Control Engineering – Review Notes Systems Response Characteristics

Introduction to Control Systems • Variation of output concerning input

is examined graphically.
Definition of Control Systems:
Two main reasons outputs differ from inputs:
1. A system consisting of subsystems or
processes designed to control the output • Inputs change instantaneously, while
by processing input in a predefined outputs change gradually.
manner.
• Outputs may not match the desired
Examples: response due to system accuracy.

• Air conditioner (controls room

temperature). Transient vs. Steady-State Response:
• Car speed control.
• Elevator (controls movement to a Transient Response:
specific floor). • The initial response when a system
begins reacting to an input.
Key Concepts: • Short-lived and represents the
system's attempt to reach a steady
Block Diagram state.

Steady-State Response:
• Occurs once the system stabilizes
after the transient phase.
• Reflects the final behavior of the
system, though it may include steady-
state error.
Difference between actual and desired
response is the error. Example: Elevator System

Applications: Input: Pressing a button to go to the fourth

floor (step command).
• Power amplification (e.g., motors for Output: Elevator movement, illustrated as a
rotating heavy radar antennas). gradual change over time.
• Remote control (e.g., robotic arms for Error: Discrepancy between the desired
radioactive environments). floor and the actual stopping point.
• Input convenience (e.g., adjusting AC
temperature using a remote). Steady-State Error:
• Compensating disturbances (e.g.,
radar antenna auto-correcting wind- • The difference between actual and
induced deviations). desired responses at steady state.
• May require adjustments or
Reasons to Study Control Systems: configurations to minimize,
especially in precision-sensitive
1. Enhance power output with minimal applications.
input.
2. Enable operations in remote or Open Loop Systems
hazardous areas.
3. Simplify user input for complex • A system in which the control action
tasks. is independent of the output.
4. Automatically correct errors caused
by external disturbances. • Lacks a feedback mechanism to
adjust the input based on the output.
 • Accuracy relies on the user’s The feedback mechanism enables:
experience to set the appropriate • Error detection: Determines the
input. difference between desired and actual
output.
• Controller adjustment: Regulates
the input to achieve the desired
output.
• Feedback: Essential for maintaining
• Input (Reference Input): The desired output and compensating for
command or desired value. disturbances.
• Controller Section: Regulates the
amount of input needed for the
process.
• Process Section: Executes the
operation to generate the output.
• Output: Result produced by the Examples:
system. • Air Conditioner: Monitors room
temperature, switching the
Examples of Open Loop Systems compressor on/off to maintain the set
temperature.
• Immersion Water Heater: Heats • Geyser: Maintains desired water
water but lacks feedback to stop temperature by turning on/off based
heating when the desired temperature on real-time temperature feedback.
is reached.
• Toaster: Increases the bread
temperature but doesn’t stop heating
at the perfect time, often leading to
overcooking.

Advantages of Open Loop Systems

• Simple Construction and Design:

No complex feedback mechanism.
• Cost-Effective: Fewer components
make it economical.
• Convenient for Measurement
Challenges: Useful when output is
difficult to measure.

Disadvantages of Open Loop Systems

• Inability to Handle Disturbances:

Cannot adjust to changes or external
interferences.
• Limited Reliability: Performance
may vary due to environmental or
process conditions.

Closed Loop Systems:

• Closed-loop systems overcome the

disadvantages of open-loop systems
by continuously measuring the output
and feeding it back to the input.
Laplace Transforms • The Laplace transform maps a
function from the time domain
(dependent on t) to the frequency
The Laplace Transform is a crucial tool in domain (dependent on s).
control systems for transforming differential • The transformation process helps in
equations (which describe dynamic systems) solving differential equations more
into simpler algebraic equations. easily by removing time-dependency.

It allows us to convert a time-domain Example:

function into its frequency-domain
representation, which simplifies the analysis • Laplace Transform of Unit Step
and design of control systems. Function
Unit Step Function u(t) is defined as:
Purpose of Laplace Transform: • 𝑢 (𝑡) = 0 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑡 < 0
• 𝑢 (𝑡) = 1 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑡 ≥ 0
• The Laplace transform helps in
modeling control systems by Example:
converting complex differential • Laplace Transform of u(t):
equations into algebraic equations.
• It is used to represent a system’s Using the definition:
behavior in the frequency domain.
∞
1
Definition: 𝐹(𝑠) = ∫ 𝑒 −𝑠𝑡 𝑑𝑡 =
0 𝑠

• Laplace Transform: The transform Common Laplace Transforms for

of a time-domain function f(t) is Standard Functions
represented as F(s), and it is defined
by the integral: 1
• ℒ {𝑢(𝑡)} = 𝑠
1
∞
• ℒ {𝑡} = (𝑅𝑎𝑚𝑝 𝑓𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛)
𝐹 (𝑠) = ∫ 𝑓(𝑡)𝑒 −𝑠𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑠2
𝑛!
−∞ • ℒ {𝑡 𝑛 } = 𝑠𝑛+1
1
where: • ℒ {𝑒 −𝑘𝑡 } = 𝑠+𝑘
s = σ + jω • ℒ {𝛿(𝑡)} = 1 (𝐼𝑚𝑝𝑢𝑙𝑠𝑒 𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛𝑎𝑙)
𝑠
σ = is the damping factor (affects • ℒ {𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝜔𝑡)} = 𝑠2 +𝜔2
system stability). 𝑠
• ℒ {𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝜔𝑡)} = 𝑠2 +𝜔2
ω = is the angular frequency.

Integral Transform: Inverse Laplace Transform

• Inverse Laplace Transform is used to
• The general form of an integral
retrieve the time-domain function
transform is:
from its frequency-domain
∞ representation.
𝐺 (𝛼) = ∫ 𝑓(𝑡) ∙ 𝑘(𝛼 ∙ 𝑡) 𝑑𝑡
−∞ The inverse transform formula is:

where: 1 𝜎+𝑗𝜔
𝑓 (𝑡) = ∫ 𝐹(𝑠)𝑒 𝑠𝑡 𝑑𝑠
2𝜋𝑗 𝜎−𝑗𝜔
G (α) = is the transformed function.
• Instead of directly using this formula,
f(t) = is the time-domain input. the inverse Laplace transform is
typically computed through partial
k (α,t) = is the integral kernel. fractions.

Properties of the Laplace Transform:

Linearity Property: 3. Steps for Modeling Electrical
Networks:
• This property combines two
principles: homogeneity and • Convert the circuit to the Laplace
superposition. domain (s-domain).
• If F1(t) and F2(t) are time-domain • Write equations for branch currents
functions with corresponding Laplace (Ohm's Law) and node voltages
transforms F1(s) and F2(s)), then for (KCL).
constants a and b: • Use equations to draw a signal flow
graph (nodes = variables, branches =
ℒ(𝑎𝐹1 (𝑡) + 𝑎𝐹2 (𝑡)) = 𝑎𝐹1 (𝑠) + 𝑏𝐹2 (𝑠)
relationships).
• Apply Mason’s Gain Formula to
Find the Laplace transform of the function
calculate the transfer function.
𝑓(𝑡) = 𝑢(𝑡) + 2𝑒 −3𝑡 + 3 𝑠𝑖𝑛 (2𝑡)
4. Example: For an RC low-pass filter:
By using the linearity property and known
transforms of basic functions, the Laplace • Use voltage divider rule to find the
transform is calculated as: transfer function:
𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡(𝑠) 1
1 2 6 =
𝐹(𝑠) = + + 2 𝑉𝑖𝑛(𝑠) 𝑅𝑆𝐶 + 1
𝑠 𝑠+3 𝑠 +4
• Convert to a signal flow graph using
Time Scaling Property: key equations:
• This property describes how the 𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡(𝑠) 1
Current: Is = = 𝑅𝑆𝐶+1
𝑉𝑖𝑛(𝑠)
Laplace transform changes when the
time domain function is scaled by a 1
Voltage: Vout (s) = Is x 𝑆𝐶
constant a:
This method standardizes control system
1 𝑎
ℒ(𝐹(𝑎𝑡)) = 𝐹( ) analysis by deriving a clear transfer function
∕𝑎∕ 𝑠 and relationships between system variables.
Example: Given the Laplace transform of 1. Admittance vs. Impedance
1
𝑓(𝑡) as 𝑠+1, find the Laplace form of • Impedance: Opposition to current
𝑓(2𝑡) Using the time scaling property, the flow in a circuit element.
transform is calculated as: • Admittance: Measure of how easily
a circuit allows current to flow, which
1 1 1 is the reciprocal of impedance.
ℒ(𝑓(2𝑡)) = 𝑠 =
2 +1 𝑠+2 2. Signal Flow Graph (SFG)
2 Representation
Modeling of Physical Systems • All branch gains in the SFG represent
either admittance or impedance,
1. Purpose: Convert physical systems alternating between them based on
(electrical or mechanical) into models the element's orientation and position.
(block diagrams or signal flow • Horizontal elements: Represent
graphs) for analysis. admittance in the SFG.
2. Categories: • Vertical elements: Represent
impedance in the SFG.
• Electrical networks
• Mechanical systems
Example Network SFG Connections
An electrical network contains the following 1. Forward Path:
components:
Vi(s) → I1(s) → VL(s)) → I2(s) → Vout(s)
• R1: First resistor
2. Feedback Paths:
• L: Inductor
Vout(s) → I2(s) (via sC).
• C: Capacitor
I2(s) → VL(s) (via sL).
• R2: Second resistor
VL(s) → I1(s) (via 1/R1)

Shortcut Method to Draw SFG

Translational Mechanical Systems
Define Nodes
Force Equations for Translational
The number of nodes in the SFG equals the Mechanical Systems:
number of variables in the network.
1. Mass:
Variables are:
𝑑2 𝑥(𝑡)
1. Vin(s) – Input voltage (Laplace Time Domain: f(t) = 𝑚. 𝑑𝑡 2
equivalent).
Laplace Domain: f(s) = 𝑚. 𝑠 2 . 𝑥(𝑠)
2. I1(s) – Loop current of the first loop.
2. Spring:
3. VL(s) – Voltage across the inductor.
4. I2(s) – Loop current of the second Time Domain: f(t) = k.x(t)
loop.
Laplace Domain: f(s) = k⋅x(s)
5. Vout(s) – Output voltage.
3. Friction (Damper):
Time Domain: f(t) = b. dx(t)/dt
Draw Forward Paths
Laplace Domain: f(s) = b⋅s⋅x(s)
Branch Gains: Alternate between
admittance and impedance in the forward Case 1: Rigid Connection Between Two
path: Masses
1. R1: Admittance 1/R1. • Equation: f(s)=(m1+m2)⋅s2⋅x(s)
2. L: Impedance sL • Both masses m1 + m2 move together
with the same displacement:
3. C: Admittance sC
x1(t)=x2(t)
4. R2: Impedance R2.
• No relative motion between the
Negative Feedback Paths masses.
• Key Rule: The last element (R2) Case 2: Spring Connection Between Two
represents only a forward path and is Masses
not included in negative feedback.
• Equation: fspring(s) = k⋅(x1(s)−x2(s))
• For feedback paths, connect nodes in
reverse (right to left): • Two masses m1and m2 are connected
by a spring.
1. C: Admittance sC.
• The displacements x1(t) and x2(t)
2. L: Impedance sL. differ due to the spring's potential
energy.
3. R1: Admittance 1/R1
 • The force is proportional to the This represents the voltage, resistance,
displacement difference: inductance, and capacitance in the electrical
fspring(t)=k⋅(x1(t)−x2(t)) system.
Case 3: Friction Between Two Masses
• Equation: ffriction(s) = b⋅s⋅(x1(s)−x2(s)) Force-Voltage Analogy Comparison:
• Two masses m1 and m2 experience By comparing the Laplace-transformed
friction modeled by a damper with equations of both systems, we establish the
frictional constant b. analogy:
• The frictional force depends on the a. Mass (m) in the mechanical system is
relative velocity between the masses: analogous to Inductance (L) in the
ffriction(t) = b electrical system.
b. Displacement (x(t)) in the mechanical
𝑑𝑥(𝑡) 𝑑𝑥(𝑡)
− system is analogous to Charge (q(t))
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 in the electrical system.
Analogous Systems c. Viscous friction coefficient (b) in the
mechanical system is analogous to
Force-Voltage and Force-Current
Resistance (R) in the electrical
Analogy:
system.
• Force-Voltage Analogy: In this
Thus, the force-voltage analogy allows us to
method, the force in a mechanical
relate mechanical parameters (mass, friction,
system is analogous to the voltage in
spring constant) to electrical parameters
an electrical system.
(inductance, resistance, capacitance) to
• Force-Current Analogy: In this model the behavior of mechanical systems
method, the force in a mechanical using electrical circuits.
system is analogous to the current in
an electrical system.
Force Current Analogy
Mechanical System Example:
Force-Voltage vs Force-Current Analogy:
• The mechanical system consists of a
mass (m) attached to a spring (k), • In the force-voltage analogy, voltage
with a damper (b) offering resistance, in an electrical system is analogous to
and a force (f(t)) applied. The motion force in a mechanical system.
is described by the equation: • In the force-current analogy, current
in an electrical network corresponds
to force in a mechanical system.
𝑑 2 𝑥(𝑡) 𝑑𝑥(𝑡)
𝑓(𝑡) = 𝑚 2
+𝑏 + 𝑘𝑥(𝑡) Mechanical System Example:
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
• A mass m is connected to a spring and
a dashpot (representing viscous
Electrical Network Example: friction), with a force f(t) applied to it.
• The equation of motion for the
• A series RLC circuit is used to
mechanical system is:
compare with the mechanical system.
The equation for this network,
𝑑 2 𝑥(𝑡) 𝑑𝑥(𝑡)
according to Kirchhoff's Voltage Law 𝑓(𝑡) = 𝑚 +𝑏 + 𝑘𝑥(𝑡)
𝑑𝑡 2 𝑑𝑡
(KVL), is:
V(s)=I(s)R+LsI(s)+I(s)/Cs
Laplace transform of this system gives is: Time Domain Analysis
𝑓(𝑠) = 𝑚𝑠 2 𝑥(𝑠) + 𝑏𝑠𝑥(𝑠) + 𝑘𝑥(𝑠)
• Focus: Involves analyzing transient
Electrical Network Analogy: and steady-state responses of a
system.
• A parallel RLC circuit is used to • Key Metrics:
represent the electrical analogy. ⎯ Transient response: Rise time,
• The applied current is analogous to settling time, peak time, and
the applied force, with the current overshoot.
divided across the resistor, inductor, ⎯ Steady-state error: Difference
and capacitor. between the desired and actual output
• Applying Kirchhoff's Current Law as time approaches infinity.
• Applications: Useful for determining
(KCL) leads to
system performance and ensuring it
𝑣(𝑠) 𝑠𝑣(𝑠) meets specific design requirements.
𝑖(𝑠) = + + 𝐶𝑠𝑣(𝑠) Frequency Domain Analysis
𝑅 𝐿
Analogous Terms: • Tools: Includes Bode plots, Nyquist
• Mass mmm is analogous to plots, and gain and phase margins.
• Purpose: Evaluates system stability
capacitance C.
and performance using frequency
• Viscous friction constant b is response characteristics.
analogous to resistance R. • Relation to Time Domain: Provides
• Spring constant k is analogous to insight into transient behavior and
reciprocal of inductance 1/L steady-state errors using frequency-
• Displacement x(t) is analogous to flux based methods.
ϕ(t)
• Velocity v(t) is analogous to voltage Control System Design
v(t)
• Objective: Achieve desired
performance by tuning system
Further Analogies: parameters.
• Methods:
• Torque in rotational mechanical ⎯ Gain adjustment
systems is analogous to current in ⎯ Compensation
electrical networks. • Considerations: Stability,
• Moment of inertia is analogous to robustness, and meeting transient and
capacitance. steady-state specifications.
• Torsional friction constant is
analogous to resistance. Classical Control Techniques

Root Locus Analysis • Definition: Methods like root locus,

frequency response, and transfer
• Definition: A graphical technique to function-based designs.
analyze and design control systems • Use: Typically applied to linear time-
by representing the closed-loop pole invariant (LTI) systems.
locations as a system parameter • Limitations: Limited to simpler,
(typically gain) varies. linear systems without significant
• Purpose: Used to assess system non-linearities.
stability and transient response
performance by analyzing pole
movements on the s-plane.
• Applications: Ideal for higher-order
systems, enabling the design of
parameters like percent overshoot and
settling time.
PID Controllers
• Components: Proportional (P),
Integral (I), and Derivative (D)
actions.

• Functionality:
⎯ P: Reduces error proportionally.
⎯ I: Eliminates steady-state error.
⎯ D: Improves transient response.
• Design: Parameters tuned to balance
performance between overshoot,
settling time, and steady-state error.

Introduction to Digital Control and the Z-

Transform

Digital Control: Uses digital computers for

control, allowing multiple loops to be
managed via time-sharing and software-
based adjustments.

Z-Transform: Converts discrete-time

signals into the frequency domain for
analysis and design.

Advantages:

⎯ Flexibility in system modifications.

⎯ Efficient handling of sampled-data
systems