Wa, and ist of 1) ML Functions % "amily 2.1 INTRODUCTION So far, we have introduced variables, operators, input/output operations, data types and execution of @ program in Python. The codes we have studied till now have been single, conditional and iterative Sequence of instructions and were small in size. We can easily work with problems whose solutions can be written in the form of small Python programs, However, as a problem becomes complex, the program also increases in size and complexity, and it becomes difficult and cumbersome for a programmer to keep track of the data and control statements in the whole program. Thus, Python provides the feature to divide a large program into different smaller modules, These modules are known as functions which have the responsibility to work upon data for processing, It is difficult and time-consuming to interpret a large program every time there is a slight modification in the code, But if that program is divided into a number of small functions (also called sub- Programs), then the whole task becomes easy and saves a lot of time and effort. Ifrequired and if it becomes necessary, the sub-programs (or sub-problems) can be further divided into still smaller programs, and the process of dividing a program into a set of programs of smaller size can be continued up to any appropriate level. Therefore, functions provide a systematic way of problem-solving by dividing the given problem into several sub-problems, finding their individual solutions, and integrating the solutions of individual problems to solve the original problem.thod or modular approag, finement me! stepwise Fel led coblem-solving is © w (Fig. 2). be # z ae approach a8 shown belo’ the task has been divided or divide an lex In this Ce each of which is performeg asks, i This program is one ee a aay gaeparate function. sequence of state! Get Function! () = statements statement Boh statements er amen statements eer cnet statements (ee | statements | statements def function? ()+ | statements statement Patron statements statement Mh statements etatement | statements prestee def function3()+ | statenents statements statemeni function statements statement statements statement statements | statements def function4 (): | statements emt, | statements ceeeen function statenents Bortasene statements ot | statements | statements statements Fig. 2.1: Using Functions to divide and conquera large task 2.2 FUNCTIONS IN PYTHON Itis simply a group of statements under a from another part of the program, Consi constitutes various tasks like registering TC (transfer certificate) generation, ny name, ie, ider an example of School Man, A dishwasher works |i} ale n. We put dirty dishe. drying them out S73! ks like adding detergent a wat 2 ike a functior her and when we press the " Washing dishes, and even a Computer Science with Python-iDirty Dishes Function: wash dishes 1. Add water/detergent 2. Wash dishes 3, Dry them Return Value (Output) Fig. 2.2: Working of a Dishwasher similar to a Python Function And, thus, we get clean dishes as a result (output). Functions are also similar as they take some data as input and, depending upon the instructions/ code given, perform the defined task and give some output in the end. In Python, we have worked with the script mode in the Python revision chapter, which provides the capability of retaining our work for future usage. For working in script mode, we need to write a function in Python and save it in the file having .py extension. A Python function is written once and is used/called as many times as required. ‘TM: Functions are the most important building blocks for any application in Python and work on the and conquer approach > Advantages of Functions: Functions offer the following advantages over sequential approach of programming: 1, Program handling becomes easier: Only a small part of the program is dealt with at a time. 2. Code reusability: A Python function can be defined once and used many times, So, it results in code reuse; we don't need to write the same code more than once. 3. Compact code: While working with functions, a common set of code is written only once and can be called from any part of the program which reduces lines of code and programming overheads. 4. Easy updation: In case a function is not used in a program, the same set of code which is required in multiple programs has to be written repeatedly. Hence, if we wish to make any change in a formula/expression, we have to make changes at every place, else it will result in erroneous or undesirable output, With function, however, itis required to make changes to only one location (which is the function itself), Functions can be categorized into the following three types: (Built-in fren uti ben (i) Modules (iii) User-defined Functions 0 ———— e—auuable in Python. Python t re are sger and more powerful. These are ster Fang module £or using then, in functions are e f : é as sel built-in functions tO Rog don't B poe available in the standard li ra Oe rae discuss some built-in functior a Type conversion functions Python provides built-in functio! termed as type conversion func i ikes j) imt(): The int() function take i ine() can convert floating-point values to ine ge Oe the fraction part (Statements 3 and 4). Howé s ri it will generate an error (Statement 5). type to another, which ae ns that convert Valles tions (Fig. 23())- any value and conv’ an integer (Statement 1) nit round off; it chops off as an argument erts it into put it does give a string value strQ) function converts its argument into a string (Statement 2). S55 ]ERE (251) Sateen 1, comets the string argument 10 nek 323 >>>) ste (233 233" yop] ant (294.56) store 3 converts the float argument integer 334 so>| ant (-34.2) > Statement 4, chop ofthe ating pont number to integer 34 >>] int ("Helo") ——> stctemen 5, generates an eror the argument I string value Traceback (most recent call last): File "“", line 1, in int (‘Hello') \ValueBrror: invalid literal for int() with base 10: ‘Hello! ) > statment 2 converts the numeri alive tN, Fig. 2.3(a): Type Conversion Functions in Python (il) float{): float() function converts inte; (Fig2.3(b)). This function treats differe float (26) 26.0 float (21.76) 21.76 ‘float (33425) 58.0 float (1243/4; 12.75, “a gers and strings into floating-point numbers types of parameters as explained below: y eteat (19,A4aiips 3.aqisy te?) | float (140.6341) Traceback (nosy sect ('86.7=" File ecent caiy 1){z20at(! Float (140-6341) sould not vey yy oat ( c Omputer Science with Python-Xl7" a le > If the argument is a number, float(26) returns 26.0, and float(21.76) ry 2 > Ifthe argument is an expressio Cretan For example, float(33+25) > Ifthe argument is a str pee oe Oe leading +/- sign and a floating point number in Roat(3.14159) rece te float value represented by this string. For example, float : (Q returns the same number as a float, For example, want: the expression is evaluated and float) returns its value. Ss 58.0 and float(12+3/4) returns 12.75, 5 In point number in the correct forma Character other than leading +/~ sign and floating ; at, se following statements will result in ae float() results in an error. For.example, the float('40.63+'), float('86,7~"), float(‘35+4/7') » If the string argument contains alphab , then float() results in an error, in: i cl a ie alphabetical character, then float() results i i Mao) a ifno argument is passed, float) returns 0.0 as output, k B) input() function Itenables us to accept an input in the form of string from the user without evaluating its value. It provides the most common way to gather input from the keyboard. The function input() continues to read input text from the user until it encounters a new line. Forexample, name = input('Enter a name:') print ('Welcome', name + ‘pleasure to meet you') name = input ("Enter your name print ('Welcome' Output: Enter your name ; Rinku Welcome Rinku Pleasure to meet you The input() function allows to insert a value into a program. input() function returns a string value that can be converted into integer data type. For example, > To calculate the Selling price of an item costPrice = int (input ("Enter Cost Price : =) Profit = int(input ("Enter Profit : ")) Selling Price = costPrice + Profit print ("Selling Price : ", Selling_Price) z| Miia Output: Enter Cost Price : 60 Enter Profit : 20 80 Selling Price Here, int() function is used to convert the into integer data type. SS , e 2 7 inputted cost price and profit, which is of string type,(erm Functions In case of string type argument, As Meera locicgt etree ASCH values of characters are compared for retrieving aes using max() and min() functions Pee SIAN", Membase, “RERte, “agar The min() function takes two oy more arguments and returns the smalle: For example, \s the smallest item, >o>|y = min(‘hello’, ‘how', tare, vous 9>>|print ("Minimum Value: «, yy” / “YOU'r 'Sir') Minimum val Explanatio: The ree meee code shall print ‘Si’ as the output because the ASCII value ofS! is smallest, fe? an uppercase letter and less than the rest of the words in lowercase— h (hello’), a (‘are’) and y (‘you’) whose ASCII codes are 104, 97 and 121 respectively. [ermine ASCII value of/A, ‘and 0 (zero) is 65,97 and 48 respectively E) abs() function The abs() function returns the absolute value of a single number: It takes an integer or float number as an argument and always returns a positive value, It returns a float or integer number depending upon an argument. For exampl >>>] abs ( 50 >>>| abs (45) 45 [>>>] abs (-30.6) 30.6 F) type() function Ifyou wish to determine the data type of a variable, fe., what type of value doi to, then type() function can be used. >>>] type (10) >>>| type (8.2) >>>| type (22/7) >>>| type ('22/7') >>>| type (-18.6) >>>|type('Hello Python’) a ___,- | The Boolean argument given to typel) function shoul he sca: have Tata eter fr Tue sn caplet) >>>| type (8 > 5) s it hold/pointii) pis 0: nis rounde oy p Se ounded up to.0 digits of decimal and the result is a float value, ‘or example, Pond(12,452,0) returns 12,0 , round(12.534,0) returns 13,0 Gil) pis positive intege 8 a posit T: nis rounded : * | For example, round(12. 452,1) returns 12.5 Tound(12.534,2) returns 12.53 | iv) pisanegatiy (w) De gre ) © integer: n is rounded up to p digits before the decimal, The trailing p digits ed off to 0 in case of negative value ofp. : Meme ssinEIE) © | round(1234,56,-1) returns 12400 | Tound(1258.4,-2) returns 1300.0 1) range() function The range() function is used to define a series of numbers and is particularly useful in j ‘for loops’. For example, >>> range (5) range (0, 5) The expression range(5) generates a series of integers from zero and ends with 4 (5-1) To show the list of numbers, we can use the command list(range(n)): >>> List (range (5)) yee, 2, 3, 4) ® To explicitly define the starting and ending number by specifying the two arguments for beginning and ending numbers: Syntax: range (begin, end) For example, >>> range (5, 9) range(5, 9) To show the list: >>> list (range (5, 9)) (5, 6, 7, 8] The above examples of range() demonstrated an increment of 1. We can change the way Python increments the number by introducing a third argument, the ‘step’. It can be a negative or positive number, but never zero. Syntax: range(begin, end, stop) For example, >>> range (10, 71, 5) range (10, 71, 5) Invoking the list, we'll see this sequence of numbers: >>> list (range (10, 71, 5)) aT {10, 15, 20, 25, 30, 35, 40, 45, 50, 55, 60, 65, e—H 1,sees a need for the tasks to | | 2.2.2 Modules lengthier and more complex, shen ar onaining functions and ae af become le is @ ning 1 varia As ae goats ‘alled modules. A 1 iy ion code or ance of instructions saved yi, it0 SI ‘ files. defined in separate ; = aa ULE and this approach is knoy, id, test and maintain. functions that perform relatey jnother words, asmodularization, d for certain predetiney When we breaka program into tasks. There are some common tasks and they are called libraries. code in more t Modules also make it easier to reuse the same acet of functions that is needed in several different programs « odule. Then, we can import the module in each program that nee< ‘Once we import a module, we can refer to any of its functions oF vari tored in a file is called Mol sier to understan dule should contain python that are use the set of functions st which makes a program ea modules, each mot ly-used modules in han one program. If we have writtey we can place those functions in, is to call one of the functions, ables in our program. Importing Modules in a Python Program: Python provides import keyword to import modules in a program. There are two methods to import modules: ; _ t () Importing entire module(s); An entire module can be imported in the current program using import statement. The syntax to import the entire module is: import For example, import math It gives access to all the functions of math module, © To import multiple modules in a program, the syntax is: f dmport import* ‘rexample, from math import+ (pi) 3.14159265359 Print (factorial (¢))a 4 = To import a particular function of ' the i from import. ey ee can a od name> frommath import sqre ; Ghis}wllimport only sqrt() function from the math module. x To import multiple functions, 1 from For example, frommath import sqrt, Pow, pi This will import multiple functi mone (4 eee Hons (sqrt and pow) and (pi) the constant of math module in a >>>]fzom math import sqrt, Pa ‘math impo: €, Pow, Zz Print (sqrt(225)) 11’ POW PE 15.0 >>>| print (round (pi, 2)) 3.14 >>>| print (pow (4,4)) | [256.0 As is evident from the screenshot, it is not required to use math module prefixed with the function name as it has already been imported using from statement. import statement is the simplest and the most common Way to use modules in our code. For example, import math ‘On executing this statement, Python shall perform three operations: (@) Search for the file, "math.py~ (b) Create space where modules definition and variable will be created. (© Execute the statements in the module. the definitions of the module will become part of the code in which the module was imported, mort statement does not directly import the functions and constants in the program. To access/use iny of the functions present in the imported module, we have to specify the name of the module followed by the name of the function, separated by a dot (also known as a period). This format is called notation. ult = math. sqrt (64) #Gives output as 8.0 which gets stored in rint (result) variable 'result'. ‘one of the functions that belongs to math module. This function accepts an argument and returns lare root of the argument. Thus, the above statement calls the sqrt() passing 64 as an argument Ins the square root of the number passed as the argument, i., 8.0, which is then assigned to the SSE FUNCtIONS seamen e SSSee — © sqrt(x): Returns the s Square root of x, ‘Thi r than 22r9, otherwise senare ena accepts a number which is greater Print ("math.sqrt (65) :», math ey Output: math. sqrt (65) + 8.06225774829855 >>> math. sqrt (100) 10.0 >>> math.sart (-64) Results in run-time ValueError >>> math. sart (7) 2.6457513110645907 Alternatively, 27> print ("math.sqrt (65) :”, round (math. sqrt (65) ,2)) math.sart (65) : 8.06 Explanation: The function sqrt() used for calculating the square root of 65 using statement math.sqrt(65) shall not give a perfect square. Instead, it will generate a higher precision value of 806225774. This is to be rounded off to 2 decimal places using round() of math library in Python. Ques: Write a Python module to display square root of a number using math module. Ans: root of a number using |# Python module to display square roo # math module Perea | aot cal sqrt: Peele cicet (ince (*xatex/aimebert *)) sq root = math. sqrt (number) # Display the square root print ("The square root of ", number, "is", sq root) cal_sqrt () | Papasan Sui Mec a EK Output: ‘Enter a number: 64 ‘The square root of 64.0 is 8.0 iv x): Returns the base-10 logarithm of x. Ieee (nah 20910 (200) :", math. 1og10(100)) math.1ogi0(100) : 2.0 >>> math.1og10 (100.12) 2.0005208409361854 >>> math. 1og10 (100.72) 2.003115717099806 [FIO 1S eR SSS ——@ —string module string module along with its commonl in Section 1.11 of Chapter 1 random module (Generating Random Numbers) rogramming concepts aaa aoe aaa learnt so far involved situations where we were aware of as the deterministic approach, eae 4 particular task is to be executed, which is described nae were afe certain situations/applications that involve games or simulations which work on non-determini i inistic a Bo ere on nonce proach. In these types of situations, random 1) Pseudo-random numbers on Lottery scratch cards, 2) reCAPTCHA (like, in login for ) Pea ce Bin forms) uses a random number generator to define which image is to 3) Computer games involving throwing of dice, picking a number or flipping a coin. 4) Shuffling deck of playing cards, etc, In Python, random numbers are not enabled implicitly; therefore, we need to invoke random module or random code library explicitly in order to generate random numbers. The first statement to be given in a program for generating random numbers is: >>> import random The various functions associated with the module are explained as follows: (i) randrange(): This method generates an integer between its lower and upper argument. By default, the lower argument is 0 and upper argument is range-1. Syntax: randrange (stop) OR randrange (start, stop) OR randrange (start, stop, step) Example 1(a): To generate random numbers from 0 to 29 (30 excluded), Alternatively, >>>]import random 9 [>>>|import random ] >>>|ran_number = random.randrange(30) | |>>>| random. randrange (30) >>>| print (ran_number) aA b>> {As is evident from-the above two programs, the randrange(30) shall generate random numbers from 0 to 29. In the first code, the output is 1 and in the other code, the output is 13. Example 1(b): To generate a random number from range 10 to 100 with the multiple of 5. >>>import random >>>val= random. randrange (10,100, 5) 65 This code shall generate any random number between 10 and 100, which is a multiple of 5. _ EdO and 1as2 number between : generates an) TT yumber which is stored as th ‘das the random nu Explanation: In the above program, ra «drange() method So, in the above case, (0 gets selecte excluded. O gets ble ‘ran_index. index value in the varial ; ‘The element presents at index 0 gets Pri *computer Science’. ted) as 2 result the output obtained i, (ii) random() ‘This function generates a random number from 0 to 2. This function can be used to generate random floating-point value in the range [0.1, 1.0). It takes no parameters and returns ‘alues uniformly distributed between 0 and 1 (Including 0, but excluding 4). Let us see some examples to better understand this function. Example 2(a): [p55]Ezom random import random [>>> random () | 0.9708572675500727 >>>| zandom() } 0,5726867077198512 Thus, from the above statements, it is evid i lent that random() functi i number each time. The random() functi ee ion i aoe 10. can also be written with the following alternative Example 2(b): 332 |xan_nuaber = random. random() >>> print (vme 2 +_0,4341822461854127 ited is ; 23 aco gta nunbe: -1s0029a5s3i 29g Computer Science with Python-Xi aT_” LLL Example 2(4): Program to calculate the sum of the digits of a random 3-digit number. Petetaate the eine the cigita ecu ciate agit Ga from random import random n= random() * 900 + 100 n= int(n) print (n) a=n// 100 b= (n // 10) & 10 c=nti0 print(a + b +c) Output: 789 24 Explanation: The random() function generates a random fractional number from 0 to 1. When a random number generated using random() gets multiplied by 900, a random number is obtained from 0 to 899. When we add 100 to it, we get a number from 100 to 999. Then, the fractional part gets discarded using int() and gets printed on the shell window. In the next statement, the first digit (the most significant) of the number is extracted by dividing it with 100 (a = n//100). The digit at one’s place is extracted by dividing the number by 10. The number obtained as the quotient further takes mod with 10 to extract its last digit which is the same as the digit placed in the middle of the original number: For extracting each digit of the number, division by 10 (c = n%10) is carried out. In the last statement, the sum of the digits is calculated and displayed on the screen. (iii) randint() This function accepts two parameters, a and b, as the lowest and highest number; returns a number ‘N’ in the inclusive range(a, b); which signifies a<=N<=b, where the endpoints are included in the range. This function generates a random integer number between two given numbers. This function is best suited for guessing number applications. The syntax is: random. randint (a,b) Here, a is the lower bound and bis the upper bound. In case we input a number N, the result generated will be a<=N<=b. Ensure that the upper limit is included in randint() function, Example 3(a): To generate a number between 0 and 9. See soem : Outpu print (random. randint (0,9)) fr] Example 3(b): To generate a number between 0 and 5. b>>/import random . ‘>>> print (random. randint (0 ,5)) Output: 5 5] The above function can generate any of the integers between 0 and 5 as output, i. 1,2,3,40r5. e—ii- meen FunctionsCS Output: Casel: [f4, 6, 6, 7, 8, 9, a9 ELYSEES yy 1 12,13, a7) Enter the number {, lElement found at eee io Case 2: Pons. 6, 6, 8, 10, 12, 12, 19) © number to be searche 2 Element found at the inde: Roce et J Explanatio js method returns a random floatin ‘tandom.uniform(x, y) ® is the lower limit and y is the upper limit of random float. The returned random floating point number is greater than or equal to x and less than y. 'g Point number in between two numbers. The syntax is: 1 >>>|print ("uniform Lottery mumber (1, 100 zandon. , 100) :", random.uniform(1, 100)) Vaiform Lottery number(1, 100) : 71.74947047337123 hod is used for making a random selection from a sequence like a list, tuple or string, The syntax is: dom. choice (sequence) Import random >>> direction choice = random. choice({'1:East!, >>> print ("my Direction is :", direction choice) Ny Direction is: 3:Noreh West", '3:North, '4:south’}) This method is used to shuffle or swap the contents ofa list (that is, generate a random permutation of list i | The syntax is: le (list) ¢ an array/list or tuple but returns reshuffled list. import random fruits = ['Apple’, ‘Orange’, ‘Banana’, ‘Pineapple’, 'Apricot'] ‘random, shuffle (fruits) print (fruits) ['apricot', ‘Apple’, ‘Pineapple’, ‘Orange’, 'Banana'] import random erases = [/apple', ‘Orange’, ‘Banana’, 'Pineapple', ‘Apricot') random. shuffle (fruits) print ("Reshuffled Fruits :", fruits) Reshuffled Fruits : ['Pineappie', ‘Apple’, random, shuffle (fruits) print ("Reshuffled Fruits :", fruits) Reshuffled Fruits : {'Banana', ‘Orange’, ‘Apple ample, each time we use the function shuffle(), the list elements shall be shuffled generated will be different every time. ‘Banana’, ‘Apricot', ‘Ozange'] ‘apricot!, Pineapple!)faet Fanci ————= : rant (" PEINE('T am Learning functions in rython) Function Defnition |>>>(Zunea (> | am Learning functions in python eee Output Fig, 2.5(a): Function Definition (interactive Mode) ‘The example given below displays a message on sen a F Such functions are called vold functions Fa oes and does not contain a return statement. def funciQ: Yi Print ("I am learning functions in python") funcl () | Function Definition Funetion cal [F am learning Functions om eytnon] ovat Fig. 2.5(b): Function Definition (Script Mode) Void functions might display something on the screen or have some other effect, but they don’t have a return value. If we try to assign the result of such a function to a variable, we get a special value called None. Alternatively, we can make the function call directly from Python shell also as shown in Fig, 2.5(c). def funci(Q: Drint("E an learning functions in eython") | }-—> FuretionDefnton >>| funed | Funetion call ‘I am learning functions in Python output DS) Fig, 2.5(c): Alternative method to call function func1() through shell Significance of Indentation (Space) in Python Before we move further with Python functions, it is important that we understand the indentation rule to declare Python functions. These rules are applicable to other elements of Python as well like declaring conditions, loops or variable. Python follows a particular style of indentation to define the code. Since Python functions don’t have any explicit beginning or end, like curly braces to indicate the start and stop for the function, they have to rely on this indentation. We now take a simple example with print() function. CS @ —-tionNow, when we apply same indentation for gives the expected output oth the, statements and align them in the same line, it as shown in Fig. 2.6(d) Se am esening tu eee oe (jr ameion ee Fig. 2.6(dh: Same indentation for both print) statements practical Implementation-3 To write a user-defined function to print a right-angled triangle def triangle ( Objective: To print a right-; z eprint @ right-angied triangle Return Value: None Approach: To use a print statement for each line of output print ('*') print("* *") Print ("* * #1) peink(s * + *) Output: >] |» invoking the Funetion 2.3 HOW FUNCTION RETURNS A VALUE Till now we have discussed simple user-defined functions where no value was returned to the calling function or Python interpreter. Now we shall be discussing the functions with some return values. Usually, function definitions have the following basic structure: Syntax: def function_name (arguments): return return command in function is used to end the execution of the function call and also specifies what value is to be returned back to the calling function. Function can take input values as parameters, execute them and return output (if required) to the calling function with a return statement. The function returning value to the calling function is termed as fruitful function. f ' a &-practical Implementation-6 write a pro} prose ea i a add_dift(x, y): fatement returning multiple aad a, b = add diff (200,180) ant ("Tbe sum of two numbers Ae hoa print ("The difference of t ee numbers 13 ",p) an —— Output ‘the sum of two nutbers is : 380 | The difference of two numbers is 20 Inthe Bus vacsrar, we have used a single return statement to return the two values (add, diff) at the sai . We have specified two variables to receive two values from the called functions. (ii) By receiving the returned values in the form of a tuple variable. practical Implementation-7 Modification of Program 6 to compute the basic calculations performed in a calculator, ¥erogram for calculator ca ail def calc(a,b): I add = a+b sub=a-b ml =a*b div=a/b return add, sub, mul, div returning multiple values using return statement | result = calc(500, 40) | print (result) | print("The result can be displayed as: ") for 4 in result: #displaying multiple values returned as the output print (4) Output: (540, 460, 20000, 12.5) ‘he result can be displayed as: Learning Tip: ‘A function may or may not return a value. In a nutshell, while creating functions, we 540 can use two keywords: 460 1. def (mandatory) 20000 2. return (optional) 12.5 Practical Implementation-8 Write a program to implement calculator functions using the concept of user-defined modules. (Alternative method to Program 7) We will first create a module named ‘calculate.py’ as per the given code. Then, we shall call this module through Python shell prompt. EF, ; a —odule in the script mode and saved it created and saved, it can be called anytime, iculator operations, ie., addition, subtraction, assed as an argument, after invoking the tatement at Python shell, Inthe above implementation, we have written the ‘calculate’ mt it with the name ‘calculate.py’. Once this module along with passing the values for performing cal multiplication, division and modulus of two values pé module (import calculate) first using the import st followed by the output displayed. The output of the given program can be calculated by simply calling the function on IDLE, using fanction call statement as name_of.the module function_name (calculate.add()). A module can contain executable statements as well as function definitions. These statements are intended to initialize the module. They are executed only once when the module name is encountered in an import statement. (They are executed even if the file is run as a script.) Practical Implementation-9 Write a program to find roots of a quadratic equation. ‘Wrrogram to find roots st eertarbejt one Of nteabis equation d= tb arate) 05 seturn (-b + a)/(2 + Ms a, em qiettyn2i-2) 1 PMI ay Print(s, Output: 2.618033988749895 i 98949 is lent from the given i ry assigns it to multiple variables. return without an exp case the None value is the return statement returns a value from a f nal function and ession argument j returned, 'Sused to return from the middl Of a function : « in which ee Cor Imbuter Science with Python-*ilFor example, >>> def func(); 7 Pass Itis tobe remembered that fu : neti} definition are not executed until the new nee defined bet is called the flow of execution, Staran tot 18 € is reached. neers they are called, Statements inside the il le order in which statements are executed ratements arg e exe cuted one at a time, in order, until a function call Tals was all about the concept and beh io er-defined it Shaviour of return statement in a user-defi funeti defined function. [ CTM:etum statement returns the value of an 2.4 PARAMETERS AND ARGUMENTS IN FUNCTIONS Parameters are de ee baicennition eee (variable(s)) provided in the parentheses when we write . les contain values 1 Peet eerslclled forcalnn nn lues required by the function to work. These Pi or Chan One value required by the function to work upon, then all of them wil be listed in parameter list separated by comma as shown in Fig. 2.7(a) #70 compute simple interest using function ] det s x (p, x, penne receive by the function | zetumn (p+ 5 + ¢ / 100 Ep | Fig. 2.7(a): Parameters in the function In the above example, the function S_I (simple interest) is used to calculate simple interest by getting the values through IDLE, which are termed as arguments An argument is a value that is passed to the function when itis called. In other words, arguments are the value(s) provided in function call/invoke statement and passed to the variables of formal parameters of the function. These arguments are called actual parameters or actual arguments (Fig. 2.7(b)). List of arguments should be supplied in the same way as parameters are listed. 30, 5) 'S_1 (40001 60000.0 Fig. 2.7(b): Passing Arguments to the function Bounding of parameters to arguments is done 1:1, so the number and type of arguments should be same as mentioned in parameter list. If the number of formal arguments and actual eee differs, then Python will raise an error, Regardless of the arguments (Including the case of no arguments), a function call must end with parentheses. literals or variables or expressions—but hold incoming values; parameters cannot Arguments in Python can be one of these value RES the parameters have to be some names, i.e, variables be literals or expressions. ——————— ® ‘seme Functions =a ————————— rt esté‘i*@Yr| } Ifthis function is calied with only 0 one second argument: “rgument, the default value es ran, of 1 is assumed for the Teturn atye j >>> £4(2) i 4 > However, the user is f i ree to chai : i invoking/calling the function, n®* "te 8€°ond argument from its default value while >>> £4(2,a=2) #64 és (212) woud also work Petrone Sscribed into the following four types depending upon the 4 Function with no arguments and no return value 2, Function with arguments but no return value 3. Function with no argument but return value j 4. Functions with arguments and return value Let us understand each one of these, 4) Function with no argument and no return value: As the name suggests, these types of functions do not take any value or argument and do not return any value [Function Name] [No Parameter Posed] def welcome () print ("ifel10") PEint ("Good morning") Function Call jy. onal ocd morning A : In this type of function, parameters are given ith arguments but no return value: In a net ccieses separated by comma. Also, the values are passed for the parameter at the time of function calling. Example 1: To generate a table for an inputted number. [dee table (num) : . for 4 in range (1/3): print (num, "X"; n= int (input ("Enter Any number table (n) num * 4) oD e 4 (nm a CDE)naeExample 5: pl = int (input (En; val = nt toube(niy MY Misber: 1) Print ("umber : ee ©, vai) Output: “ae Enter Any Number: 5 | Number + cube | = 30 | = 330 | 2.4.2 Types of Arguments Consider the example For example, def f1(x,y): statement ar | « C o £1(20,30) a ee Here, x, y are formal arguments whereas 20, 30 are actual arguments. On the basis of examples we have discussed so far, only four types of actual arguments are allowed in Python. They are: 1, Positional arguments 2. Default arguments 3. Keyword (Name) arguments 4. Variable length arguments 1) Positional arguments: Positional arguments are arguments passed to the actual arguments of a function in correct positional order, ie., in the same order as in the function header. 7 70 denonstrate Positional argunents def subtract (a, b): print (a-b) ‘a gets 100 and b gets 200 [S>>|eubteact (100, 2009} =100 l>>>| subtract (200, 100) ’ gets 200 and b gets 100) oe Output: 100 uments must be matched. If we the number and position of arg ber of arguments passed, it will As the given program, MAN cae thet II change. If we change the num change their order, the result wil result in an error. |ee. — th as [def grect_nsg (name, Print("Relion, ava wi greet_msg(name = yi nay, Greet_magineg = vooany «MET = G90 [= M0 Mornings, nape aMOzingr) ——— ‘Sonia') . Output: a s Welle Vinay Good Norn: [Belo Sonta dood worning Here, Note: def grec (name, z 7 mag) a Print ('Hell0", nena, msg) igreet_msg(name = "Vinay <5 sect nag ineg ced sluts Heed Morning) vans re (ne "Radhis ae = 'Sonia') #valia lied ka, "doed Morningill — Rinvalid red, [> Syrtastice we rae ave cet erst tts eer met vise =a] eee! | Advantages of writing functions with keyword arguments are: ¢ Using the function with keyword arguments is easier as we do not need to remember the order . of the arguments. = We can specify values of only those parameters which we want to, as other parameters have default argument values. Example 7: Consider the following function definition: def fun(a, b=1, 5S) print("ais", a, "bis", b, "cis", c) The function fun() can be invoked in many ways: 4. >>> fun (3) ais3bisicis5 ¥ 2, >>> fun(3, 7, 10) e ais3bis7¢is10 s 3, >>> fun(25, c = 20) ais 25bis1c is 20 does not matter. : Me tenn(c = 20, a - 10) torder co © ais i0bisic is 20 a ee —f-e gtand 4° call are y lt value. In the see pand © WO) a ee values of b and a fle I stateme i gots the first value 25 a oe ue to naming, 1-2, ae value 29 we use Keyword argumen,, te Hi Bu fis defined before c in c before tone is without defay, ich the firs hich te Tetion should have at out of wi meters OF all to the Funct in mind: wera ints should be kept ‘while using keyword argh suments, te following Po! have any positional > An argument list. must — rguments lowed by any Keyword argument wi ay es co tc toh ‘ould be a constant only. parameter shi 5 3 «= Only those parameters which are at the tend of thelist an be given default value, «« We cannot have a parameter on the left with default argument value without assigning default values to parameters lying on its right side. + The default value is evaluated only once at the point of function definition. > Keywords inargumentlist should be from the lis parameters name only. > Noparameter should receive value more than once. > Parameter names corresponding to positional arguments cannot be used as keywords in the same calls. ‘On the basis of rules defined above for combining all three types of arguments, following are the examples of valid/invalid function call: Consider the giver 4 eer defined function to calculate average of three numbers: lef Average (n1,n2,n3=1000) : return (al+n2+n3) /3 Average{n!=20,n2=40, n3=80) LEGAL Noy ‘Average(n3=10,n2=7, n1=100) n-default values provided as named argument: s LEGAL ‘Average(100, n2=10, n3~15) fea Keyword argument can be in any order Average(n3=70, 1-90, 100) ILLEGAL Positional argument before the keyword Average( 100, n1=23, n2=1) Reem Keyword argument be as rd arguments ‘Average(20,num=9,n3=11) Daunte, Positional arguments Variable length a URLEGALS (Ondetined arcu Sue ent num led variable j Pass variable numb, eI eI (steisk) symbol in arguments /paramenne to ython as; ts, Variable Com, Puler Science with Python-XlWe can call this function Y Passin all these values are represented ee i 7 eee 0 incl def sum(*n): —— TM Of a tuple, Including zero number, Internally, total = 0 for 4 inn: total = totar 4 4 print ("The sun =», sum) a) ‘sum (20) sum (20,30) | : tuples, dictionary, etc. 2.5.1 Passing Arrays/t Arrays in basic Python are actually lists that can contain mixed data types. However, for proper implementation of arrays, we require Numpy library/interface, which ie beyond the scope of this book, So, we shall be implementing lists as arrays using Python shell. However, lists are better than arrays as they may hold elements of several data types, whereas in case of arrays, the elements should be of same data type only and, hence, lists are much more flexible and faster than arrays, A list can be passed as argument to a function similar to passing normal variables as arguments to a function. [#¥arrays(1ist) passing to a function that calculates #the arithmetic mean of list elements def 1ist_avg(1st): 2 = Ten(ast) sum = 0 for 4 in 1st: sum += i return sum/1 print ("Input Integers :") = input () a= a.split( for 4 in range(1en(a)): alil= int (atil) avg = List_avg(a) print ("average i: print (round(avrg, 2)) Output: ‘Input Integers : 456782 Average is : ‘(5.33 Weceine ————————————‘Enter any string :Punci, Total nor Of vole metioh® Provias cage | BONE in the geo Teusah; —— string Suse ty re: 13 | Practical Implementation 11 User-defined functi tion to accept string 4 times a character is present 8 @S an input and te 7 0 count ay es nd ST display the total number of || Peso eee ree nc count thy RE def countchar (str, ch); acs countenar i Ames a charact for 4 in str: if ime on: count += 1 return count | # Main code # function calis str_input = input ("Enter a, chi SmpUt ("Enter the chan cet! ter is * 48 present inside it ") “times in the string") | ists", resuit, Output: Enter any string imo count the mumbo; Enter the character to come tenes Of e exists 6 times in the string sme @ character is present 2.5.3 Passing Tuple to a Function We can also pass a tuple as an argument to a function. Because of its immutable nature, a function can only access the value of a tuple but cannot modify it. It will become clearer from the following examples: Example easing immutable tuple to a function def func(A): Amlist(A) #tuple converted to a list Alo] = Afo]* 2 A[1] = A[1] + 10 print("Value inside function tup = (100,200) print (tup) func (tup) [petneteuy Output: (100, 200) Malus inside function: [200, 220] (100, 200) a) ent to the function func(). In order to perform into alist using the method list(). The next two values are displayed. remain the same as —i- passed as an argum .d to be converted ii the changes are reflected when these re not modified and therefore, In the above program, tuple ‘tup’ is mathematical processing, itis require! statements alter the value of list and, hence, But outside the function, the values of tuple @of even and odd splay number Tuy, gutput : ete | 3 pare ae ie Progra | Be mecercs, coed i. fee freq =, Qogut meer the total elements in * fF20 as | io = int (input er et Beaten “ | oe nec cnster toe bes a !) tupl = tupi + (num,) ! = tEvenodd (tup1) see eae Seer nat ate ies Print ("odd numbers count_stats [1] se \ Output: Enter the total elements in a tuple: 10 Enter the number znter the nunber Enter the number Enter the number znter the number Enter the number :6 Enter the number Enter the number : Enter the number Enter the number Even numbers are: odd numbers ai 2.5.4 Passing Dictionary to a Function Python also allows us to pass dictionary to a function. Since dictionaries are mutable in nature function can alter the values of dictionary in place. 2 Let us look at some examples of how to pass dictionary to a function, All Practical Implementation-13 i To pass student record as a dictionary to a function and update their marks, an [#0 pass student record as a dictionary and update their marks > | def Marks_increase (stud, >) stud[marks"] t= | studf"status"] = "Updated student = {"Rolino"; 1, "Name": "Radhixa" student2 = {"Rollno": 4, tMame"; “snanenae’ Marks_increase (student ,50) bn @ (student2, 60) ident) Print (student2) —— a a nn a F - = Computer Science with Python”Practical Implementation-14 Program to pass a dictionary to a fy o ne re occurrence as value and ret tion with ti @ a ant Tetum aS a dictionary,» °* “ements as keys and frequency of x def frequencyCount (isti, aicyy = Ao ae for i in list: 7 if £ not in dict: ict Ii] =1 dict(i) += 1 return dict Listi=[4,5,6,5,10,6,5,5, 40, a=) frequencycount (2ist1, a) print (d) 30, 2,4) Output: Anything calculated inside a functio nb will be deleted once the f Ut not specified as an output (either with return o1 function st r global) ops running, Forexample, >>> det £5(x,y): ] A a= xty b= x-y 4 return a**2, b¥*2 I >>> £5(3,2) (25,1) If we try to call a or b, we get an error message: >>> a Traceback (most recent call last): Pile "", line 1, in? NameError: name 'a' is not defined This brings us to scoping issues, which will be addressed in the next section. 2.6 SCOPE OF VARIABLES All variables in a program may not be accessible at all locations in that program. This depends on where you have declared a variable. Scope of variables refers to the part of the program where it is visible, ie, area where you can refer (use) it. We can say that scope holds the current set of variables and their values. We will study two types of scope of variables—global scope or local scope. > Global (module) + Names assigned at the to interpreter i ‘ * Names declared with global keyword in a function = Can be accessed inside or outside of the function > Local (function) * Names assigned inside » Cannot be accessed outside the function NE e—f- Oe es ne p level of a module, ie., outside of any function, or directly in the a function definition or loopjable with the same name ari sence of local ¥ eal a ~ rz, so it’s global tery fee ar We can access jin the interpre’? ei: tea ; pies t can acces For example pais Pe eunction 2 oe Beach eo tac a Pan oF8 170 assigned ins Spode E001 EXT oe ioe Ce e of globa: x + val ae eurn y# function, 8° * retur! >>> pr£ (5) | | >>> print (P) ty is given to the local variay, or We can use the same name: it scopes but the prion ame names in nt scopt use the si For example, p> as? : pal ier. on #this 'a' has no knowledge of the glot =a jon" print ("a in function", a) a! and vice versa >>> a 2 >>>e5() a in function 10 : enon The local variable is deleted as soon as the function stops running. So, the lifeti n comparison to a global variable. variable gets over early For example, >>> x= 5 >>> import script Hello world mos E Here, lifetime of a variable is the time for which a variable lives in memory. For global variables. lifetime is entire program run (i.e., they live in memory as long as the Program is running) ani for local variables, lifetime is their function's run (ie, as long as their function is being executed) ‘% Value of global variable can be modified using global keyword. For example, #same script as before DS>a=2 >>> def £5(): flobal a ft re ay Variable a using global keyword return a >>>a 2 >>> £5() 2 >>>a 7 Computer Science with Python-X!1 In the previous example, the statement for f(x main() (OT Se For example, pop a=2 >>> def £ (x): return x+a #this function is. fectiv a 1 effectively, £(x) = x+2 6 >>> a=1 >>> £(4) : #8ince we set a=1, £ (x) = x+1 now >>> £ (x) I >>> x 4 s) was x+1, which is carried forward in this example ly for the function f(x). However, the original value of gets changed to 5 using x+1 but onl the argument ‘x’ remains the same. 2.7 FLOW OF EXECUTION OF PROGRAM USING MAIN() AS A FUNCTION j Including a main() function is not mandatory in Python. It can structure our Python programs in a logical way that puts the most important components of the program into one function. It can also make our programs easier for non-Python programmers to read. Practical Implementation-15 | We will start with adding a main() function to the ‘prog func4.py’ program below. We will first define hello() function and then define a main() function. After defining main() function, we will give print() statement so as to ensure the execution of main(). After defining the main() function, finally, at the bottom of the program, we will call the main() function as shown below: def hello( print("Hello, World | def main(): ; print("This is the main function") he110() Output: This ds the main function | Helle, World! a efe shell oF from within, icitly © d. ing) explicitly «ene end- main) or jon in th snctuding the Script for maj, ‘his li rogram an o ‘within the P? . _ eke ieers if_name_ 7 main () int the above Com impleme! set us take an example to iP! and breadth inputted, : is of length practical Implementation-16 a rectangle on the Basis ° a0 Mines progam compute tbe #2 the user as the arguments to this Be saci Gof areanectangle(iengeD, PFS io we ite the aren of Tactangie! | 19 ooo er rent Deeadeh ciao = ue wept, value: area - numeric val area = tength # breadth Zetura area doe main(): fi & le based on user inpt | cujective: to compute the area of rectang! Snput Parameter: None j Return Value: None i e:') | int (‘Enter the following values for rectang! i | Tengthrect = int (input ‘Length: integer value i: : ill beeadthRect = int (input (‘Breadth : integer value: ') itt areaRect = areaRectangle (lengthRect, breadthRect) | print(/area of rectangle is’, areaRect) eee | “main 7 i] Output: Enter the following values for rectangle: Zength: integer value: 50 Breadth : integer value: 30 Area of rectangle is 1500 Let us tty to understand the above code. Every Python module has a built-in variable called fame. (two underscores placed before and after ‘name’) containing the name of the moc lk. When the module itself is being run as the script, this variable __name__ i pee -main_’ designating it to be a__main__ module, Seema cnc’ the strie Python checks whether the name of the ree -Main__. This bein, current module i e and the fu ia ig true, the expression ‘unction main() gets executed, im the cling main) intone oe eCanRl Bets calle! ere it gets displayed As the main() gets executed, the anguy the user and call to function areaRecta inside this function and returns back Itis to be remembered tha t a functi any other user-defined function °° Ot execute und it 's invoked, i ‘ed, whether it is main() of a Computer Science wit Pytron-!! Pie 2.t Exe ‘im ap on bo an cal sti I“4 ty ™aing ted by ng _ == Functions 2.8 FLOW OF EXECUTION oF pp 0 Execution always begins at th, e fi time, starting from the top to the ne t*ement of th the botto, the program. State a program, as the statement ing eo Neon ey tements are executed one at a On a function call, instead of : BOing to th body of the function, executes a es ; oa ‘ement of the progr: ba ee gram, the control jumps to the and then comes back to the poin ine i function, st and then ae here ie tone me ae oon the top to the bottom ther function, Sin «it left off. This remains imple till a function does not 'y in the midal Setanta. D6 Other finction ang soon,” 3 {Retion, the program might have to execute However, Python is good at keen, pin, the program Dicks up from qe o® HACK oF the execution a ma the place where it jet cere 8 30 that each time a function completes Fw it terminates. For example, intil it gets to the end of the program where 1. defadd(a,b): 2 c=atb 3. return c 4, def sub(a,b): 5. if(a>b): Geeec=a—b 7. else Gc =b-a us return c 10. 11. 12. X= 20 13. Y=10 14. Z=add(X,Y) 15. print(Z) 16. i = sub(X,Y) 17. print(i) Upon execution of the above code, the flow of execution will be: 13 4> 12 > 13 > 14 > 125314515 516 5455 46 57-3839316 517 However, the flow of execution in case of both the functions shall be: © goto line 1» 2-3 > 14> 15: for add(ab) © goto line 5 > 6 > 7 +8 +9 > 10 > 16 > 17: for sub(a,b) Explanation: 1. Execution begins from Statement 1. Here, interpreter encounters a function definition, which will not be executed till the function is called. 2. Then the interpreter’s control reaches Statement 4, where the second function definition is encountered which gets skipped.Yr. uted: preter Oz and 3. Statemen, ect ere it Was Calley SS rent 14 ero s¢ again a function ca) a ich is 284" al whith g, 7, 8 and 9 respective, Ae ei: Statement j; tc wna finally executes rement ty aa tis a function cally i ing Ianguage: cw Eau + powerful tots in P ng AEs ofiesell- I other wort recursion sone of he owe ast sting ees Rec _ Saw .eton cals itself one OF MOTE itis mn Pe Conditions for Implementing Rectsio venice wantto so" Reirecursio ition for the probl for that problem. itine, This minating COM led the base case the recursive rou eee ifclause specifies the terminatin, 2. There must be an if condition in condition of the recursion. the order of execution is An | 4, There must be a tel wery recursive problem, is thi is the characteristic of e ive function calls are ni = BX ution, the recurs! | 3, Reversal it I when a recursive program is taken for exec : F | anereed immediately. They are pushed onto stack as long as the terminating condition js a | ‘encountered. As soon as the recursive condition is encountered, the recursive calls which a | twere pushed onto stack are removed in reverse order'and executed one by one, It means tha | | the ast eall made will execute first, then the second-last call will execute and so on until th: j | stack is empty. | 4, Each tim is i pe nea call is made, a new memory space is allocated to each loci ‘ } variable used by the recursive routine. In oth¢ i i | vee ee oa AED words, during each recursive call to recursive 4 5 ursive Functi jury ee ction gets a different set of values, but with 0 | 5. The duplicated values ofthe local variables of a H r its respective cal and all thse vales are avalable at ee eect i pene (orion atk. e to the respective function call when it Disa ; : aaeaet of using Recursion I |. Itconsumes more stora, 5 Sita Be space because the recursive calls along with | i local variables are stored : 1 ire not checked, 1 t t Computer Science with Pythor-M eeVeay ney Meg Cal, Vely th ion, ting ile, not nis dich shat the deal sive vith eee How Recursion Works - | Recursion is implemented p) a Y dividi function usually consists of the follow se Pecursive problem into Terminating part (for the sy, wie Parts two parts, A useful recursive directly. as @ Recursive part which contains one o Let us write a recursive function function, let us understand the a, X= XOX*X"X....."X n times OR X= X*(X"X"X.....X*X) n-1 times If we know the value of xv, OR XP = X* (X*(X*X...X*X) n-2 times Tie know the value of X*2, we can calculate X* and, XP=X(K(Keaet=2)) And this process will continue until the i innermost expression becomes X" the recursive function for X®, Possible Problem) when the function returns a value © function. Before writing the recursive ‘olve this problem, we can easily calculate X* thus, calculate X* Now, itis easy to write Example 10: To calculate power of a number using recursion. emmmemmnieneisec et Using recurs #70 calculate power of a number using recursion def power (x,n): ifn == 0: xeturn 4 else: return x * power (x, n-1) anz print (power(a, 4)) Output: 16 Explanation: In each call, the power() function passes the actual parameters to the version being called. The i the value of n is decremented by 1 for each value of is same foreach power ee function power) sat returning ae x Pete eic ot rowert if nation is passed back to the previous version that made this call and this Pee, occa iu re will continue until the value of the power can be passed to the origin] ian eae erincion recursively, then there must exist such condition that is responsible call. When we define a for its termination. _— Functions ———————————el the loop shall exe on call is made re ‘Ursively With thi h is the fibonace ‘he base condition on the basts of wh i equal to 1. Otherwise, the function ean 1 added to the function called re, 7 Finally, the returned value whic} ae defined as the number less than or fabs h the argument as the number minus ‘Sument as the number minus 2. i seri practical Implementation-19 s printed using a for loop. Write a Recursive function to calculate the Factorial of a number else: | seturn 2 * recur tactoriai (n-1) num = int (input ("Enter a number ig num < 0: a) print("Sorry, factori, vs Bt For A neckties Number, doen, not exist") print ("The factorial of o is i») else: print ("the factorial of”, num, } Recur_factoriai (num) ) Case 2: fenter a number ] The factorial of 10 is Case3: fentez a number Case 4: Enter a number Sorry, factorial for a negative number does not exist att el Practical Implementation-20 (Binary Search in lists/arrays) Write a Recursive program to implement binary search in arrays/lists. In binary search technique, the entire sequence of numbers (list/array) is divided into two parts and the middle element of list/array is extracted. This technique is also known as divide and conquer technique. fo search an element, say ‘val’ in a sorted array (suppose in ascending order), the val is compared with the middle element first. If the searched value is equal to the middle value, then the index number and position number of this element is returned. If the val is greater than the middle element, the second half of the array becomes the new segment to be traversed; if the val is less than the middle element, the first half becomes the new segment to be scanned. The same process is repeated until val is found or the segment is reduced to the single element and still val is not found (in case of an unsuccessful search). or in this half Either in this half Ty al evvy Se «s fsearehed value is 42 «If searched value 18 30, inary Search if banary_ search (11257 sequigh < 220): laa tow) // 2) ive ase: nigh = at val . tara = 100 2 (OEty mtaale mo 1 compare the search + = 4, val) te Ligttnterall 7 Mehran ist, ows sieved = ene aistimtavall © Wei ciist, midvar + 2, bagi return Dinary_+ oo geurn mbaval oe ton, va): vvvVv v v 2011 Mat = (5, 11, 22) 26, 99, 2081 (inary search (sist, 0 Print oinaryosenren ist, 0, 6, 400)) Output: Lee | Tone 2.9.1 Recursion vs Iteration Recursion and iteration are inter-related concepts. However, even for problems that can be handle aually wel using both the techniques, there isa subtle difference in the manner loops and metho calls are handled by a programming language compiler, When a loop is executed repeatedly, it uses the MEME YEVONINE Same memory locations for variables and repeats the same unit of code. On the other hand, recursion, instead of repeating the same unit of code and using the same memory locations for variables, allocates fresh memory space for each recursive cal jerefore, we can say that any problem that can be solved through iteration can be solved usi adaitong as Welland vice versa. But the limitation in case of recursion is that it involves a. the at terms ofthe space used in RAM by each Tecursive call to a function ra, Pia ee we used by the function call, Tecursive functions often the same time, in certain Computer Science with pytnon-Xi =m)Eas MeNts that can > Python can have three types of functions, ane + Built-in functions, se + Functions in modules, and + User-defined functions > APython module can contain obj ects ike docstrings, variables, > APython module has the py extencon » Constants, classes, objects, statements, functions » APython module can be imported in a {i)_ import (il) from import