MODULE-1

Sensors and Transducers

 MECHATRONICS

Mechatronics is a Japanese word which denotes the combination of

“mecha” from mechanism and “ tronics” from electronics.
• Mechatronics is defined as a multi-
disciplinary field of study that implies the
synergistic integration of electronic
engineering, electrical engineering , control
engineering and intelligent computer control
with mechanical engineering for the design
and manufacture of products and processes
 MECHATRONIC SYSTEM
• The interfacing components present in a mechatronics field connected to form a
system known as mechatronic system.
• The interfacing components are mechanical system, electrical system, electronic
system etc.
System
• A system may be defined as a black box which has an input and an output.
• System is concerned only with the relationship between the input and output and
not on the process going on inside the box.

input motor output

Electric power Rotation

 OBJECTIVE OF MECHATRONIC SYSTEM
• Integration of mechanical systems with electronics and computer systems.
• Improve efficiency of the system.
• Reduce cost of production.
• Achieve high accuracy and precision.
ELEMENTS OF A MECHATRONIC SYSTEM
 ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF MECHATRONIC
SYSTEM

• Mechatronic systems have made it very easy to design processes and products.
• Mechatronic systems help in optimizing performance and quality.
• Field of mechatronics requires a knowledge of different disciplines.
• The design cannot be finalized and safety issues are complicated.
 MECHATRONICS APPLICATIONS
• Medical: Implant devices, assisted surgery.
• Defense: Under water vehicles, jet engines.
• Automotive: Climate control, antilock brake, cruise control, air bags,
speedometer display.
• Manufacturing: Robotics, Machines
• Smart consumer products: Home security, microwave oven, washing
machine, cameras, sewing machines etc.
• Network-centric, distributed systems: Intelligent highways,
Distributed robotics etc.
Transducer
• A device which converts one form of energy to another
• When input is a physical quantity and output electrical →
Sensor
• When input is electrical and output a physical quantity →
Actuator

Sensors Actuators e.g. Piezoelectric:

Electrical Input Force -> voltage
Physical
parameter Voltage-> Force

=> Ultrasound!

Electrical Physical Output

Output Microphone, Loud Speaker
Sensors
▪ Sensors are electronic devices that measure the physical quantity or produces
a signal relating to the quantity being measured.

▪A sensor acquires a physical quantity and converts it into a signal suitable for
processing (e.g. optical, electrical, mechanical)
▪Physical quantities can be temperature, pressure,light….
▪Nowadays common sensors convert measurement of physical phenomena into an
electrical signal
▪Active element of a sensor is called a transducer
Need for Sensors
• Sensors are pervasive. They are embedded in our bodies, automobiles,
airplanes, cellular telephones, radios, chemical plants, industrial plants
and countless other applications.
• Without the use of sensors, there would be no automation !!
 PERFORMANCE CHARACTERISTICS
• Static and Dynamic Characteristics
• The Static characteristics are the values given after the steady-state
conditions occur, i.e. the values given when the transducer has settled
down after receiving some input.
• The static characteristics of an instrument are considered for
instruments that are used to measure unvarying process conditions

Static

Dynamic
Static Characteristics
1. Range and Span: The region between the limits within which an input can vary is called
the range of a sensor.
• The algebraic difference between the maximum and minimum limits of an input value is
known as span of a sensor .
• For example, the temperature,
Range = 10o C to 50o C and
Span =50 - 10= 40o C
2. Error: It is the difference between the result of the measurement and the true value of the
quantity being measured. A sensor might give a displacement reading of 29.8 mm, when
the actual displacement had been 30 mm, then the error is –0.2 mm.
3. Accuracy: Accuracy may be defined as the degree of closeness to the true value of the
quantity being measured.
4. Precision: Precision is the degree of repeatability. Precision refers to the degree of
closeness of agreement within which a group of measurements are repeatedly made
under the prescribed conditions.
5. Resolution: Resolution or Discrimination is the smallest change in the input value that
is required to cause an appreciable change in the output.
6. Sensitivity: It is defined as the ratio of the change in output signal to change in the
input quantity. If the sensitivity is constant , then the sensor is said to be linear one. If the
sensitivity is variable, then the sensor is said to be non-linear one.
7. Noise: A signal generated by internal circuitry or external interference that is
superimposed or added to the output signal.
8. Drift: The term drift is an undesirable change or gradual departure in output over a
period of time that is unrelated to change in input, operating conditions or load. Zero drift
is used when there is a change in output at zero input.
9. Non-linearity Error: The maximum deviation of the output curve from the best-fit
straight line curve during a calibration cycle is known as non-linearity error.
10. Hysteresis Error:
• When input increases, output also increases and a calibration curve can be drawn. If
input is decreased from maximum value and if output does not follow the same curve,
then there will be a residual output when input is zero. This phenomenon is called
hysteresis.
• The algebraic difference in output for increasing and decreasing values is known as
Hysteresis Error.
11. Threshold: It is the minimum value of the input required to cause the pointer to
move from zero position.
12. Dead band or Dead zone: It is the largest range of input values for which there is no
output. It is caused by factors such as friction, backlash and hysteresis.
13. Backlash: It may be defined as the maximum distance or angle through which part
of a mechanical system can be moved without causing any motion of next part of the
system.
Dynamic Characteristics
• The Dynamic characteristics refer to the behavior between the time that the input
value changes and the time that the value given by the transducer settles down to the
steady-state
1. Speed of response: Indicates how fast the sensor (measurement system) reacts to
changes in the input variable. (Step input)
2. Rise time: Rise time is the time required for the output to rise from 10% to 95% of
the steady state value.
3. Time constant: The time constant is the measure of the inertia of the sensor and so
how fast it will react to changes in its input. The time for the output to change by
63.2% of its maximum possible change.
4. Settling time: Settling time is the time taken by a system to be within a close range
of its steady-slate value.
5. Frequency Response: It describes how the ratio of output and input changes with
the input frequency. (sinusoidal input)
6. Bandwidth: It is the range of frequencies for which its dynamic sensitivity is
satisfactory.
 TEMPERATURE SENSORS
• Temperature conveys the state of a mechanical system in terms of expansion or
contraction of solids, liquids or gases, change in electrical resistance of
conductors, semiconductors and thermoelectric emfs.
• Temperature sensors such as bimetallic strips, thermocouples, thermistors are
widely used in monitoring of manufacturing processes such as casting, molding,
metal cutting etc.
 BIMETALLIC STRIPS
• Bimetallic strips are used as thermal switch in
controlling the temperature or heat in a manufacturing
process or system. It contains two different metal strips
bonded together.
• The metals have different coefficients of expansion.
On heating the strips bend into curved strips with the
metal with higher coefficient of expansion on the
outside of the curve.
• As the strips bend, the soft iron comes in closer
proximity of the small magnet and further touches.
• Then the electric circuit completes and generates an
alarm.
• In this way bimetallic strips help to protect the desired
application from heating above the pre-set value of
temperature.
 RESISTANCE TEMPERATURE DETECTORS (RTDs)
• RTDs work on the principle that the electric resistance of a metal changes due to change
in its temperature.
• On heating up metals, their resistance increases and follows a linear relationship.
• The correlation is Rt = R0 (1 + αT) where Rt is the resistance at temperature T (⁰C) and
R0 is the temperature at 0⁰C and α is the constant for the metal termed as temperature
coefficient of resistance.
• The sensor is usually made to have a resistance of 100 Ω at 0 °C.
 THERMISTORS
• Thermistors follow the principle of decrease in resistance
with increasing temperature.
• The material used in thermistor is generally a
semiconductor material such as a sintered metal oxide
(mixtures of metal oxides, chromium, cobalt, iron,
manganese and nickel) or doped polycrystalline ceramic
containing barium titanate (BaTiO3) and other
compounds.
• As the temperature of semiconductor material increases
the number of electrons able to move about increases
which results in more current in the material and reduced
resistance.
• Thermistors are rugged and small in dimensions. They
exhibit nonlinear response characteristics
 THERMOCOUPLE
• Thermocouple works on the fact that when a junction of dissimilar metals heated, it
produces an electric potential related to temperature.
• As per Thomas Seebeck (1821), when two wires composed of dissimilar metals are
joined at both ends and one of the ends is heated, then there is a continuous current
which flows in the thermoelectric circuit.
• The net open circuit voltage (the Seebeck voltage) is a function of junction temperature
and composition of two metals.

• Type J  0 to 750 °C
• Type K -200 to 1250 °C
• Type E  -200 to 900 °C
• Type T  -250 to 350 °C
 FLOW SENSOR
• Liquid flow is generally measured by applying the Bernoulli’s principle of fluid
flow through a constriction.
• The quantity of fluid flow is computed by using the pressure drop measured.
• The fluid flow volume is proportional to square root of pressure difference at the
two ends of the constriction.
• There are various types of fluid flow measurement devices being used in
manufacturing automation such as Orifice plate, Turbine meter etc.
 ORIFICE PLATE
• It has a disc with a hole at its center, through
which the fluid flows.
• The pressure difference is measured between a
point equal to the diameter of the tube
upstream and a point equal to the half the
diameter downstream.
• The differential pressure measurement
principle is stated as “the differential pressure
developed across the orifice meter is directly
proportional to the flow rate of the fluid.
• This pressure difference is measured with the
help of “U-tube manometers
• Orifice plate is inexpensive and simple in
construction with no moving parts.
 TURBINE METER
• Turbine flow meter has an accuracy of
±0.3%. It has a multi blade rotor
mounted centrally in the pipe along
which the flow is to be measured.
• The fluid flow rotates the rotor.
• Accordingly the magnetic pick up coil
counts the number of magnetic pulses
generated due to the distortion of
magnetic field by the rotor blades.
• The angular velocity is proportional to
the number of pulses and fluid flow is
proportional to angular velocity.
 PRESSURE SENSORS
• Sensing of pressure is only second in importance to sensing of strain in mechanical
systems
• These sensors are used either in their own right, (to measure pressure), or to sense
secondary quantities such as force, power, temperature.
• One of the reasons for their prominence is that in sensing gases and fluids, force is
not an option – only pressure can be measured and related to properties of these
substances.
• Another reason for their widespread use and of exposure of most people to them is
their use in cars, atmospheric weather prediction, heating and other consumer
oriented devices.
• The “barometer” hanging on many a wall and the use of atmospheric pressure as
indication of weather conditions has helped popularize the concept of pressure and
pressure sensing.
 BOURDON PRESSURE GAUGE
• The Bourdon tube is the central component of the Bourdon
gauge.
• The tube is produced in a coiled, or semi-circular, C shape.
• One end of the tube is sealed shut, and the other is exposed
to the atmosphere.
• The tube expands and straightens in response to any rise in
system pressure; this tiny change is amplified by the tube's
form.
DIAPHRAGM PRESSURE SENSOR
 BELLOWS AND DIAPHRAGMS
• Principle: expansion of a diaphragm or a bellows under the influence of pressure.
• The motion produces may be used to directly drive an indicator or
• May be sensed by a displacement sensor (LVDT, magnetic, capacitive etc.).
• One side is held fixed (in this case by the small screw which also serves to adjust, or
calibrate it)
• The other moves in response to pressure.
• The device is hermetically sealed at a given pressure
• Any pressure below the internal pressure will force the diaphragm to expand (like a
balloon)
• Any higher pressure will force it to contract.
• Very simple and trivially inexpensive, but there will be chances of possibility of leakage.
• One of its common uses is in “vacuum motors” used in vehicles to activate valves and to
move slats and doors, particularly in heating and air conditioning systems.
 MEMBRANES AND PLATES
• The most common devices used for pressure
sensing are the thin plate and the diaphragm or
membrane.
• Membrane: a thin plate with negligible thickness
• Thin plate: a thick membrane
• Their behavior and response to pressure is different.
The deflection of the center of a membrane
(maximum deflection) which is under radial tension
S and the stress in the diaphragm are given as:
 DISPLACEMENT SENSOR
• Displacement sensors are concerned with the measurement of amount by which
some object has moved.
• In continuous processes, the displacement sensors are used to measure the
thickness of a sheet, the diameter of a rod.
Displacement and position sensors can be grouped into
Contact sensor and Non-contact sensor
• In contact sensors, the object to be measured comes into mechanical contact with
the sensor. The movement of the sensor element’s is used to cause a change in
electrical voltage, resistance, capacitance or mutual inductance
• In Non-contact sensor, there is no physical contact between the measured object
and the sensor. The presence in the vicinity of the measured object cause change in
air pressure or change in inductance or capacitance
 DISPLACEMENT SENSOR
• Measurement of displacement is on the basis of measuring position, proximity,
velocity, force, pressure etc.
1. Potentiometer displacement sensor
2. Strain gauge displacement sensor
3. Capacitive displacement sensor
4. Inductive displacement sensor (LVDT, RVDT)
POTENTIOMETER DISPLACEMENT SENSOR
• Potentiometers are mainly used to measure displacement, pressure, position.
• It is a primary sensor which converts the linear motion or the angular motion of a shaft
into changes in resistance.
• It is a type of resistive displacement sensor.

CONSTRUCTION AND WORKING

• It consist a resistor, which has three terminals. Two end terminals and one middle
terminal(wiper). The middle terminal is movable. The two end terminals are
connected to external input voltage signal, and the middle terminal along with the
one end terminal is taken as output.
• The wiper slides over a resistive element to convert the displacement into a potential
difference.
• These type of potentiometers convert the linear motion of the slider into change in
resistance which in turn converted into voltage (or) potential difference.
• The position of slider determiner the magnitude of the potential difference developed.
• The voltage across the wiper of the linear displacement potentiometer is proportional to
the displacement.

Potentiometer: electric circuit

 APPLICATIONS OF POTENTIOMETER
1. These sensors are primarily used in the control systems with a feedback loop to
ensure that the moving member or component reaches its commanded position.
2. These are typically used on machine-tool controls, elevators, liquid-level assemblies,
forklift trucks, automobile throttle controls.
3. In manufacturing, these are used in control of injection molding machines,
woodworking machinery, printing, spraying, robotics, etc.
4. These are also used in computer-controlled monitoring of sports equipment.
 ROTARY POTENTIOMETER
• In the rotary potentiometer, the slider moves in a
circular path along a resistance element, the
rotational information is converted into
information in the form of a potential difference.
• The output of the rotary transducer is
proportional to the angular movement.
• It also consist of a wiper (slider) which has
contact with a resistive element. when the wiper
moves, the resistance between the wiper and the
end leads of the device changes proportional to
the angular displacement.
Advantages
• Less expensive
• High output
• High electrical efficiency
• Operation is simple
• Rugged construction
Disadvantages
• Slow dynamic response
• Low resolution
• Early wear of the wiper is possible
 STRAIN GAUGES
• Any material, combination of materials or physical configuration that changes its
resistance due to strain constitutes a strain gauge.
• Types of the strain gauges in use today:
• Wire (or metal) strain gauges - resistive
• Metal foil strain gauges
• Semiconductor strain gauges.
• Strain gauge is used to measure deflection, stress, pressure, etc. as electric signals.
• It consists of a laminate top layer, sensing element and plastic film base layer.
• The resistance of the sensing element changes with applied strain.
• A Wheatstone bridge is used to measure small changes in the strain gauge resistance.
 CAPACITIVE ELEMENT BASED SENSOR
• Capacitive sensor is of non-contact type sensor and is primarily used to measure the
linear displacements from few millimeters to hundreds of millimeters. It comprises
of three plates, with the upper pair forming one capacitor and the lower pair another.
• The linear displacement might take in two forms:
(a) one of the plates is moved by the displacement so that the plate separation
changes.
(b) area of overlap changes due to the displacement.
 The capacitance C of a parallel plate capacitor is
given by,
C = εr εo A / d

As the central plate moves near to top plate or

bottom one due to the movement of the
element/work piece of which displacement is to
be measured, separation in between the plate
changes. This can be given as,
C1 = (εr εo A) / (d + x)
C2 = (εr εo A) / (d – x)

When C1 and C2 are connected to a Wheatstone's

bridge, then the resulting out of balance voltage
would be in proportional to displacement x.

The below figure shows the schematic of three-plate capacitive element sensor and displacement
measurement of a mechanical element connected to the plate 2.
 INDUCTIVE DISPLACEMENT SENSOR
LINEAR VARIABLE DIFFERENTIAL TRANSFORMER (LVDT)

•Linear variable differential transformer (LVDT) is a

primary transducer used for measurement of linear
displacement with an input range of about ± 2 to ± 400
mm in general.
•It has non-linearity error ± 0.25% of full range.
•It has three coils symmetrically spaced along an
insulated tube.
•The central coil is primary coil and the other two are
secondary coils.
•Secondary coils are connected in series in such a way
that their outputs oppose each other.
•A magnetic core attached to the element of which
displacement is to be monitored is placed inside the
insulated tube.
 WORKING OF LVDT SENSOR
• Due to an alternating voltage input to the
primary coil, alternating electro-magnetic forces
(emfs) are generated in secondary coils.
• When the magnetic core is centrally placed with
its half portion in each of the secondary coil
regions then the resultant voltage is zero. If the
core is displaced from the central position as
shown in Figure say, more in secondary coil 1
than in coil 2, then more emf is generated in one
coil i.e. coil 1 than the other, and there is a
resultant voltage from the coils. • Core is at the centre: Eout = 0
• If the magnetic core is further displaced, then • Core on left side: Flux at S1 > Flux at S2: ES1 > ES2
the value of resultant voltage increases in
• Core on right side: Flux at S2 > Flux at S1: ES2 > ES1
proportion with the displacement.
• The linear variable differential transformer is a mechanical displacement transducer.
• It gives an A.C. voltage output proportional to the distance of the transformer core to the windings.
• The LVDT is a mutual-inductance device with three coils and a core.
• An external A.C. power source energizes the central coil and the two phase opposite end coils are used
as pickup coils.
• The output amplitude and phase are dependent on the relative positions between the two pickup coils
and the power coil.
• Theoretically there is a null or zero position between the two end coils, although in practice this is
difficult to obtain perfectly.
• With the help of signal processing devices such as low pass filters and demodulators, precise
displacement can be measured by using LVDT sensors.
• LVDT exhibits good repeatability and reproducibility. It is generally used as an absolute position
sensor.
• Since there is no contact or sliding between the constituent elements of the sensor, it is highly reliable.
 APPLICATIONS OF LVDT SENSORS

1. Measurement of spool position in a wide range of servo valve applications

2. To provide displacement feedback for hydraulic cylinders
3. To control weight and thickness of medicinal products viz. tablets or pills
4. For automatic inspection of final dimensions of products being packed for dispatch
5. To measure distance between the approaching metals during Friction welding process
6. To continuously monitor fluid level as part of leak detection system
7. To detect the number of currency bills dispensed by an ATM
8. Used in Weighing Machines along with load cell.
 POSITION SENSORS
• Photo electric sensors
• Hall effect sensors

PHOTO ELECTRIC SENSORS

• Most industrial photo electric sensors use light emitting diodes (LEDs) for the light source and a
phototransistor is used to detect light radiation.
• Photo emitting devices such as Light emitting diodes (LEDs) and photosensitive devices such as photo
diodes and photo transistors are used in combination to work as proximity sensing devices.
They are of two types:
1. Reflective-type sensor
Detects the object based on the reflection of light onto a detector from the target.
2. Transmissive-type sensor
It is used to measure the change in light quantity caused by the targets crossing the optical axis.
TRANSMISSIVE-TYPE SENSOR

REFLECTIVE TYPE SENSOR

 HALL EFFECT SENSOR
• Hall effect sensors work on the principle that when a
beam of charge particles passes through a magnetic
field, forces act on the particles and the current
beam is deflected from its straight line path.
• Thus one side of the disc will become negatively
charged and the other side will be of positive charge.
• This charge separation generates a potential
difference which is the measure of distance of
magnetic field from the disc carrying current.

Principle of working of Hall effect sensor

• The typical application of Hall effect sensor is the
measurement of fluid level in a container.
• The container comprises of a float with a
permanent magnet attached at its top.
• An electric circuit with a current carrying disc is
mounted in the casing. When the fluid level
increases, the magnet will come close to the disc
and a potential difference generates.
• This voltage triggers a switch to stop the fluid to
come inside the container.
• These sensors are used for the measurement of
displacement and the detection of position of an
object.
 PROXIMITY SENSORS
• Proximity sensors are pilot devices used to detect the presence of an object without
making any physical contact. They are solids-state electronic devices, normally of
eddy current type or inductive, capacitive type.
• Proximity simply tells the central system whether a moving part is at a certain place.
Proximity sensors come under the non-contact type sensors. They are used to
determine when an object has moved to within some particular distance. a high-
frequency field.
 EDDY CURRENT PROXIMITY SENSORS
• Eddy current proximity sensors are used to detect non-
magnetic but conductive materials.
• They comprise of a coil, an oscillator, a detector and a
triggering circuit.
• When an alternating current is passed thru this coil, an
alternative magnetic field is generated.
• If a metal object comes in the close proximity of the coil,
then eddy currents are induced in the object due to the
magnetic field.
• These eddy currents create their own magnetic field which
distorts the magnetic field responsible for their generation.
• As a result, impedance of the coil changes and so the
amplitude of alternating current.
• This can be used to trigger a switch at some pre-
determined level of change in current.
 INDUCTIVE PROXIMITY SENSORS
• Inductive proximity switches are basically used
for detection of metallic objects.
• An inductive proximity sensor has four
components; the coil, oscillator, detection
circuit and output circuit.
• An alternating current is supplied to the coil
which generates a magnetic field.
• When, a metal object comes closer to the end of
the coil, inductance of the coil changes.
• This is continuously monitored by a circuit
which triggers a switch when a pre-set value of
inductance change is occurred.
 OPTICAL ENCODERS
• An optical encoder is a device, that converts motion or any
movement into a sequence of encoded pulsed digital signals by
modulating (coding) the continuous optical signals from a light
source received by a photo detector through a slotted disk
containing coded patterns called track.
• By counting or decoding these bits and the pulses can be converted
into relative or absolute position measurements. The number of
pulses being proportional to the position of the disk.
• Optical encoder is a suitable transducer for the measurement of
angular position.
• Optical encoders are mainly used to measure the angular or linear
displacement, position, velocity, acceleration and direction of
movement of rotors.
• Main parts are light source, code disk, light detector, signal
conditioner.
• Encoders classified into two
• Optical encoders provide digital output as a result of linear / 1. Linear Encoder 2. Rotary Encoder
angular displacement.
a) Rotary Incremental Encoder
• These are widely used in the Servo motors to measure the rotation
of shafts. b) Rotary Absolute Encoder
• It comprises of a disc with three concentric tracks of equally
spaced holes.
• Three light sensors are employed to detect the light passing
through the holes.
• These sensors produce electric pulses which give the angular
displacement of the mechanical element. e.g. shaft on which the
Optical encoder is mounted.
• The inner track has just one hole which is used locate the
‘home' position of the disc.
• The holes on the middle track offset from the holes of the outer
track by one-half of the width of the hole.
• This arrangement provides the direction of rotation to be
determined. When the disc rotates in clockwise direction, the
pulses in the outer track lead those in the inner; in counter
clockwise direction they lag behind.
• The resolution can be determined by the number of holes on
disc. With 100 holes in one revolution, the resolution would be,
360°/100=3.6°.
Bit 0

Bit 1

Bit 2

Bit 0

Bit 1

Bit 2
 LINEAR ENCODERS
• The linear encoder structure mainly includes signal units
connected to a measuring scale which can be separated into
three basic elements: Scale, Signal Source and Transducer.
• Scale is the significant part of this encoder which has marks
on its plane and these marks help the sensing system in
determining its present position.
• The signal source transmits a signal that passes throughout
the scale.
• Once it moves throughout the marks of scale, the signal can
be distorted based on the mark type.
• Transducer is a receiver wherever the signal change goes.
• The transducer changes information regarding location into
analogue or digital signals.
• After that, the data received will move into connected PLC
throughout wiring using several interfaces.
 ROTARY INCREMENTAL ENCODERS
• A beam of light passes through slots in a disc and is
detected by a suitable light sensor.
• When the disc is rotated, a pulsed output is produced
by the sensor with the number of pulses being
proportional to the angle through which the disc
rotates.
• Hence rotation of disc can be obtained by number of
pulses produced.
 ROTARY ABSOLUTE ENCODERS
• An absolute rotary encoder determines its position using a static
reference point.
• Absolute encoders work by outputting a digital word of bit as the
shaft rotates.
• There are two discs, both with concentric rings with offset markers.
• One disc is fixed to the central shaft; the other moves freely.
• As the disc turns, the markers along the track of absolute encoders
change position on the fixed disc.
• Each configuration along the disc of an absolute rotary encoder
represents a unique binary code.
• Looking at the binary code within the absolute rotary encoder
determines the absolute position of the object.
 GRAY CODED ENCODER
• With an absolute encoder, the entire rotation circle is divided into a
certain number of sectors, most often of the same size. These sectors are
numbered.
• The encoder, during operation, gives the number of the sector in which it
is currently located. That is why it is called absolute. With this type of
encoder, when turning, it outputs the values of the sector numbers, up to
the maximum value. Then it goes back to zero. If the encoder shaft is
turned in the opposite direction, then it will start giving opposite values.
In particular, absolute encoders have their drawbacks that are depicted in
absolutely arbitrary value. Such errors are irregular and difficult to
calculate.
• That problem is solved by introducing the Gray code. Gray code has the
property that only one bit at a time changes between codes during
counting As a result, an encoder does not provide errors when changing
bits in a binary system that helps to get the most precise result of
measurements.
 PYROELECTRIC SENSORS
• Pyroelectric sensor comprises of a thick element of polarized material coated with thin
film electrodes on opposite faces.
• Initially the electrodes are in electrical equilibrium with the polarized material.
• On incident of infrared, the material heats up and reduces its polarization.
• This leads to charge imbalance at the interface of crystal and electrodes.
• To balance this disequilibrium, measurement circuit supplies the charge, which is
calibrated against the detection of an object or its movement.
• Applications include Intrusion detector, Pollution detector, Position sensor.
 PIEZOELECTRIC SENSOR
• Piezoelectric sensor is used for the measurement of
pressure, acceleration and dynamic-forces such as
oscillation, impact, or high speed compression or tension.
• It contains piezoelectric ionic crystal materials such as
Quartz.
• On application of force or pressure these materials get
stretched or compressed.
• During this process, the charge over the material changes
and redistributes.
• One face of the material becomes positively charged and
the other negatively charged.
• The net charge q on the surface is proportional to the
amount x by which the charges have been displaced. The
displacement is proportion to force.
• Therefore we can write, q = kx = SF, where k is constant
and S is a constant termed the charge sensitivity.
 RESOLVERS
• Resolvers are feedback sensors used in accurate servo and robot
systems to measure angular displacement and velocity.
• Their signal can be differentiated to obtain the velocity.
• It consists of metal windings, rotor and stator.
• The rotor has a primary coil and is attached to the rotating
object.
• This primary winding generates a magnetic field when supplied
by an alternating current from a source voltage that induces
voltages in the secondary winding which are fixed at 90°
producing a sine and cosine feedback.
• A resolver is a type of rotary electrical transformer used for
measuring degrees of rotation.
• The most common type of resolver is the brushless transmitter
resolver.
• On the outside, this type of resolver may look like a small
electrical motor having a stator and rotor.
• On the inside, the configuration of the wire windings makes it
different.
• The stator portion of the resolver houses three windings: an
exciter winding and two two-phase windings (usually labeled
"x" and "y") (case of a brushless resolver).
• The exciter winding is located on the top; it is in fact a coil of a
turning (rotary) transformer. This transformer induces current
in the rotor without a direct electrical connection, thus there
are no wires to the rotor limiting its rotation and no need for
brushes.
• The two other windings are on the bottom, wound on a
lamination. They are configured at 90 degrees from each other.
• The rotor houses a coil, which is the secondary winding of the
turning transformer, and a separate primary winding in a
lamination, exciting the two two-phase windings on the stator.
• Resolvers can perform very accurate analog conversion from polar to rectangular
coordinates. Shaft angle is the polar angle, and excitation voltage is the magnitude.
• The outputs are the [x] and [y] components.
• Resolvers with four-lead rotors can rotate [x] and [y] coordinates, with the shaft position
giving the desired rotation angle.
TYPES OF RESOLVER
• Receiver resolvers
• Differential resolvers
 SYNCHROS
• In function, the synchro is an electromechanical transducer.
• A mechanical input such as a shaft rotation is converted to a
unique set of output voltages, or a set of input voltages is used
to turn a synchro rotor to a desired position.
• The complete circle represents the rotor.
• The solid bars represent the cores of the windings next to them.
• Power to the rotor is connected by slip rings and brushes,
represented by the circles at the ends of the rotor winding.
• The rotor induces equal voltages in the 120° and 240°
windings, and no voltage in the 0° winding.
• Vex does not necessarily need to be connected to the common
lead of the stator star windings.
• A synchro is, in effect, a transformer whose primary-to-secondary coupling may be varied
by physically changing the relative orientation of the two windings. Synchros are often
used for measuring the angle of a rotating machine such as an antenna platform. In its
general physical construction, it is much like an electric motor.
• The primary winding of the transformer, fixed to the rotor, is excited by an alternating
current, which by electromagnetic induction, causes currents to flow in three Y-connected
secondary windings fixed at 120 degrees to each other on the stator.
• The relative magnitudes of secondary currents are measured and used to determine the
angle of the rotor relative to the stator, or the currents can be used to directly drive a
receiver synchro that will rotate in unison with the synchro transmitter.
 SYNCHRO - EIGHT FUNCTIONAL CATEGORIES
1. Torque Transmitter (TX)
2. Control Transmitter (CX)
3. Torque Differential Transmitter (TDX)
4. Control Differential Transmitter (CDX)
5. Torque Receiver (TR)
6. Torque Differential Receiver (TDR)
7. Control Transformer (CT)
8. Torque Receiver-Transmitter (TRX)
 ACOUSTIC EMISSION SENSOR
• Acoustic emission (AE) is the phenomenon of radiation of acoustic waves in solids that
occurs when a material undergoes irreversible changes in its internal structure
• For example as a result of crack formation or plastic deformation due to aging, temperature
gradients or external mechanical forces.
• In particular, AE is occurring during the processes of mechanical loading of materials and
structures accompanied by structural changes that generate local sources of elastic waves.
• AE sensors are used in a wide range of fields, including the inspection of manufactured
products, monitoring the safety of structures, and the development of new materials.
• Acoustic Emission (AE) is the sound emitted as an elastic wave by a solid when it is
deformed or struck. The use of AE sensors to detect these elastic waves and to non-
destructively test on materials is called the AE method.
• Quite some time before failure occurs, tiny deformations and minute cracks will appear and
spread in materials. By picking up the trends in AE, the AE method can detect and predict
flaws and failures in materials and structures.
▪ The AE method is used to detect frequencies in the ultrasonic range (several tens of kHz to
several MHz). Although AE resembles ultrasonic testing, the AE method is different from
other non-destructive testing methods in that it detects the dynamic energy that the flaws in
the material themselves emit.
The AE method offers the following advantages.
▪ Can observe the progress of plastic deformation and microscopic collapse in real time.
▪ Can locate a flaw by using several AE sensors.
▪ Can diagnose facilities while they are in operation
 TYPES OF AE SENSORS
AE sensors are broadly classified into two types:
1. Resonance type (narrow-band) that are highly sensitive at a specific frequency.
2. Broadband type that possess a constant sensitivity across a wide band of frequencies.
RESONANCE TYPE SENSOR
• The mechanical resonance of the detector element is
used to obtain high sensitivity.
• Resonant frequencies in the range of 60 kHz to 1
MHz
• AE sensors having a piezoelectric accelerometer
design are used if lower resonance characteristics are
required.
BROADBAND TYPE SENSOR
• A damper is bonded on top of the detector element
to suppress the resonance.
• Resonant frequencies in the range of 2 - 800 kHz.
 APPLICATION OF AE SENSORS
• AE sensors can pick up warning signals from manufactured products that human senses
cannot detect.
• AE sensors have a wide range of applications, from quality control inspections of
manufactured goods, to safety inspections of large structures.
 VIBRATION MEASURING INSTRUMENT
• The instruments which are used to measure the displacement, velocity or acceleration of a
vibrating body are called vibration measuring instruments.
• Vibration measuring devices having mass, spring, dash pot, etc. are known as seismic instruments.
• The quantities to be measured are displayed on a screen in the form of electric signal which can be
readily amplified and recorded.
• The output of electric signal of the instrument will be proportional to the quantity which is to be
measured.
• Vibrations can be measured by using the transducers which are sensitive to displacement, velocity
and acceleration.
• A vibration is measured by its frequency and amplitude.
• Every vibrating body/element has mass and frequency of vibration is a function of this mass.
• The amplitude of vibration is a function of this mass.
 EDDY CURRENT PROBE
• Three matched components:
1. Driver
2. Probe
3. Extension cable
• Voltage applied to the driver causes an
RF signal to be generated.
• Signal is transmitted to the probe by the
extension cable.
• Coil inside the probe tip serves as an
antenna and radiates high frequency
energy into free space.
• Any conductive material within the
field absorbs energy and causes output
of probe to decrease proportional to gap
distance.
 ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES
• Low frequency response.
• Can measure relative displacement.
• Useful as a key phasor for dynamic balancing and analysis.
• Reliable if property installed and maintained.
• Difficult to install.
• Practical limits of high frequency displacement measurement.
• Calibration dependent on shaft material.
• Shaft runout / glitch produces false signals.
 ELECTRODYNAMIC VELOCITY SENSOR
• Housing vibrates while the spring-suspended
coil remains stationary.
• Amplitude of the output voltage is proportional
to the velocity of the vibration.

ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES

• No external powering.
• Powerful signal output.
• Easy to use.
• Ability to operate at elevated temperatures.
• Moving parts wear.
• Less accuracy
• Noisy
• Mounting orientation may be important.
 ACCELEROMETER
• An accelerometer is a vibration measuring device which uses a
piezo resistive or capacitive effect for measurement.
• They have a transducer that converts mechanical force caused
by vibration or a change in motion, into an electrical current
using the piezoelectric effect.

TYPES OF ACCELEROMETER
1. Piezoelectric Accelerometer
2. Strain Gauge Accelerometer
3. Piezo resistive Accelerometer
4. Variable Capacitance Accelerometer
 PIEZOELECTRIC ACCELEROMETER
• Piezoelectric material (sensing element) is placed under
load using a mass.
• As ‘stack’ vibrates, crystal is squeezed or released.
• Charge output is proportional to the force and acceleration.
• Electronics convert charge output into voltage output.
• Wide frequency range
• No moving parts
• Low output noise
• No external power is required

APPLICATIONS OF PIEZOELECTRIC ACCELEROMETER

1. Engine testing – Combustion and dynamic stressing
2. Industrial – Machining systems, metal cutting, machine health monitoring
3. Aerospace – Ejection systems, rocketry, wind tunnel
4. Engineering – Structural testing, Control systems, Dynamic response testing
 STRAIN GAUGE ACCELEROMETER
• A strain gauge is a sensor whose resistance varies with
applied force.
• It converts force, pressure, tension, weight, etc., into a
change in electrical resistance which can then be
measured.
• When external forces are applied to a stationary
object, stress and strain are the results.
• When there is a strain applied to any metallic wire, the
length of that wire increases and the diameter
decrease.
• This increase in length and decrease in diameter will
change the resistance of the wire which will give us
our measurement of strain on our machine component.
 PIEZO RESISTIVE ACCELEROMETER
• Piezo resistive Accelerometer measures changes in acceleration, with sensitivity, broad
frequency response, and shock resistance.
• It usually contains a mass attached to a cantilever beam. When the accelerometer
experiences acceleration, the mass applies force to the beam, causing it to bend. The piezo
resistive material on the beam changes its resistance in response to this strain.
• Applications include automotive, aviation, medical research, and consumer electronics.

ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES

• High Sensitivity
• Wide Frequency Response
• Shock Resistance
• Sensitivity to temperature changes
• Need for power source
• Higher cost
 VARIABLE CAPACITANCE ACCELEROMETER
• The sensor element operates based on the principle of
Differential Capacitance, which is a voltage-dependent
capacitance.
• As soon as the sensor experiences acceleration or
mechanical force, the silicon structure displaces which
results in a change in capacitance.
• This change in capacitance is detected by the CMOS
circuit and it is then transformed into an output voltage
proportional to acceleration

APPLICATIONS OF VARIABLE CAPACITANCE ACCELEROMETER

• They offer accurate and precise measurement results and are ideal in measurement highly sensitive
environments such as in seismic or underground applications.
• They are greatly useful in measuring centrifugal forces or measuring the accelerations or decelerations
experienced by devices such as elevators.
• Used in aircraft flutter testing, automotive testing.
• Used for ride quality measurements in automobiles, trucks, and railroad equipment.
 ACTUATION SYSTEMS
• An Actuator is a component of a machine used to move and control a
system or device that converts energy into motion.
• An Actuator requires a control signal and a source of energy.
• Once a control device gets a control signal then an actuator immediately
reacts by simply changing the energy source into mechanical motion.
• Types of actuation systems:-
1. Mechanical 2. Hydraulic 3. Pneumatic 4. Electrical 5. Thermal/Magnetic

FUNCTIONS OF AN ACTUATOR
• To provide thrust and positioning in machines used for production or testing.
• To control flow rate by positioning the control valves.
• To provide support for valve accessories. eg. Limit Switches, Solenoid valves

83
 HYDRAULIC ACTUATOR
• Consist of a cylinder or fluid motor that
uses hydraulic power to facilitate
mechanical operation.
• Mechanical motion is converted to linear
rotary or oscillatory motion.
 PNEUMATIC ACTUATOR
• Converts the energy formed from vacuum or compressed air at high pressure ratio into
either linear or rotary motion.
• Used for valve controls of water pipe.
• Pneumatic energy quickly responds to starting and stopping signals.
• Large forces to be produced from relatively small pressure change.
• Air brakes in automobiles
 CUSHIONING IN PNEUMATIC ACTUATORS
• Cushioning slows down and absorbs the impact of the piston as it reaches the end of its
stroke.
• Without cushioning, the effect of the piston striking the end cap can cause damage to the
cylinder and other mechanical components.
• Also, cushioning improves safety by limiting the piston's noise when it hits the end cap.
• This protects the hearing of users frequently operating pneumatic cylinders.
 ELECTRIC ACTUATORS
• It is generally powered by a motor that converts electrical energy into mechanical torque.
• Electrical energy is used to actuate the solenoid valve which control the flow of water in
pipes in response to electric signals.
 MECHANICAL ACTUATOR
• Converts rotary motion to linear motion.
• It involves pinions, gears, pinion rails, pulleys, chains and other devices to operate.
• Examples are rack and pinion, crankshaft.