being made,
one gets the impression of
- Flourished as a business legitimacy, (b)
enterprise in the second graphologists often
half of the 19th century confuse their
despite being pseudoscience with the
abandoned by scientists. legitimate science of
document analysis,
2. Graphology performed by
- Has an even longer history professionals called
than phrenology, dating at “questioned document
least as far back as the examiners”
17th century.

- Various techniques for B. Relies on Anecdotal Evidence

assessing handwriting
developed over the years, - Anecdotal Evidence are
and there are several specific instances that seem to
modern versions, all provide evidence for some
having in common the phenomenon.
belief that a close analysis
of the components of - The Phrenology data
handwriting will reveal consisted mostly of a catalog
stable personality traits; of examples, such as a thief
hence, graphology has an with a large area of
intuitive appeal, because “acquisitiveness,” a priest
handwriting styles do tend with an overdeveloped bump
to be unique to the for “reverence,” and a
individual, so it is natural prostitute with excessive
to assume that the style “amativeness.”
reflects something about
the person. - Graphology advocates the
same approach—their
- It was associated with true websites are filled with
science in two ways: (a) testimonials from people have
there is a fairly high had their handwriting
degree of complexity to analyzed and have been
 amazed at how accurate the graphology have had to face
graphologist’s description of the skepticism of legitimate
them appears to be. scientists; hence, Apologists
respond to these threats rather
- Consequently, anecdotal creatively. Instead of
evidence in the form of allowing an apparent
testimonials has great appeal contradiction to damage the
to the uncritical reader. theory, they sidestep the
problem by rearranging the
- The problem in anecdotal theory a bit or by adding
evidence occurs when one some elements to
relies heavily on anecdotes or accommodate the anomaly.
makes more of them than is
warranted, and that anecdotal - For pseudoscience, any
evidence is selective; contradictory outcome can
examples that don’t fit are be explained or, more
ignored. accurately, explained away.
Yet a theory that explains all
- This also results to effort possible outcomes fails as a
justification, a phenomenon theory because it can never
in which after people expend make specific predictions. If
significant effort, they feel a theory is beyond the reach
compelled to convince of the strong test of
themselves that the effort was falsification, and is therefore
worthwhile. incapable of making
predictions, it is of no value.

C. Sidesteps the Falsification - Research reports in

Requirement pseudoscientific areas are
notoriously vague and they
- Unlike in scientific theory, are never submitted to
pseudoscience theory is not reputable journals with
stated precisely enough to be stringent peer review
put to the stern test of systems in place.
falsification.

- Professional graphologists D. Reduce Complex Phenomena to

claim to have scientific Overly Simplistic Concepts
support for their craft, but the
studies are inevitably flawed. - The doctrines in
pseudoscience is that it
- Advocates of pseudosciences reduces a very complicated
such as phrenology and phenomenon (the nature of
 human personality) to to identify regularly
overly simplistic concepts. occurring sequences of
However, trying to figure events, including both
out and improve behavior is stimuli or environmental
a universal human activity, events and responses or
and if the process can be behavioral events.
simplified, either by
measuring someone’s head, - Also involves classification
interpreting someone’s
handwriting, or determining - An essential first step in any
someone’s astrological sign, scientific endeavor; without
then many people will be it, predictions cannot be
taken in by the apparent made and explanations are
ease of the explanations. meaningless.

- The actual simplicity of the

explanatory concepts is B. Predict
often masked by an apparent
complexity of the measuring - To say that behavior follows
devices used in many of the laws is to say that regular
pseudosciences. and predictable relationships
exist for psychological
- Generally, pseudoscience is phenomena. The strength of
characterized by: (a) a false these relationships allows
association with true predictions to be made with
science, (b) a misuse of the some degree of confidence.
rules of evidence by relying
excessively on anecdotal - One of the primary strengths
data, (c) a lack of specificity of research that uses
that avoids a true test of the correlation and regression,
theory, and (d) an is that it is useful for making
oversimplification of predictions.
complex processes.

C. Explain

V. The Goals of Research in - To explain some behavior is

Psychology to know what caused it to
happen.
A. Describe
- Causality is a complicated
- To provide a good process involving
description in psychology is experimental control, a time
 sequence with cause A. Ivan Pavlov
preceding effect, a
theoretical structure, and the - Renowned Russian
ruling out of alternative physiologist
explanations. Moreover,
causal conclusions can be - He wrote an article about on
drawn from a type of what it takes to be a great
research called experimental scientist: (a) be systematic in
research. the search for knowledge, (b)
be modest and to always
recognize one’s basic
D. Apply ignorance, (c) “passion.
Remember that science
- The various ways of demands [your] whole life.
applying those principles of And even if you could have
behavior learned through two lives, they would not be
research. sufficient. Science calls for
tremendous effort and great
- It is crucial for passion. Be passionate in
psychological scientists to your work and in your search
share their work with the for truth”
general public for the
betterment of society.
B. Eleanor Gibson (1910-2002)
 Translational Research
- Research that is - She was awarded the National
done for both better Medal of Science by
understanding of a President George H. W. Bush
particular on June 23, 1992
phenomenon as
well as for its - On age 82, she was honored
application to for a lifetime of research in
promote physical developmental psychology,
and psychological studying topics ranging from
well‐being. how we learn to read to how
depth perception develops.
She was perhaps best known
to undergraduates for her
VI. A Passion for Research in “visual cliff” studies.
Psychology
- She was a devoted researcher
who persevered even in the
 face of major obstacles. In her - In early 1932, he was
case the burden was sexism. studying a number of
conditioning phenomena,
- Then in the late 1940s, she including extinction.
went to Cornell University
with her husband, James
Gibson (another famous
name, this time in perception
research).

- The project evolved out of

perceptual development
research with rats that she
was doing with a Cornell
colleague, Richard Walk.
They were both curious about
depth perception.

- Hence, Gibson and Walk

(1960) went on to test
numerous species, including,
of course, humans. The visual
cliff studies, showing the
unwillingness of eight‐month‐
olds to cross the “deep side,”
even with Mom on the other
side, are now familiar to any
student of introductory
psychology.

C. B. F. Skinner (1904-1990)

- Psychology’s most famous

20th‐century scientist

- His work on operant

conditioning created an entire
subculture within
experimental psychology
called the experimental
analysis of behavior.