Number Theory
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ScribdTranslationsNumber Theory, Logic,
Mathematical
Induction
Hernan Laime Zanga
Literature
1. José Plínio de Oliveira Santos, Introduction to
Number Theory
2. Anthony J. Pettofrezzo, Introduction to Number
Theory
Introduction ´´ ´
Introduction
1. Show that if n is odd, then n2
- 1 is divisible by 8.
2. Let x, y, z be integers such that + - is a
x3 y3 z3
multiple of 7. Show that one of these numbers
is a multiple of 7.
Yo YO.
T_
Number Theory
Def. 1. An integer n (n > 1) that has only two positive
divisors n and 1 is called prime. If n > 1 is not prime, we
say that n is composite.
Example The first cousins are:
{2, 3, 5, 7, 11, 13, 17, 19, 23, 29, 31, }
Example Let pi be the i-th prime. The number
N = p1 · p2 · · · pn + 1 may or may not be prime.
Number Theory
Prop 1. If p|ab, p prime, then p|aop|b.
Proof.
Example How many perfect squares are there
between 40000 and 640000 that are multiples of
3, 4 and 5 simultaneously?
Theorem 1. Every integer greater than 1 can be uniquely
represented (except for order) as a product of prime factors.
Proof.
Number Theory
How to decide if n is prime?
Theorem 2. Let a, b, n ∈ N, a > 1, b > 1 and n > 1.
a) . If n = ab, then a ≤ √n ∨ b ≤ √n
b) . If n has no prime divisors ≤ √n, then n is prime.
Example: is n = 103 composite or not?
Example: is n = 2311 prime or not?
Number Theory
How many cousins are there?
Theorem 3. (Euclid) There are an infinite number of primes.
Proof.
How many primes are there ≤ x?
π(x) denotes the number of primes less than or
equal to x. For example π(5) = π(6) = 3. As of 2008,
all primes less than x = are known. you have
1023
π(10 ) = 1925320391606803968923
23
Number Theory
Theorem 4. (Legendre's formula). Let p1, p2, ..., be the
ps
primes ≤ √n, then
=n-1+π(√n) ^≤ ^pni^
-1 i≤s +^i
- ^ ^ n ^+...+(-1) ^ n ^
s
pipjpk p1p2...ps
Yo
Example Calculate π(100) with Legendre's
formula.
Number Theory
Solution: The data are: n 100
= 100, V100 = 10, the
primes < 10 are {2,3,5,7} and
2 • 3 T•(V/100)
7 = 4.
(‘2”] + ■ [ 7)
n(100) =100 - 1 + 4
/ 100 100
+\23 J+ +... +
2.5
_ ( +2+ 10
\L2 • 3 • 5_ 0
I 100
+ 10 )
2•3•5•7 ... +
3 • 05 7
I = 25
Number Theory
Number Theory
Def. 2. (Least Common Multiple) The least common multiple
of two positive integers a and b is the smallest positive
integer that is divisible by a and b. Let's denote by [a, b].
Example Find [936, 588] using the fundamental
theorem of arithmetic.
Number Theory
Prop 2. If a = p1a1 p2a2...pann and b = pb11 pb22...pbnn
where p1, p2, ..., pn are the primes that occur in the
factorizations of a and b, then
max{a1,b1} max{a2,b2} max{an,bn}
[a, b] = p1 p2 ...pn
Proof.
Prop 3. If x and y are real numbers then
max{x, y} + min{x, y} = x + y
Proof.
Number Theory
Theorem 5. For positive integers a and b we have,
[a, b] · (a, b) = a · b
Proof.
Theorem 6. Let b be a positive integer greater than 1.
Then every positive integer n can be uniquely represented
in the following way:
n = akb + ak-1b + ... + a1b + a0
-
where k ≥ 0, ak = 0 and 0 ≤ ai < b, i = 0, 1, 2, ..., k Test.
An example to understand the test. The number 53742 is to
be represented in base 7. ´´ ´ ´ ´
Introduction
Example Let n be an integer greater than
1. Show that + is not prime.
4n n4
Obs. 1. (Facts that help)
An integer other than 0 and ±1 is prime or composite.
It will be composite if it is the product of two integers,
neither of which is equal to ±1.
´´ ´ 4 A IAA
Introduction
Example How many zeros does 1000 end in?
Obs. 2. (Facts that help)
It is the same as asking how many times the factor 10
appears in 1000!
´´ ´
Congruence
Def. 3. If a and b are integers, we say that a is congruent to
b modulo m (m > 1) if m|(a - b). We denote this by a ≡
b(mod m). If ∤ (a - b) we will say that a is incongruent to b
modulo m and we denote a ≡ b(mod m).
Example 11 ≡ 3(mod 2) since 2|(11 - 3). Since 5 ∤ 6
and 6=17-11 we have that 17 ≡ 11(mod 5).
Prop 4. If a and b are integers, then a ≡ b(mod m) if and
only if there exists an integer k such that a = b + km.
Proof.
Congruence
Prop 5. If a, b, m and d are integers, m > 0, the following
statements are true:
1. a ≡ a(mod m)
2. a ≡ b(mod m) then b ≡ a(mod m)
3. a ≡ b(mod m) and b ≡ d(mod m) then a ≡ d(mod m)
Proof.
Congruence
Theorem 7. If a, b, c and m are integers such that a ≡
b(mod m), then
1. a + c ≡ b + c(mod m)
2. a - c ≡ b - c(mod m)
3. ac ≡ bc(mod m)
Proof.
Congruence
Theorem 8. If a, b, c, d and m are integers such that a ≡
b(mod m) and c ≡ d(mod m), then
1. a + c ≡ b + d(mod m)
2. a - c ≡ b - d(mod m)
3. ac ≡ bd(mod m)
Proof.
a, b, k, and m are integers with k > 0 and a ≡
Prop 6. If
b(mod m), then ≡ (mod m).
ak bk
Proof. By Induction
Congruence
Theorem 9. If a, b, c and m are integers and ac ≡ bc(mod m),
then a ≡ b(mod md ) where d = (c, m).
Example 21x ≡ 15(mod 39).
Def. 4. If h and k are two integers with h ≡ k(mod m), we say
that k is a residue modulo m.
Example Find the remainder of dividing 230
by 15.
Yo____1.
Congruence
Def. 5. The set of integers {r1, r2, ..., } is a complete system of
rs
residues modulo m if
1. ri ≡ rj (mod m) for i = j
2. for every integer n there exists a rit such that
n ≡ ri(mod m).
Example Determine which of the following are
complete waste systems module 4.
a) .{0, 1, 2, 3} c).{0, 4, 8, 12} e).{-5, 0, 6, 22}
b) .{-2, -1, 0, 1} d).{-13, 4, 17, 18}
Congruence
Theorem 10. if a ≡ b(mod m1), a ≡ b(mod m2),...,a ≡ b(mod
mk), where a, b, m1, m2, ..., mk are integers with positive e, i = 1,
2, ..., k, then
a ≡ b(mod [m1, m2, ..., mk])
where [m1, m2, ..., mk] is the least common multiple of m1,
m2, ..., mk.
Proof.
Linear Congruence
Def. 6. We call linear congruence in one variable a congruence
ax ≡ b(mod m) where x is the unknown.
of the form
There are two types of solutions:
Incongruent Solution
Def. 7. The integers that satisfy a certain linear congruence and
belong to different residual classes modulo m.
Example Find the incongruent solution of the linear
congruence 5x ≡ 2(mod 6) ´´ ´ ´ ´
Linear Congruence
Congruent Solution
Def. 8. The integers that satisfy a given linear congruence
modulo m and m belong to the same residual class.
Example Find the congruent solution of the linear
congruence 5x ≡ 2(mod 6). The only incongruent
solution is 4 = 4 and
4 = {b ∈ Z : 4 ≡ b(mod 6)}
= {-14, -8, -2, 4, 10, 14, 18,...}
= {congruent solutions}
´´ ´ ´ ´
Linear Congruence
How many incongruent solutions are there?
We will first see the existence of solutions for a linear
Diophantine equation.
Def. 9. An equation of the form ax + by = c where a, b and c
are integers, is called a linear Diophantine equation. Theorem
11. Let a and b be integers and d = (a, b). If d ∤ c then the
equation ax + by = c has no integer solution. If d|c, the
equation has infinitely many solutions and if x = x0 and ey = y0
is a particular solution, then all solutions are given by
x = x0 + (b/d)k, y = y0 + (a/d)k, k∈Z
´´ ´ ´
Linear Congruence
With the mentioned theorem we can now say how
many incongruent solutions there are (if any) that
the linear congruence ax ≡ b(mod m) has.
Theorem 12. Let a, b and m be integers such that m > 0 and
(a, m) = d. In the case d ∤ b the congruence ax ≡ b(mod m)
has no solutions n and when d|b, it has exactly d incongruent
solutions modulo m.
Example Find the incongruent solutions of the linear
congruence 21x ≡ 15(mod 39) ´´ ´ ´ ´
The Chinese Remainder Theorem
Theorem 13. If (ai, mi ) = 1, (mi, mj) = 1 for i = j and ci integer,
then the system
a1x ≡ c1(mod m1)
a2x ≡ c2(mod m2)
a2x ≡ c3(mod m3)
arx ≡ (mod )
cr mr
has a solution n and the solution is unique modulo m, where
m = m1 · m2 · ... · .
mr
Proof. T—
´´
The Chinese Remainder Theorem
Linear Solve the system of congruences
example.
x ≡ 8(mod 5)
x ≡ 5(mod 3)
x ≡ 11(mod 7)
x ≡ 2(mod 4)
´´ ´´
Application of linear congruence
Comment 1. Let n = ^ik=0 ai10i be the representation of a
positive integer n in base 10. So n is divisible by 7, 11 or 13.
Proof. We observe that 7 · 11 · 13 = 1001 and
103 = 1000 ≡ -1(mod 1001) we have
(akak-1...a0)10 =ak10k + ak-110k-1 + ... + a110 + a0
=(10 a2 + 10a1 + a0) + 10 (10 a5 + 10a4 + a3) +
(103) (102a8 + 10a7 + ) + ...
2
a6
(a2a1a0) - (a5a4a3) +
10 10
(a8a7a6) 10
module 1001 T— 1____1.
´´
Application of linear congruence
Example Test whether the numbers
465647 and 2210000 are divisible by 7, 11,
or 13.
Application of linear congruence
Yo____1.
