AI512PE / CS504PC / IT512PE

DATA MINING (PE - I)

Dr. M. Kumara Swamy

 Syllabus
❑ UNIT – I
Introduction to Data Mining: What Data mining? Kinds of Data, Knowledge Discovery
process, DataMining Functionalities, Kinds of Patterns, Major Issues in Data Mining. Data
Objects and AttributeTypes, Basic Statistical Descriptions of Data, Data Visualization,
Measuring Data Similarity andDissimilarity, Data Pre-processing: Major Tasks in Data Pre-
processing, Data Cleaning, DataIntegration, Data Reduction, Data Transformation and Data
Discretization.
❑ UNIT – II
Association Analysis: Basic Concepts, Market Basket Analysis, Apriori Algorithm, FP-
growth, From Association Analysis to Correlation Analysis, Pattern Mining in Multilevel
Associations andMultidimensional Associations.
UNIT – III
Classification: Basic Concepts, Decision Tree Induction, Bayes Classification Methods, Rule-
Based Classification, Metrics for Evaluating Classifier Performance, Ensemble Methods,
Multilayer Feed- Forward Neural Network, Support Vector Machines, k-Nearest-
2 Neighbor Classifiers.
 Syllabus…
UNIT - IV
Cluster Analysis: Requirements for Cluster Analysis, Overview of Basic Clustering Methods,
Partitioning Methods-k-Means, k-Medoids, Hierarchical Methods-AGENES, DIANA, BIRCH,
Density- Based Method-DBSCAN, Outlier Analysis: Types of Outliers, Challenges of
OutlierDetection, and Overview of Outlier Detection Methods
UNIT – V
Advanced Concepts: Web Mining-Web Content Mining, Web Structure Mining, Web Usage
Mining, Spatial Mining- Spatial Data Overview, Spatial Data Mining Primitives, Spatial Rules,
Spatial Classification Algorithm, Spatial Clustering Algorithms, Temporal Mining- Modeling
Temporal Events, Time Series, Pattern Detection, Sequences, Temporal Association Rules.
TEXT BOOKS
1. Data Mining – Concepts and Techniques – Jiawei Han & Micheline Kamber, 3rd Edition Elsevier.
2. Data Mining Introductory and Advanced topics – Margaret H Dunham, PEA.

3
 Syllabus…
REFERENCE BOOK
❑ Data Mining Techniques, Arun K Pujari, 3rd Edition, Universities Press.
❑ Pang-NingTan, Michael Steinbach, Anuj Karpatne and Vipin Kumar, Introduction to
Data Mining, 2nd Edition, Pearson Education India, 2021.
❑ Amitesh Sinha, DataWare housing, Thomson Learning, India, 2007.
Pre-Requisites
• Database Management Systems
• Computer Oriented Statistical Methods
Evaluation method
• Unit Wise Test (4 Units)
• Quiz Test – 5 Units
• Workshops - 4
• Assignment Test – 2
• Term Paper
4
 Unit - I
Introduction to Data Mining
❑ What Data mining?
❑ Kinds of Data
❑ Knowledge Discovery process
❑ DataMining Functionalities
❑ Kinds of Patterns
❑ Major Issues in Data Mining
❑ Data Objects and Attribute Types
❑ Basic Statistical Descriptions of Data, Data Visualization
❑ Measuring Data Similarity andDissimilarity
❑ Data Pre-processing: Major Tasks in Data Pre
processing, Data Cleaning, DataIntegration, Data Reduction, Data Transformation and Data
Discretization
5
 Why Data Mining?
❑ The Explosive Growth of Data: from terabytes to petabytes
❑ Data collection and data availability
❑ Automated data collection tools, database systems, Web, computerized
society
❑ Major sources of abundant data
❑ Business: Web, e-commerce, transactions, stocks, …
❑ Science: Remote sensing, bioinformatics, scientific simulation, …
❑ Society and everyone: news, digital cameras, YouTube
❑ We are drowning in data, but starving for knowledge!
❑ “Necessity is the mother of invention”—Data mining—Automated
analysis of massive data sets
6
 What Is Data Mining?
❑ Data mining (knowledge discovery from data)
❑ Extraction of interesting (non-trivial, implicit, previously unknown and
potentially useful) patterns or knowledge from huge amount of data
❑ Data mining: a misnomer?
❑ Alternative names
❑ Knowledge discovery (mining) in databases (KDD), knowledge extraction,
data/pattern analysis, data archeology, data dredging, information
harvesting, business intelligence, etc.
❑ Watch out: Is everything “data mining”?
❑ Simple search and query processing
❑ (Deductive) expert systems
7
 Knowledge Discovery (KDD) Process
❑ This is a view from typical database systems
and data warehousing communities Pattern Evaluation

❑ Data mining plays an essential role in the

knowledge discovery process Data Mining

Task-relevant Data

Data Warehouse Selection

Data Cleaning

Data Integration

8 Databases
 Example: A Web Mining Framework
❑ Web mining usually involves
❑ Data cleaning
❑ Data integration from multiple sources
❑ Warehousing the data
❑ Data cube construction
❑ Data selection for data mining
❑ Data mining
❑ Presentation of the mining results
❑ Patterns and knowledge to be used or stored into knowledge-base
9
 Data Mining in Business Intelligence
Increasing potential
to support
business decisions End User
Decision
Making

Data Presentation Business

Analyst
Visualization Techniques
Data Mining Data
Information Discovery Analyst

Data Exploration
Statistical Summary, Querying, and Reporting

Data Preprocessing/Integration, Data Warehouses

DBA
Data Sources
Paper, Files, Web documents, Scientific experiments, Database Systems
10
 KDD Process: A View from ML and Statistics

Input Data Data Pre- Data Post-

Processing Mining Processing

Data integration Pattern discovery Pattern evaluation

Classification Pattern selection
Normalization
Clustering Pattern interpretation
Feature selection
Outlier analysis
Dimension reduction Pattern visualization
…………

❑ This is a view from typical machine learning and statistics communities

11
 Data Mining vs. Data Exploration
❑ Which view do you prefer?
❑ KDD vs. ML/Stat. vs. Business Intelligence
❑ Depending on the data, applications, and your focus

❑ Data Mining vs. Data Exploration

❑ Business intelligence view
❑ Warehouse, data cube, reporting but not much mining
❑ Business objects vs. data mining tools
❑ Supply chain example: mining vs. OLAP vs. presentation tools
❑ Data presentation vs. data exploration

12
 Multi-Dimensional View of Data Mining
❑ Data to be mined
Database data (extended-relational, object-oriented, heterogeneous), data warehouse,
❑
transactional data, stream, spatiotemporal, time-series, sequence, text and web, multi-media,
graphs & social and information networks
❑ Knowledge to be mined (or: Data mining functions)
❑ Characterization, discrimination, association, classification, clustering, trend/deviation, outlier
analysis, …
❑ Descriptive vs. predictive data mining
❑ Multiple/integrated functions and mining at multiple levels
❑ Techniques utilized
❑ Data-intensive, data warehouse (OLAP), machine learning, statistics, pattern recognition,
visualization, high-performance, etc.
❑ Applications adapted
❑ Retail, telecommunication, banking, fraud analysis, bio-data mining, stock market analysis, text
mining, Web mining, etc.
13
 Data Mining: On What Kinds of Data?
❑ Database-oriented data sets and applications
❑ Relational database, data warehouse, transactional database
❑ Object-relational databases, Heterogeneous databases and legacy databases
❑ Advanced data sets and advanced applications
❑ Data streams and sensor data
❑ Time-series data, temporal data, sequence data (incl. bio-sequences)
❑ Structure data, graphs, social networks and information networks
❑ Spatial data and spatiotemporal data
❑ Multimedia database
❑ Text databases
❑ The World-Wide Web
14
 Data Mining Functions: (1) Generalization
❑ Information integration and data warehouse construction
❑ Data cleaning, transformation, integration, and
multidimensional data model
❑ Data cube technology
❑ Scalable methods for computing (i.e., materializing)
multidimensional aggregates
❑ OLAP (online analytical processing)
❑ Multidimensional concept description: Characterization
and discrimination
❑ Generalize, summarize, and contrast data
characteristics, e.g., dry vs. wet region
15
 Data Mining Functions: (2) Pattern Discovery
❑ Frequent patterns (or frequent itemsets)
❑ What items are frequently purchased together in your Walmart?
❑ Association and Correlation Analysis

❑ A typical association rule

❑ Diaper → Beer [0.5%, 75%] (support, confidence)
❑ Are strongly associated items also strongly correlated?
❑ How to mine such patterns and rules efficiently in large datasets?
❑ How to use such patterns for classification, clustering, and other applications?
16
 Data Mining Functions: (3) Classification
❑ Classification and label prediction
❑ Construct models (functions) based on some training examples
❑ Describe and distinguish classes or concepts for future prediction
❑ Ex. 1. Classify countries based on (climate)
❑ Ex. 2. Classify cars based on (gas mileage)
❑ Predict some unknown class labels
❑ Typical methods
❑ Decision trees, naïve Bayesian classification, support vector machines, neural
networks, rule-based classification, pattern-based classification, logistic
regression, …
❑ Typical applications:
❑ Credit card fraud detection, direct marketing, classifying stars, diseases, web-
pages, …
17
 Data Mining Functions: (4) Cluster Analysis
❑ Unsupervised learning (i.e., Class label is
unknown)
❑ Group data to form new categories (i.e.,
clusters), e.g., cluster houses to find
distribution patterns
❑ Principle: Maximizing intra-class similarity
& minimizing interclass similarity
❑ Many methods and applications

18
 Data Mining Functions: (5) Outlier Analysis
❑ Outlier analysis
❑ Outlier: A data object that does not comply with the
general behavior of the data
❑ Noise or exception?―One person’s garbage could be
another person’s treasure
❑ Methods: by product of clustering or regression analysis, …
❑ Useful in fraud detection, rare events analysis

19
 Data Mining Functions: (6) Time and Ordering:
Sequential Pattern, Trend and Evolution Analysis
❑ Sequence, trend and evolution analysis
❑ Trend, time-series, and deviation analysis
❑ e.g., regression and value prediction
❑ Sequential pattern mining
❑ e.g., buy digital camera, then buy large memory cards
❑ Periodicity analysis
❑ Motifs and biological sequence analysis
❑ Approximate and consecutive motifs
❑ Similarity-based analysis
❑ Mining data streams
❑ Ordered, time-varying, potentially infinite, data streams

20
 Data Mining Functions: (7) Structure and
Network Analysis
❑ Graph mining
❑ Finding frequent subgraphs (e.g., chemical compounds), trees (XML),
substructures (web fragments)
❑ Information network analysis
❑ Social networks: actors (objects, nodes) and relationships (edges)
❑ e.g., author networks in CS, terrorist networks
❑ Multiple heterogeneous networks
❑ A person could be multiple information networks: friends, family, classmates, …
❑ Links carry a lot of semantic information: Link mining
❑ Web mining
❑ Web is a big information network: from PageRank to Google
❑ Analysis of Web information networks
❑ Web community discovery, opinion mining, usage mining, …
21
 Evaluation of Knowledge
❑ Are all mined knowledge interesting?
❑ One can mine tremendous amount of “patterns”
❑ Some may fit only certain dimension space (time, location, …)
❑ Some may not be representative, may be transient, …
❑ Evaluation of mined knowledge → directly mine only interesting knowledge?
❑ Descriptive vs. predictive
❑ Coverage
❑ Typicality vs. novelty
❑ Accuracy
❑ Timeliness

22
❑ …
 Data Mining: Confluence of Multiple Disciplines

Machine Pattern
Statistics
Learning Recognition

Applications Data Mining Visualization

Database High-Performance
Algorithm
Technology Computing

23
 Why Confluence of Multiple Disciplines?
❑ Tremendous amount of data
❑ Algorithms must be scalable to handle big data
❑ High-dimensionality of data
❑ Micro-array may have tens of thousands of dimensions
❑ High complexity of data
❑ Data streams and sensor data
❑ Time-series data, temporal data, sequence data
❑ Structure data, graphs, social and information networks
❑ Spatial, spatiotemporal, multimedia, text and Web data
❑ Software programs, scientific simulations
❑ New and sophisticated applications

24
 Applications of Data Mining
❑ Web page analysis: classification, clustering, ranking
❑ Collaborative analysis & recommender systems
❑ Basket data analysis to targeted marketing
❑ Biological and medical data analysis
❑ Data mining and software engineering
❑ Data mining and text analysis
❑ Data mining and social and information network analysis
❑ Built-in (invisible data mining) functions in Google, MS, Yahoo!, Linked, Facebook, …
❑ Major dedicated data mining systems/tools
❑ SAS, MS SQL-Server Analysis Manager, Oracle Data Mining Tools)
25
 Major Issues in Data Mining (1)
❑ Mining Methodology
❑ Mining various and new kinds of knowledge
❑ Mining knowledge in multi-dimensional space
❑ Data mining: An interdisciplinary effort
❑ Boosting the power of discovery in a networked environment
❑ Handling noise, uncertainty, and incompleteness of data
❑ Pattern evaluation and pattern- or constraint-guided mining
❑ User Interaction
❑ Interactive mining
❑ Incorporation of background knowledge
❑ Presentation and visualization of data mining results
26
 Major Issues in Data Mining (2)
❑ Efficiency and Scalability
❑ Efficiency and scalability of data mining algorithms
❑ Parallel, distributed, stream, and incremental mining methods
❑ Diversity of data types
❑ Handling complex types of data
❑ Mining dynamic, networked, and global data repositories
❑ Data mining and society
❑ Social impacts of data mining
❑ Privacy-preserving data mining
❑ Invisible data mining
27
 Getting to Know Your Data

❑ Data Objects and Attribute Types

❑ Basic Statistical Descriptions of Data

❑ Data Visualization

❑ Measuring Data Similarity and Dissimilarity

28
 Types of Data Sets
❑ Record
❑ Relational records

timeout

season
coach

game
score
team
❑ Data matrix, e.g., numerical matrix, crosstabs

ball

lost
pla

wi
n
y
❑ Document data: text documents: term-frequency vector
❑ Transaction data
Document 1 3 0 5 0 2 6 0 2 0 2
❑ Graph and network
Document 2 0 7 0 2 1 0 0 3 0 0
❑ World Wide Web
❑ Social or information networks Document 3 0 1 0 0 1 2 2 0 3 0

❑ Molecular Structures
❑ Ordered
❑ Video data: sequence of images TID Items
❑ Temporal data: time-series 1 Bread, Coke, Milk
❑ Sequential Data: transaction sequences 2 Beer, Bread
❑ Genetic sequence data 3 Beer, Coke, Diaper, Milk
4 Beer, Bread, Diaper, Milk
❑ Spatial, image and multimedia:
5 Coke, Diaper, Milk
❑ Spatial data: maps
❑ Image data:
29 ❑ Video data:
 Important Characteristics of Structured Data

❑ Dimensionality
❑ Curse of dimensionality
❑ Sparsity
❑ Only presence counts
❑ Resolution

❑ Patterns depend on the scale

❑ Distribution

❑ Centrality and dispersion

30
 Data Objects
❑ Data sets are made up of data objects.
❑ A data object represents an entity.
❑ Examples
❑ Sales database: customers, store items, sales
❑ Medical database: patients, treatments
❑ University database: students, professors, courses
❑ Also called samples , examples, instances, data points, objects, tuples.
❑ Data objects are described by attributes.
❑ Database rows -> data objects; columns ->attributes.

31
 Attributes
❑ Attribute (or dimensions, features, variables): a data field,
representing a characteristic or feature of a data object.
❑ E.g., customer _ID, name, address
❑ Types
❑ Nominal
❑ Binary
❑ Numeric: quantitative
❑ Interval-scaled
❑ Ratio-scaled

32
 Attribute Types
❑ Nominal: categories, states, or “names of things”
❑ Hair_color = {auburn, black, blond, brown, grey, red, white}
❑ marital status, occupation, ID numbers, zip codes
❑ Binary
❑ Nominal attribute with only 2 states (0 and 1)
❑ Symmetric binary: both outcomes equally important
❑ e.g., gender
❑ Asymmetric binary: outcomes not equally important.
❑ e.g., medical test (positive vs. negative)
❑ Convention: assign 1 to most important outcome (e.g., HIV positive)
❑ Ordinal
❑ Values have a meaningful order (ranking) but magnitude between successive values is
not known.
❑ Size = {small, medium, large}, grades, army rankings
33
 Numeric Attribute Types
❑ Quantity (integer or real-valued)
❑ Interval
❑ Measured on a scale of equal-sized units
❑ Values have order
❑ E.g., temperature in C˚or F˚, calendar dates
❑ No true zero-point
❑ Ratio
❑ Inherent zero-point
❑ We can speak of values as being an order of magnitude larger than
the unit of measurement (10 K˚ is twice as high as 5 K˚).
❑ e.g., temperature in Kelvin, length, counts, monetary quantities

34
 Discrete vs. Continuous Attributes
❑ Discrete Attribute
❑ Has only a finite or countably infinite set of values
❑ E.g., zip codes, profession, or the set of words in a collection of
documents
❑ Sometimes, represented as integer variables
❑ Note: Binary attributes are a special case of discrete attributes
❑ Continuous Attribute
❑ Has real numbers as attribute values
❑ E.g., temperature, height, or weight
❑ Practically, real values can only be measured and represented using a finite number
of digits
❑ Continuous attributes are typically represented as floating-point variables

35
 Getting to Know Your Data

❑ Data Objects and Attribute Types

❑ Basic Statistical Descriptions of Data

❑ Data Visualization

❑ Measuring Data Similarity and Dissimilarity

36
 Basic Statistical Descriptions of Data
❑ Motivation
❑ To better understand the data: central tendency, variation and spread
❑ Data dispersion characteristics
❑ Median, Max, Min, Quantiles, Outliers, Variance, etc.
❑ Numerical dimensions correspond to sorted intervals
❑ Data dispersion: analyzed with multiple granularities of precision
❑ Boxplot or quantile analysis on sorted intervals
❑ Dispersion analysis on computed measures
❑ Folding measures into numerical dimensions
❑ Boxplot or quantile analysis on the transformed cube

37
38
 Symmetric vs. Skewed Data
❑ Median, mean and mode of symmetric, positively symmetric

and negatively skewed data

positively skewed negatively skewed

39August 26, 2024 Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 39

 Measuring the Dispersion of Data
❑ Quartiles, outliers and boxplots
❑ Quartiles: Q1 (25th percentile), Q3 (75th percentile)
❑ Inter-quartile range: IQR = Q3 – Q1
❑ Five number summary: min, Q1, median, Q3, max
❑ Boxplot: ends of the box are the quartiles; median is marked; add whiskers, and plot outliers
individually
❑ Outlier: usually, a value higher/lower than 1.5 x IQR
❑ Variance and standard deviation (sample: s, population: σ)
❑ Variance: (algebraic, scalable computation)

40 ❑ Standard deviation s (or σ) is the square root of variance s2 (or σ2)

 Boxplot Analysis
❑ Five-number summary of a distribution
❑ Minimum, Q1, Median, Q3, Maximum
❑ Boxplot
❑ Data is represented with a box
❑ The ends of the box are at the first and third quartiles, i.e., the
height of the box is IQR
❑ The median is marked by a line within the box
❑ Whiskers: two lines outside the box extended to Minimum and
Maximum
❑ Outliers: points beyond a specified outlier threshold, plotted
individually
41
 Visualization of Data Dispersion: 3-D Boxplots

42August 26, 2024 Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 42

 Properties of Normal Distribution Curve

❑The normal (distribution) curve

❑ From μ–σ to μ+σ: contains about 68% of the measurements (μ: mean, σ: standard
deviation)
❑ From μ–2σ to μ+2σ: contains about 95% of it
❑ From μ–3σ to μ+3σ: contains about 99.7% of it

43
 Graphic Displays of Basic Statistical Descriptions

❑ Boxplot: graphic display of five-number summary

❑ Histogram: x-axis are values, y-axis repres. frequencies
❑ Quantile plot: each value xi is paired with fi indicating that approximately 100 fi
% of data are  xi
❑ Quantile-quantile (q-q) plot: graphs the quantiles of one univariant distribution
against the corresponding quantiles of another
❑ Scatter plot: each pair of values is a pair of coordinates and plotted as points in
the plane

44
 Histogram Analysis
❑ Histogram: Graph display of tabulated 40
frequencies, shown as bars
35
❑ It shows what proportion of cases fall into each 30
of several categories
25
❑ Differs from a bar chart in that it is the area of
20
the bar that denotes the value, not the height
15
as in bar charts, a crucial distinction when the
10
categories are not of uniform width
5
❑ The categories are usually specified as non-
0
overlapping intervals of some variable. The 10000 30000 50000 70000 90000
categories (bars) must be adjacent

45
 Histograms Often Tell More than Boxplots

◼ The two histograms shown in the left

may have the same boxplot
representation
◼ The same values for: min, Q1,
median, Q3, max
◼ But they have rather different data
distributions

46
 Quantile Plot
❑ Displays all of the data (allowing the user to assess both the overall behavior and
unusual occurrences)
❑ Plots quantile information
❑ For a data xi data sorted in increasing order, fi indicates that approximately 100 fi%
of the data are below or equal to the value xi

47 Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 47

 Quantile-Quantile (Q-Q) Plot
❑ Graphs the quantiles of one univariate distribution against the corresponding quantiles
of another
❑ View: Is there is a shift in going from one distribution to another?
❑ Example shows unit price of items sold at Branch 1 vs. Branch 2 for each quantile. Unit
prices of items sold at Branch 1 tend to be lower than those at Branch 2.

48
 Scatter plot
❑ Provides a first look at bivariate data to see clusters of points, outliers, etc
❑ Each pair of values is treated as a pair of coordinates and plotted as points
in the plane

49
 Positively and Negatively Correlated Data

❑ The left half fragment is positively correlated

❑ The right half is negative correlated

50
 Uncorrelated Data

51 51
 Getting to Know Your Data

❑ Data Objects and Attribute Types

❑ Basic Statistical Descriptions of Data

❑ Data Visualization

❑ Measuring Data Similarity and Dissimilarity

52
 Data Visualization
❑ Why data visualization?
❑ Gain insight into an information space by mapping data onto graphical primitives
❑ Provide qualitative overview of large data sets
❑ Search for patterns, trends, structure, irregularities, relationships among data
❑ Help find interesting regions and suitable parameters for further quantitative analysis
❑ Provide a visual proof of computer representations derived
❑ Categorization of visualization methods:
❑ Pixel-oriented visualization techniques
❑ Geometric projection visualization techniques
❑ Icon-based visualization techniques
❑ Hierarchical visualization techniques
❑ Visualizing complex data and relations
53
 Pixel-Oriented Visualization Techniques
❑ For a data set of m dimensions, create m windows on the screen, one for each dimension
❑ The m dimension values of a record are mapped to m pixels at the corresponding positions
in the windows
❑ The colors of the pixels reflect the corresponding values

(a) Income (b) Credit Limit (c) transaction volume (d) age
54 54
 Laying Out Pixels in Circle Segments
❑ To save space and show the connections among multiple dimensions, space filling is often
done in a circle segment

(a) Representing a data record in circle

(b) Laying out pixels in circle segment
segment
55 55
 Geometric Projection Visualization Techniques

❑ Visualization of geometric transformations and projections of the data

❑ Methods
❑ Direct visualization
❑ Scatterplot and scatterplot matrices
❑ Landscapes
❑ Projection pursuit technique: Help users find meaningful projections of
multidimensional data
❑ Prosection views
❑ Hyperslice
❑ Parallel coordinates
56
 Ribbons with Twists Based on Vorticity Direct Data Visualization

57 Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques

 Scatterplot Matrices

Used by ermission of M. Ward, Worcester Polytechnic Institute

Matrix of scatterplots (x-y-diagrams) of the k-dim. data [total of (k2/2-k) scatterplots]

58
 Landscapes

Used by permission of B. Wright, Visible Decisions Inc.

news articles
visualized as
a landscape

❑ Visualization of the data as perspective landscape

❑ The data needs to be transformed into a (possibly artificial) 2D spatial representation which preserves
the characteristics of the data
59
 Parallel Coordinates
❑ n equidistant axes which are parallel to one of the screen axes and correspond to the
attributes
❑ The axes are scaled to the [minimum, maximum]: range of the corresponding
attribute
❑ Every data item corresponds to a polygonal line which intersects each of the axes at
the point which corresponds to the value for the attribute

• • •

Attr. 1 Attr . 2 Attr. 3 Attr. k

60
 Parallel Coordinates of a Data Set

61
 Icon-Based Visualization Techniques
❑ Visualization of the data values as features of icons
❑ Typical visualization methods
❑ Chernoff Faces
❑ Stick Figures
❑ General techniques
❑ Shape coding: Use shape to represent certain information encoding
❑ Color icons: Use color icons to encode more information
❑ Tile bars: Use small icons to represent the relevant feature vectors in
document retrieval

62
 Chernoff Faces
❑ A way to display variables on a two-dimensional surface, e.g., let x be eyebrow slant, y be eye
size, z be nose length, etc.
❑ The figure shows faces produced using 10 characteristics--head eccentricity, eye size, eye
spacing, eye eccentricity, pupil size, eyebrow slant, nose size, mouth shape, mouth size, and
mouth opening): Each assigned one of 10 possible values, generated using Mathematica (S.
Dickson)
❑ REFERENCE: Gonick, L. and Smith, W. The Cartoon Guide to
Statistics. New York: Harper Perennial, p. 212, 1993
❑ Weisstein, Eric W. "Chernoff Face." From MathWorld--A
Wolfram Web Resource.
mathworld.wolfram.com/ChernoffFace.html

63
 Stick Figure
A census data figure
showing age, income,
gender, education, etc.

A 5-piece stick figure (1

body and 4 limbs w.
different angle/length)

64 Two attributes mapped to axes, remaining attributes mapped to angle or length of limbs”. Look at texture pattern
 Hierarchical Visualization Techniques
❑ Visualization of the data using a hierarchical partitioning into subspaces
❑ Methods
❑ Dimensional Stacking
❑ Worlds-within-Worlds
❑ Tree-Map
❑ Cone Trees
❑ InfoCube

65
 Dimensional Stacking

attribu te 4
attribu te 2

attribu te 3

attri bute 1

❑ Partitioning of the n-dimensional attribute space in 2-D subspaces, which are ‘stacked’
into each other
❑ Partitioning of the attribute value ranges into classes. The important attributes should
be used on the outer levels.
❑ Adequate for data with ordinal attributes of low cardinality
❑ But, difficult to display more than nine dimensions
❑ Important to map dimensions appropriately
66
 Dimensional Stacking
Used by permission of M. Ward, Worcester Polytechnic Institute

Visualization of oil mining data with longitude and latitude mapped to the outer x-, y-axes and ore
grade and depth mapped to the inner x-, y-axes
67
 Worlds-within-Worlds
❑ Assign the function and two most important parameters to innermost world
❑ Fix all other parameters at constant values - draw other (1 or 2 or 3 dimensional worlds choosing these as
the axes)
❑ Software that uses this paradigm

❑ N–vision: Dynamic interaction through

data glove and stereo displays,
including rotation, scaling (inner) and
translation (inner/outer)
❑ Auto Visual: Static interaction by
means of queries

68
 Tree-Map
❑ Screen-filling method which uses a hierarchical partitioning of the screen into regions
depending on the attribute values
❑ The x- and y-dimension of the screen are partitioned alternately according to the
attribute values (classes)

MSR Netscan Image

69 Ack.: http://www.cs.umd.edu/hcil/treemap-history/all102001.jpg
 Tree-Map of a File System (Schneiderman)

70
 InfoCube
❑ A 3-D visualization technique where hierarchical information is displayed as
nested semi-transparent cubes
❑ The outermost cubes correspond to the top level data, while the subnodes
or the lower level data are represented as smaller cubes inside the
outermost cubes, and so on

71 71
 Three-D Cone Trees
❑ 3D cone tree visualization technique works well for up to
a thousand nodes or so
❑ First build a 2D circle tree that arranges its nodes in
concentric circles centered on the root node
❑ Cannot avoid overlaps when projected to 2D
❑ G. Robertson, J. Mackinlay, S. Card. “Cone Trees:
Animated 3D Visualizations of Hierarchical Information”,
ACM SIGCHI'91
❑ Graph from Nadeau Software Consulting website:
Visualize a social network data set that models the way
an infection spreads from one person to the next

Ack.: http://nadeausoftware.com/articles/visualization
72
 Visualizing Complex Data and Relations
❑ Visualizing non-numerical data: text and social networks
❑ Tag cloud: visualizing user-generated tags

◼ The importance of tag is

represented by font size/color
◼ Besides text data, there are also
methods to visualize relationships,
such as visualizing social networks

Newsmap: Google News Stories in 2005

73
 Getting to Know Your Data

❑ Data Objects and Attribute Types

❑ Basic Statistical Descriptions of Data

❑ Data Visualization

❑ Measuring Data Similarity and Dissimilarity

74
 Similarity and Dissimilarity
❑ Similarity
❑ Numerical measure of how alike two data objects are
❑ Value is higher when objects are more alike
❑ Often falls in the range [0,1]
❑ Dissimilarity (e.g., distance)
❑ Numerical measure of how different two data objects are
❑ Lower when objects are more alike
❑ Minimum dissimilarity is often 0
❑ Upper limit varies
❑ Proximity refers to a similarity or dissimilarity

75
 Data Matrix and Dissimilarity Matrix
❑Data matrix
❑ n data points with p dimensions
❑ Two modes

❑Dissimilarity matrix
❑ n data points, but registers only
the distance
❑ A triangular matrix
❑ Single mode

76
 Proximity Measure for Nominal Attributes

❑ Can take 2 or more states, e.g., red, yellow, blue, green (generalization of
a binary attribute)
❑ Method 1: Simple matching
❑ m: # of matches, p: total # of variables

❑ Method 2: Use a large number of binary attributes

❑ creating a new binary attribute for each of the M nominal states

77
 Proximity Measure for Binary Attributes
Object j

❑ A contingency table for binary data

Object i
❑ Distance measure for symmetric binary
variables:
❑ Distance measure for asymmetric binary
variables:
❑ Jaccard coefficient (similarity measure for
asymmetric binary variables):

◼ Note: Jaccard coefficient is the same as “coherence”:

78
 Dissimilarity between Binary Variables
❑ Example
Name Gender Fever Cough Test-1 Test-2 Test-3 Test-4
Jack M Y N P N N N
Mary F Y N P N P N
Jim M Y P N N N N

❑ Gender is a symmetric attribute

❑ The remaining attributes are asymmetric binary
❑ Let the values Y and P be 1, and the value N 0

79
 Standardizing Numeric Data

❑ Z-score:
❑ X: raw score to be standardized, μ: mean of the population, σ: standard deviation
❑ the distance between the raw score and the population mean in units of the standard deviation
❑ negative when the raw score is below the mean, “+” when above
❑ An alternative way: Calculate the mean absolute deviation

where

❑ standardized measure (z-score):

❑ Using mean absolute deviation is more robust than using standard deviation

80
 Example:
Data Matrix and Dissimilarity Matrix

Data Matrix
point attribute1 attribute2
x1 1 2
x2 3 5
x3 2 0
x4 4 5

Dissimilarity Matrix
(with Euclidean Distance)

x1 x2 x3 x4
x1 0
x2 3.61 0
x3 5.1 5.1 0
x4 4.24 1 5.39 0

81
 Distance on Numeric Data: Minkowski Distance
❑ Minkowski distance: A popular distance measure

where i = (xi1, xi2, …, xip) and j = (xj1, xj2, …, xjp) are two p-dimensional data objects,
and h is the order (the distance so defined is also called L-h norm)
❑ Properties
❑ d(i, j) > 0 if i ≠ j, and d(i, i) = 0 (Positive definiteness)
❑ d(i, j) = d(j, i) (Symmetry)
❑ d(i, j)  d(i, k) + d(k, j) (Triangle Inequality)
❑ A distance that satisfies these properties is a metric

82
 Special Cases of Minkowski Distance
❑ h = 1: Manhattan (city block, L1 norm) distance
❑ E.g., the Hamming distance: the number of bits that are different between two binary
vectors

❑ h = 2: (L2 norm) Euclidean distance

❑ h → . “supremum” (Lmax norm, L norm) distance.

❑ This is the maximum difference between any component (attribute) of the vectors

83
 Example: Minkowski Distance
Dissimilarity Matrices
point attribute 1 attribute 2 Manhattan (L1)
x1 1 2
L x1 x2 x3 x4
x2 3 5 x1 0
x3 2 0 x2 5 0
x4 4 5 x3 3 6 0
x4 6 1 7 0
Euclidean (L2)
L2 x1 x2 x3 x4
x1 0
x2 3.61 0
x3 2.24 5.1 0
x4 4.24 1 5.39 0
Supremum
L x1 x2 x3 x4
x1 0
x2 3 0
x3 2 5 0
x4 3 1 5 0
84
 Ordinal Variables

❑ An ordinal variable can be discrete or continuous

❑ Order is important, e.g., rank
❑ Can be treated like interval-scaled
❑ replace xif by their rank
❑ map the range of each variable onto [0, 1] by replacing i-th object in the f-th
variable by

❑ compute the dissimilarity using methods for interval-scaled variables

85
 Attributes of Mixed Type
❑ A database may contain all attribute types
❑ Nominal, symmetric binary, asymmetric binary, numeric, ordinal
❑ One may use a weighted formula to combine their effects

❑ f is binary or nominal:
dij(f) = 0 if xif = xjf , or dij(f) = 1 otherwise
❑ f is numeric: use the normalized distance
❑ f is ordinal
❑ Compute ranks rif and
❑ Treat zif as interval-scaled

86
 Cosine Similarity
❑ A document can be represented by thousands of attributes, each recording the frequency of a particular
word (such as keywords) or phrase in the document.

❑ Other vector objects: gene features in micro-arrays, …

❑ Applications: information retrieval, biologic taxonomy, gene feature mapping, ...
❑ Cosine measure: If d1 and d2 are two vectors (e.g., term-frequency vectors), then
cos(d1, d2) = (d1 • d2) /||d1|| ||d2|| ,
where • indicates vector dot product, ||d||: the length of vector d

87
 Example: Cosine Similarity
❑ cos(d1, d2) = (d1 • d2) /||d1|| ||d2|| ,
where • indicates vector dot product, ||d|: the length of vector d

❑ Ex: Find the similarity between documents 1 and 2.

d1 = (5, 0, 3, 0, 2, 0, 0, 2, 0, 0)
d2 = (3, 0, 2, 0, 1, 1, 0, 1, 0, 1)

d1•d2 = 5*3+0*0+3*2+0*0+2*1+0*1+0*1+2*1+0*0+0*1 = 25
||d1||= (5*5+0*0+3*3+0*0+2*2+0*0+0*0+2*2+0*0+0*0)0.5=(42)0.5 = 6.481
||d2||= (3*3+0*0+2*2+0*0+1*1+1*1+0*0+1*1+0*0+1*1)0.5=(17)0.5 = 4.12
cos(d1, d2 ) = 0.94

88
 Data Preprocessing

❑ Data Preprocessing: An Overview

❑ Data Quality

❑ Major Tasks in Data Preprocessing

❑ Data Cleaning

❑ Data Integration

❑ Data Reduction

❑ Data Transformation and Data Discretization

89
 Data Quality: Why Preprocess the Data?

❑ Measures for data quality: A multidimensional view

❑ Accuracy: correct or wrong, accurate or not
❑ Completeness: not recorded, unavailable, …
❑ Consistency: some modified but some not, dangling, …
❑ Timeliness: timely update?
❑ Believability: how trustable the data are correct?
❑ Interpretability: how easily the data can be understood?

90
 Major Tasks in Data Preprocessing
❑ Data cleaning
❑ Fill in missing values, smooth noisy data, identify or remove outliers, and resolve
inconsistencies
❑ Data integration
❑ Integration of multiple databases, data cubes, or files
❑ Data reduction
❑ Dimensionality reduction
❑ Numerosity reduction
❑ Data compression
❑ Data transformation and data discretization
❑ Normalization
❑ Concept hierarchy generation
91
 Data Preprocessing

❑ Data Preprocessing: An Overview

❑ Data Quality

❑ Major Tasks in Data Preprocessing

❑ Data Cleaning

❑ Data Integration

❑ Data Reduction

❑ Data Transformation and Data Discretization

92
 Data Cleaning
❑ Data in the Real World Is Dirty: Lots of potentially incorrect data, e.g., instrument faulty, human or
computer error, transmission error
❑ Incomplete: lacking attribute values, lacking certain attributes of interest, or containing only
aggregate data
❑ e.g., Occupation=“ ” (missing data)
❑ Noisy: containing noise, errors, or outliers
❑ E.g., Salary=“−10” (an error)
❑ Inconsistent: containing discrepancies in codes or names, e.g.,
❑ Age=“42”, Birthday=“03/07/2010”
❑ Was rating “1, 2, 3”, now rating “A, B, C”
❑ Discrepancy between duplicate records
❑ Intentional (e.g., disguised missing data)
❑ Jan. 1 as everyone’s birthday?
93
 Incomplete (Missing) Data
❑ Data is not always available
❑ E.g., many tuples have no recorded value for several attributes, such as customer
income in sales data
❑ Missing data may be due to
❑ Equipment malfunction
❑ Inconsistent with other recorded data and thus deleted
❑ Data not entered due to misunderstanding
❑ Certain data may not be considered important at the time of entry
❑ Not register history or changes of the data
❑ Missing data may need to be inferred

94
 How to Handle Missing Data?
❑ Ignore the tuple: usually done when class label is missing (when doing
classification)—not effective when the % of missing values per attribute varies
considerably
❑ Fill in the missing value manually: tedious + infeasible?
❑ Fill in it automatically with
❑ A global constant : e.g., “unknown”, a new class?!
❑ The attribute mean
❑ The attribute mean for all samples belonging to the same class: smarter
❑ The most probable value: inference-based such as Bayesian formula or decision
tree
95
 Noisy Data
❑ Noise: random error or variance in a measured variable
❑ Incorrect attribute values may be due to
❑ faulty data collection instruments
❑ data entry problems
❑ data transmission problems
❑ technology limitation
❑ inconsistency in naming convention
❑ Other data problems which require data cleaning
❑ duplicate records
❑ incomplete data
❑ inconsistent data

96
 How to Handle Noisy Data?
❑ Binning
❑ first sort data and partition into (equal-frequency) bins
❑ then one can smooth by bin means, smooth by bin median, smooth by bin
boundaries, etc.
❑ Regression
❑ smooth by fitting the data into regression functions
❑ Clustering
❑ detect and remove outliers
❑ Combined computer and human inspection
❑ detect suspicious values and check by human (e.g., deal with possible outliers)

97
 Data Cleaning as a Process
❑ Data discrepancy detection
❑ Use metadata (e.g., domain, range, dependency, distribution)
❑ Check field overloading
❑ Check uniqueness rule, consecutive rule and null rule
❑ Use commercial tools
❑ Data scrubbing: use simple domain knowledge (e.g., postal code, spell-check) to detect errors
and make corrections
❑ Data auditing: by analyzing data to discover rules and relationship to detect violators (e.g.,
correlation and clustering to find outliers)
❑ Data migration and integration
❑ Data migration tools: allow transformations to be specified
❑ ETL (Extraction/Transformation/Loading) tools: allow users to specify transformations through
a graphical user interface
❑ Integration of the two processes
❑ Iterative and interactive (e.g., Potter’s Wheels)
98
 Data Preprocessing

❑ Data Preprocessing: An Overview

❑ Data Quality

❑ Major Tasks in Data Preprocessing

❑ Data Cleaning

❑ Data Integration

❑ Data Reduction

❑ Data Transformation and Data Discretization

99
 Data Integration
❑ Data integration:
❑ Combines data from multiple sources into a coherent store
❑ Schema integration: e.g., A.cust-id  B.cust-#
❑ Integrate metadata from different sources
❑ Entity identification problem:
❑ Identify real world entities from multiple data sources, e.g., Bill Clinton = William Clinton
❑ Detecting and resolving data value conflicts
❑ For the same real world entity, attribute values from different sources are different
❑ Possible reasons: different representations, different scales, e.g., metric vs. British units

100
 Handling Redundancy in Data Integration
❑ Redundant data occur often when integration of multiple databases
❑ Object identification: The same attribute or object may have different names
in different databases
❑ Derivable data: One attribute may be a “derived” attribute in another table,
e.g., annual revenue
❑ Redundant attributes may be able to be detected by correlation analysis and
covariance analysis
❑ Careful integration of the data from multiple sources may help reduce/avoid
redundancies and inconsistencies and improve mining speed and quality

101
 Correlation Analysis (Nominal Data)
❑ Χ2 (chi-square) test

❑ The larger the Χ2 value, the more likely the variables are related
❑ The cells that contribute the most to the Χ2 value are those whose actual count is very
different from the expected count
❑ Correlation does not imply causality
❑ # of hospitals and # of car-theft in a city are correlated
❑ Both are causally linked to the third variable: population

102
 Chi-Square Calculation: An Example

Play chess Not play chess Sum (row)

Like science fiction 250(90) 200(360) 450

Not like science fiction 50(210) 1000(840) 1050

Sum(col.) 300 1200 1500

❑ Χ2 (chi-square) calculation (numbers in parenthesis are expected counts calculated

based on the data distribution in the two categories)

❑ It shows that like_science_fiction and play_chess are correlated in the group

103
 Correlation Analysis (Numeric Data)

❑ Correlation coefficient (also called Pearson’s product moment coefficient)

where n is the number of tuples, A and Bare the respective means of A and B, σA and σB are the
respective standard deviation of A and B, and Σ(aibi) is the sum of the AB cross-product.
❑ If rA,B > 0, A and B are positively correlated (A’s values increase as B’s). The higher, the
stronger correlation.
❑ rA,B = 0: independent; rAB < 0: negatively correlated

104
 Visually Evaluating Correlation

Scatter plots showing

the similarity from –1
to 1.

105
 Correlation (viewed as linear relationship)
❑ Correlation measures the linear relationship between objects
❑ To compute correlation, we standardize data objects, A and B, and then
take their dot product

106
 Covariance (Numeric Data)
❑ Covariance is similar to correlation

Correlation coefficient:

where n is the number of tuples, A andB are the respective mean or expected values of A and B, σA and σB
are the respective standard deviation of A and B.
❑ Positive covariance: If CovA,B > 0, then A and B both tend to be larger than their expected values.
❑ Negative covariance: If CovA,B < 0 then if A is larger than its expected value, B is likely to be smaller than its
expected value.
❑ Independence: CovA,B = 0 but the converse is not true:
❑ Some pairs of random variables may have a covariance of 0 but are not independent. Only under some additional
assumptions (e.g., the data follow multivariate normal distributions) does a covariance of 0 imply independence

107 107
 Co-Variance: An Example

❑ It can be simplified in computation as

❑ Suppose two stocks A and B have the following values in one week: (2, 5), (3, 8), (5, 10), (4, 11), (6, 14).

❑ Question: If the stocks are affected by the same industry trends, will their prices rise or fall together?

❑ E(A) = (2 + 3 + 5 + 4 + 6)/ 5 = 20/5 = 4

❑ E(B) = (5 + 8 + 10 + 11 + 14) /5 = 48/5 = 9.6

❑ Cov(A,B) = (2×5+3×8+5×10+4×11+6×14)/5 − 4 × 9.6 = 4

❑ Thus, A and B rise together since Cov(A, B) > 0.

108
 Data Preprocessing

❑ Data Preprocessing: An Overview

❑ Data Quality

❑ Major Tasks in Data Preprocessing

❑ Data Cleaning

❑ Data Integration

❑ Data Reduction

❑ Data Transformation and Data Discretization

109
 Data Reduction Strategies
❑ Data reduction: Obtain a reduced representation of the data set that is much smaller in volume
but yet produces the same (or almost the same) analytical results
❑ Why data reduction? — A database/data warehouse may store terabytes of data. Complex
data analysis may take a very long time to run on the complete data set.
❑ Data reduction strategies
❑ Dimensionality reduction, e.g., remove unimportant attributes
❑ Wavelet transforms
❑ Principal Components Analysis (PCA)
❑ Feature subset selection, feature creation
❑ Numerosity reduction (some simply call it: Data Reduction)
❑ Regression and Log-Linear Models
❑ Histograms, clustering, sampling
❑ Data cube aggregation
❑ Data compression
110
 Data Reduction 1: Dimensionality Reduction
❑ Curse of dimensionality
❑ When dimensionality increases, data becomes increasingly sparse
❑ Density and distance between points, which is critical to clustering, outlier analysis, becomes less
meaningful
❑ The possible combinations of subspaces will grow exponentially
❑ Dimensionality reduction
❑ Avoid the curse of dimensionality
❑ Help eliminate irrelevant features and reduce noise
❑ Reduce time and space required in data mining
❑ Allow easier visualization
❑ Dimensionality reduction techniques
❑ Wavelet transforms
❑ Principal Component Analysis
❑ Supervised and nonlinear techniques (e.g., feature selection)
111
 Mapping Data to a New Space
◼ Fourier transform
◼ Wavelet transform

Two Sine Waves Two Sine Waves + Noise Frequency

112
 What Is Wavelet Transform?
❑ Decomposes a signal into different
frequency subbands
❑ Applicable to n-dimensional signals
❑ Data are transformed to preserve relative
distance between objects at different levels
of resolution
❑ Allow natural clusters to become more
distinguishable
❑ Used for image compression

113
 Wavelet Transformation
Haar2 Daubechie4
❑ Discrete wavelet transform (DWT) for linear signal processing, multi-resolution analysis
❑ Compressed approximation: store only a small fraction of the strongest of the wavelet
coefficients
❑ Similar to discrete Fourier transform (DFT), but better lossy compression, localized in
space
❑ Method:
❑ Length, L, must be an integer power of 2 (padding with 0’s, when necessary)
❑ Each transform has 2 functions: smoothing, difference
❑ Applies to pairs of data, resulting in two set of data of length L/2
❑ Applies two functions recursively, until reaches the desired length

114
 Wavelet Decomposition
❑ Wavelets: A math tool for space-efficient hierarchical decomposition of functions
❑ S = [2, 2, 0, 2, 3, 5, 4, 4] can be transformed to S^ = [23/4, -11/4, 1/2, 0, 0, -1, -1, 0]
❑ Compression: many small detail coefficients can be replaced by 0’s, and only the
significant coefficients are retained

115
 Haar Wavelet Coefficients
Coefficient “Supports”
Hierarchical
decomposition structure 2.75
2.75 +
(a.k.a. “error tree”) +
-1.25
-1.25 + -
+ -

0.5 0
0.5 + -
+ - + - 0 + -
0 -1 -1 0
+ - + - + - + -
0 + -
2 2 0 2 3 5 4 4
-1 + -
-1 + -
Original frequency distribution 0 + -
116
 Why Wavelet Transform?
❑ Use hat-shape filters
❑ Emphasize region where points cluster
❑ Suppress weaker information in their boundaries
❑ Effective removal of outliers
❑ Insensitive to noise, insensitive to input order
❑ Multi-resolution
❑ Detect arbitrary shaped clusters at different scales
❑ Efficient
❑ Complexity O(N)
❑ Only applicable to low dimensional data

117
 Principal Component Analysis (PCA)
❑ Find a projection that captures the largest amount of variation in data
❑ The original data are projected onto a much smaller space, resulting in dimensionality reduction. We
find the eigenvectors of the covariance matrix, and these eigenvectors define the new space

x2

x1

118
 Principal Component Analysis (Steps)
❑ Given N data vectors from n-dimensions, find k ≤ n orthogonal vectors (principal
components) that can be best used to represent data
❑ Normalize input data: Each attribute falls within the same range
❑ Compute k orthonormal (unit) vectors, i.e., principal components
❑ Each input data (vector) is a linear combination of the k principal component vectors
❑ The principal components are sorted in order of decreasing “significance” or strength
❑ Since the components are sorted, the size of the data can be reduced by eliminating the
weak components, i.e., those with low variance (i.e., using the strongest principal
components, it is possible to reconstruct a good approximation of the original data)
❑ Works for numeric data only

119
 Attribute Subset Selection
❑ Another way to reduce dimensionality of data
❑ Redundant attributes
❑ Duplicate much or all of the information contained in one or more other attributes
❑ E.g., purchase price of a product and the amount of sales tax paid
❑ Irrelevant attributes
❑ Contain no information that is useful for the data mining task at hand
❑ E.g., students' ID is often irrelevant to the task of predicting students' GPA

120
 Heuristic Search in Attribute Selection
❑ There are 2d possible attribute combinations of d attributes
❑ Typical heuristic attribute selection methods:
❑ Best single attribute under the attribute independence assumption: choose by
significance tests
❑ Best step-wise feature selection:
❑ The best single-attribute is picked first
❑ Then next best attribute condition to the first, ...
❑ Step-wise attribute elimination:
❑ Repeatedly eliminate the worst attribute
❑ Best combined attribute selection and elimination
❑ Optimal branch and bound:

121
❑ Use attribute elimination and backtracking
 Attribute Creation (Feature Generation)
❑ Create new attributes (features) that can capture the important information in a data
set more effectively than the original ones
❑ Three general methodologies
❑ Attribute extraction
❑ Domain-specific
❑ Mapping data to new space (see: data reduction)
❑ E.g., Fourier transformation, wavelet transformation, manifold approaches (not
covered)
❑ Attribute construction
❑ Combining features (see: discriminative frequent patterns in Chapter 7)
❑ Data discretization

122
 Data Reduction 2: Numerosity Reduction
❑ Reduce data volume by choosing alternative, smaller forms of data representation
❑ Parametric methods (e.g., regression)
❑ Assume the data fits some model, estimate model parameters, store only the
parameters, and discard the data (except possible outliers)
❑ Ex.: Log-linear models—obtain value at a point in m-D space as the product on
appropriate marginal subspaces
❑ Non-parametric methods
❑ Do not assume models
❑ Major families: histograms, clustering, sampling, …

123
 Parametric Data Reduction: Regression and Log-Linear Models

❑ Linear regression
❑ Data modeled to fit a straight line
❑ Often uses the least-square method to fit the line
❑ Multiple regression
❑ Allows a response variable Y to be modeled as a linear function of
multidimensional feature vector
❑ Log-linear model
❑ Approximates discrete multidimensional probability distributions

124
 y

Regression Analysis
Y1
❑ Regression analysis: A collective name for techniques for the
modeling and analysis of numerical data consisting of values of a Y1’ y=x+1
dependent variable (also called response variable or
measurement) and of one or more independent variables (aka.
explanatory variables or predictors) x
X1
❑ The parameters are estimated so as to give a "best fit" of the
data ❑ Used for prediction (including forecasting o
❑ Most commonly the best fit is evaluated by using the least time-series data), inference, hypothesis
squares method, but other criteria have also been used testing, and modeling of causal
relationships

125
 Regress Analysis and Log-Linear Models
❑ Linear regression: Y = w X + b
❑ Two regression coefficients, w and b, specify the line and are to be estimated by using the data at
hand
❑ Using the least squares criterion to the known values of Y1, Y2, …, X1, X2, ….
❑ Multiple regression: Y = b0 + b1 X1 + b2 X2
❑ Many nonlinear functions can be transformed into the above
❑ Log-linear models:
❑ Approximate discrete multidimensional probability distributions
❑ Estimate the probability of each point (tuple) in a multi-dimensional space for a set of discretized
attributes, based on a smaller subset of dimensional combinations
❑ Useful for dimensionality reduction and data smoothing

126
 Histogram Analysis
❑ Divide data into buckets and store average40
(sum) for each bucket
35
❑ Partitioning rules:
30
❑ Equal-width: equal bucket range
25
❑ Equal-frequency (or equal-depth)
20
15
10
5
0
10000 30000 50000 70000 90000
127
 Clustering
❑ Partition data set into clusters based on similarity, and store cluster representation
(e.g., centroid and diameter) only
❑ Can be very effective if data is clustered but not if data is “smeared”
❑ Can have hierarchical clustering and be stored in multi-dimensional index tree
structures
❑ There are many choices of clustering definitions and clustering algorithms
❑ Cluster analysis will be studied in depth in Chapter 10

128
 Sampling
❑ Sampling: obtaining a small sample s to represent the whole data set N
❑ Allow a mining algorithm to run in complexity that is potentially sub-linear to the size
of the data
❑ Key principle: Choose a representative subset of the data
❑ Simple random sampling may have very poor performance in the presence of skew
❑ Develop adaptive sampling methods, e.g., stratified sampling:
❑ Note: Sampling may not reduce database I/Os (page at a time)

129
 Types of Sampling
❑ Simple random sampling
❑ There is an equal probability of selecting any particular item
❑ Sampling without replacement
❑ Once an object is selected, it is removed from the population
❑ Sampling with replacement
❑ A selected object is not removed from the population
❑ Stratified sampling:
❑ Partition the data set, and draw samples from each partition (proportionally, i.e.,
approximately the same percentage of the data)
❑ Used in conjunction with skewed data

130
 Sampling: With or without Replacement

Raw Data

131
 Sampling: Cluster or Stratified Sampling

Raw Data Cluster/Stratified Sample

132
 Data Cube Aggregation
❑ The lowest level of a data cube (base cuboid)
❑ The aggregated data for an individual entity of interest
❑ E.g., a customer in a phone calling data warehouse
❑ Multiple levels of aggregation in data cubes
❑ Further reduce the size of data to deal with
❑ Reference appropriate levels
❑ Use the smallest representation which is enough to solve the task
❑ Queries regarding aggregated information should be answered using data cube, when
possible

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 Data Reduction 3: Data Compression
❑ String compression
❑ There are extensive theories and well-tuned algorithms
❑ Typically lossless, but only limited manipulation is possible without expansion
❑ Audio/video compression
❑ Typically lossy compression, with progressive refinement
❑ Sometimes small fragments of signal can be reconstructed without reconstructing the
whole
❑ Time sequence is not audio
❑ Typically short and vary slowly with time
❑ Dimensionality and numerosity reduction may also be considered as forms of data
compression

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 Data Compression

Original Data Compressed

Data
lossless

Original Data
Approximated

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 Data Preprocessing

❑ Data Preprocessing: An Overview

❑ Data Quality

❑ Major Tasks in Data Preprocessing

❑ Data Cleaning

❑ Data Integration

❑ Data Reduction

❑ Data Transformation and Data Discretization

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 Data Transformation
❑ A function that maps the entire set of values of a given attribute to a new set of replacement values
s.t. each old value can be identified with one of the new values
❑ Methods
❑ Smoothing: Remove noise from data
❑ Attribute/feature construction
❑ New attributes constructed from the given ones
❑ Aggregation: Summarization, data cube construction
❑ Normalization: Scaled to fall within a smaller, specified range
❑ min-max normalization
❑ z-score normalization
❑ normalization by decimal scaling
❑ Discretization: Concept hierarchy climbing
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 Normalization
❑ Min-max normalization: to [new_minA, new_maxA]

❑ Ex. Let income range $12,000 to $98,000 normalized to [0.0, 1.0]. Then $73,000 is mapped to
❑ Z-score normalization (μ: mean, σ: standard deviation):

❑ Ex. Let μ = 54,000, σ = 16,000. Then

❑ Normalization by decimal scaling

Where j is the smallest integer such that Max(|ν’|) < 1

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 Discretization
❑ Three types of attributes
❑ Nominal—values from an unordered set, e.g., color, profession
❑ Ordinal—values from an ordered set, e.g., military or academic rank
❑ Numeric—real numbers, e.g., integer or real numbers
❑ Discretization: Divide the range of a continuous attribute into intervals
❑ Interval labels can then be used to replace actual data values
❑ Reduce data size by discretization
❑ Supervised vs. unsupervised
❑ Split (top-down) vs. merge (bottom-up)
❑ Discretization can be performed recursively on an attribute
❑ Prepare for further analysis, e.g., classification

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 Data Discretization Methods
❑ Typical methods: All the methods can be applied recursively
❑ Binning
❑ Top-down split, unsupervised
❑ Histogram analysis
❑ Top-down split, unsupervised
❑ Clustering analysis (unsupervised, top-down split or bottom-up merge)
❑ Decision-tree analysis (supervised, top-down split)
❑ Correlation (e.g., 2) analysis (unsupervised, bottom-up merge)

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 Simple Discretization: Binning

❑ Equal-width (distance) partitioning

❑ Divides the range into N intervals of equal size: uniform grid
❑ if A and B are the lowest and highest values of the attribute, the width of intervals will be: W = (B –
A)/N.
❑ The most straightforward, but outliers may dominate presentation
❑ Skewed data is not handled well

❑ Equal-depth (frequency) partitioning

❑ Divides the range into N intervals, each containing approximately same number of samples
❑ Good data scaling
❑ Managing categorical attributes can be tricky

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 Binning Methods for Data Smoothing
❑ Sorted data for price (in dollars): 4, 8, 9, 15, 21, 21, 24, 25, 26, 28, 29, 34
* Partition into equal-frequency (equi-depth) bins:
- Bin 1: 4, 8, 9, 15
- Bin 2: 21, 21, 24, 25
- Bin 3: 26, 28, 29, 34
* Smoothing by bin means:
- Bin 1: 9, 9, 9, 9
- Bin 2: 23, 23, 23, 23
- Bin 3: 29, 29, 29, 29
* Smoothing by bin boundaries:
- Bin 1: 4, 4, 4, 15
- Bin 2: 21, 21, 25, 25
- Bin 3: 26, 26, 26, 34

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 Discretization Without Using Class Labels
(Binning vs. Clustering)

Data Equal interval width (binning)

Equal frequency (binning) K-means clustering leads to better results

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 Discretization by Classification & Correlation
Analysis
❑ Classification (e.g., decision tree analysis)

❑ Supervised: Given class labels, e.g., cancerous vs. benign

❑ Using entropy to determine split point (discretization point)

❑ Top-down, recursive split

❑ Details to be covered in Chapter 7

❑ Correlation analysis (e.g., Chi-merge: χ2-based discretization)

❑ Supervised: use class information

❑ Bottom-up merge: find the best neighboring intervals (those having similar distributions of classes,
i.e., low χ2 values) to merge

❑ Merge performed recursively, until a predefined stopping condition

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 Concept Hierarchy Generation
❑ Concept hierarchy organizes concepts (i.e., attribute values) hierarchically and is usually associated with
each dimension in a data warehouse
❑ Concept hierarchies facilitate drilling and rolling in data warehouses to view data in multiple granularity
❑ Concept hierarchy formation: Recursively reduce the data by collecting and replacing low level concepts
(such as numeric values for age) by higher level concepts (such as youth, adult, or senior)
❑ Concept hierarchies can be explicitly specified by domain experts and/or data warehouse designers
❑ Concept hierarchy can be automatically formed for both numeric and nominal data. For numeric data,
use discretization methods shown.

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 Concept Hierarchy Generation for Nominal Data

❑ Specification of a partial/total ordering of attributes explicitly at the schema level by

users or experts
❑ street < city < state < country
❑ Specification of a hierarchy for a set of values by explicit data grouping
❑ {Urbana, Champaign, Chicago} < Illinois
❑ Specification of only a partial set of attributes
❑ E.g., only street < city, not others
❑ Automatic generation of hierarchies (or attribute levels) by the analysis of the number
of distinct values
❑ E.g., for a set of attributes: {street, city, state, country}

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 Automatic Concept Hierarchy Generation
❑Some hierarchies can be automatically generated based on the analysis of the
number of distinct values per attribute in the data set
❑ The attribute with the most distinct values is placed at the lowest level of the
hierarchy
❑ Exceptions, e.g., weekday, month, quarter, year

country 15 distinct values

province_or_ state 365 distinct values

city 3567 distinct values

street 674,339 distinct values

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END OF UNIT - I