Electromagnetism

Physics 15b

Lecture #4
Divergence and Laplacian

Purcell 2.7–2.12

What We Did Last Time

Used Gauss’s Law on infinite sheet of charge
 Uniform electric field E = 2πσ above and below the sheet
E2
 Electric field has energy with volume density given by u =
8π
Defined electric potential by line integral
P2
φ21 = − ∫ E ⋅ d s = φ (P2 ) − φ (P1) unit: erg/esu = statvolt
P1
 Electric field is negative gradient of electric potential E = −∇φ
N qj dq
 Potential due to charge distribution: φ = ∑r or φ = ∫ r
j =1 j

1
2∫
 Total energy of a charge distribution: U = ρφ dv

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Today’s Goals
Introduce divergence of vector field
 How much “flow” is coming out per unit volume
Translate Gauss’s Law into a differential (local) form
 Gauss’s Divergence Theorem connects the two forms
Look in the energy again
E2 1
 Equivalence of U =
∫ 8π dV and U = 2 ∫ ρφ dv
Define the Laplacian = divergence of gradient
 Re-express Gauss’s Law with a Laplacian
Study mathematical properties of Laplace’s equation
 Conclude with a Uniqueness Theorem

Shrinking Gauss’s Law

Charge is distributed with a volume density ρ(r)
Draw a surface S enclosing a volume V
Guass’s Law: ∫ S
E ⋅ da = 4π ∫ ρ dv
V
Total charge in V

Now, make V so small that ρ is constant inside V

∫ S
E ⋅ da = 4πρV for very small V
 As we make V smaller, the total flux out of S scales with V

Therefore: lim
∫ S
E ⋅ da
= 4πρ
V →0 V
 LHS is “how much E is flowing out per unit volume”
 Let’s call it the divergence of E

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 ∫ E ⋅ da
Divergence div E ≡ lim
V →0
S

V
= 4πρ

In the small-V limit, the integral depend on volume, but not

on the shape  We can use a rectangular box
 Consider the left (S1) and right (S2) walls
dz
∫S1
E ⋅ da = E(x,y,z) ⋅ (− x̂)dydz

∫S2
E ⋅ da = E(x + dx,y,z) ⋅ x̂dydz
S1 E(x,y,z) E(x + dx,y,z)
S2
(
Sum = E x (x + dx) − E x (x) dydz ) dy

∂E x
= dxdydz dx
∂x
⎛ ∂E ∂E y ∂E z ⎞
 Add up all walls: ∫ E ⋅ da = ⎜ x + + ⎟ V = ∇ ⋅E V ( )
S
⎝ ∂x ∂y ∂z ⎠

div E

Gauss’s Law, Local Version

We now have Gauss’s Law for a very small volume/surface
⎛ ∂E ∂E y ∂E z ⎞
divE = 4πρ where div E ≡ ∇ ⋅E = ⎜ x + + ⎟
⎝ ∂x ∂y ∂z ⎠
 Connects local properties of E with the local charge density

Divergence has the easy form in Cartesian coordinates

 In cylindrical coordinates:
1 ∂(rFr ) 1 ∂Fφ ∂Fz
∇ ⋅F = + +
r ∂r r ∂φ ∂z
 In spherical coordinates:
1 ∂(r Fr ) 1 ∂(Fθ sin θ ) 1 ∂Fφ
2

∇ ⋅F = + +
r 2
∂r r sin θ ∂θ r sin θ ∂φ

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Coulomb Field
q
Let’s calculate div E for E = r̂
r2
q x̂x + ŷy + ẑz
 We can do this by expressing E in x-y-z : E =
x + y + z x2 + y 2 + z2
2 2 2

 Or we can use div in spherical coordinates

1 ∂(r Fr ) 1 ∂(Fθ sin θ ) 1 ∂Fφ
2

∇ ⋅F = + +
r 2
∂r r sin θ ∂θ r sin θ ∂φ
 Since only Er is non-zero, we get
1 ∂(r Er ) 1 ∂q
2

∇ ⋅E = = 2 =0
r 2 ∂r r ∂r
This is correct — we have no charge except at r = 0
 At r = 0, 1/r2 gives us an infinity
 That’s OK because a “point” charge has an infinite density

Spherical Charge
Let’s give the “point” charge a small radius R
 We did this in Lecture 2, and the solution was
⎧ Q This part is same as a point charge.
⎪ r̂ for r ≥ R
⎪ r2 We know div E = 0.
E=⎨
⎪ Qr
r̂ for r < R Let’s work on this part
⎪⎩ R3
1 ∂(r Er ) 1 ∂ ⎛ Qr 3 ⎞ 3Q
2

 For r < R, ∇ ⋅E = = 2 =
r 2
∂r r ∂r ⎜⎝ R 3 ⎟⎠ R 3
Q
 The charge density of the sphere is ρ = 4π
∇ ⋅E = 4πρ
3
R3

It works everywhere (as long as ρ is finite)

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 Divergence Theorem
We got div E = 4πρ from the “original” Gauss’s Law by
shrinking the volume/surface
 We should be able to go back by “integrating”
Start from a volume V and cut into sub-volumes V1 and V2
 Surface integrals add up:

∫S
E ⋅ da = ∫S1
E ⋅ da + ∫ E ⋅ da
S2 V1
because the integrals on the boundary cancel V2
 Divide V1 and V2 into smaller volumes …

∫ E ⋅ da = ∑ ∫ E ⋅ da where V = ∑Vj
S Sj
j j

∫ E ⋅ da = lim ∑ ∫ E ⋅ da = lim ∑ (∇ ⋅E)Vj = ∫ ∇ ⋅Edv

S V j →0 Sj V j →0 V
j j

Divergence Theorem
For any vector field F ∫ S
F ⋅ da = ∫ V
∇ ⋅Fdv
 This is Gauss’s Divergence Theorem
 This is a mathematical theorem — No physics in it
Two forms of Gauss’s Law (physics) are connected by the
Divergence Theorem
∫ F ⋅ da = ∫ ∇ ⋅Fdv
∫ E ⋅ da = 4π ∫ ρ dv ∇ ⋅E = 4πρ
S V

S V

As a math theorem, Divergence Theorem can be useful in

other ways, too
 Question from Lecture 3: How can the electrostatic energy be
E2 1
U= ∫ 8π dV and U =
2∫
ρφ dv

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Electrostatic Energy
Consider the divergence of the product Eϕ
∂ ∂ ∂
∇ ⋅ (Eφ ) = (E xφ ) + (E y φ ) + (E zφ )
∂x ∂y ∂z
∂E x ∂φ ∂E y ∂φ ∂E z ∂φ
= φ + Ex + φ + Ey + φ + Ez
∂x ∂x ∂y ∂y ∂z ∂z
= (∇ ⋅E)φ + E ⋅ (∇φ ) = 4πρφ − E 2
 Integrate LHS over very large volume and use Divergence Theorem

∫V
∇ ⋅ (Eφ ) dv = ∫
S
(Eφ ) ⋅ da = 0 assuming Eφ → 0 at far away
 Integral of RHS must be 0, too
1 E2
2∫ ∫ 8π dv
4π ∫ ρφ dv − ∫ E 2 dv = 0 ρφ dv =

Laplacian
Now we know: E = −∇φ ∇ ⋅E = 4πρ
 Let’s combine them
⎛ ∂ 2φ ∂ 2φ ∂ 2φ ⎞
∇ ⋅ (−∇φ ) = − ⎜ 2 + 2 + 2 ⎟ ≡ −∇ 2φ = 4πρ
⎝ ∂x ∂y ∂z ⎠
Laplacian
 Laplacian is defined as the “divergence of the gradient”
 It represents the local curvature of the function
φ ∇ 2φ < 0 φ

x x

y y
∇ 2φ > 0

Laplacian allows us to calculate ρ from ϕ

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Charge, Field, and Potential
Electric Field
E
ρ φ = −∫ E ⋅ds
E= ∫ r 2 r̂ dv
E = −∇φ
4πρ = ∇ ⋅E

Charge Electric
ρ ρ φ
density φ= ∫ r
dv potential

4πρ = −∇ 2φ

Laplace’s Equation
Where there is no charge, electric potential satisfies
∇ 2φ = 0 Laplace’s Equation
 This applies to almost everywhere in any E&M problem

+σ
q
−σ

 Solutions of Laplace’s Equation are not necessarily trivial

Solutions to Laplace’s Equation have interesting and useful
mathematical properties

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Average Theorem
Theorem: If ϕ satisfies Laplace’s equation, the average
value of ϕ over a surface of any sphere equals to the value
of ϕ at the center of the sphere
 Consider two concentric spheres S and S’ with radii r and r + dr
 Average values of ϕ over S and S’ are
dr
1 1
φ=
4π ∫ φ (r) dΩ, φ ′ =
4π ∫
φ (r + dr) dΩ r

 Consider the difference

1
φ′ − φ =
4π ∫
(φ (r + dr) − φ (r) dΩ )
1
4π ∫
= ∇φ (r) ⋅ dr dΩ

dr
4π r 2 ∫S
= ∇φ da

Average Theorem
 Apply the Divergence theorem
dr dr
4π r 2 ∫
S
∇φ da =
4π r 2 ∫
V
∇ 2φ dv = 0 ∇ 2φ = 0
 Thus, the average values over S and S’ are the same
 We can repeat this with successively smaller spheres, until we reach
the center of the sphere

Theorem: If ϕ satisfies Laplace’s equation in a given

volume, it has no maxima or minima inside the volume
 Note: it may have maxima or minima at the border
 Suppose ϕ has a maximum at point P. One can draw a (small)
spherical surface S around P so that the value of ϕ on S is smaller
than that at P. This contradicts the average theorem

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Impossibility Theorem
Theorem: No electrostatic field can hold a charged particle
in a stable equilibrium in empty space
 Such a field must have a local minimum (or maximum), which is
impossible

This Impossibility Theorem implies that one cannot build a

configuration of more than one electric charges that would
remain stable with the electrostatic forces alone
 Same applies to gravity, too
 Then, how can anything stable exist at all?
Stable systems can exist either:
 because they are not static, or
 because of quantum mechanics

Uniqueness Theorem
Theorem: The potential ϕ inside a volume is uniquely
determined if the charge density ρ in the volume and the
potential ϕ at the boundary are given
 Suppose there are two solutions, ϕ1 and ϕ2 that satisfy
−∇ 2φ1 = −∇ 2φ2 = 4πρ inside V and φ1 = φ2 on the bounrdary S
 Take the difference: φ = ϕ1 − ϕ2
−∇ 2ϕ = −∇ 2 (φ1 − φ2 ) = 0 in V and ϕ = φ1 − φ2 = 0 on S
i.e., φ is a solution to Laplace’s equation
 Because of the no-max/min theorem, φ = 0 everywhere in V

It means that our formulas are complete (as well as being

consistent) for describing physical systems

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Summary
Defined divergence: div F = lim
∫S
F ⋅ da ⎛ ∂F ∂Fy ∂F ⎞
= ∇ ⋅F = ⎜ x + + z⎟
V →0 V ⎝ ∂x ∂y ∂z ⎠
Guass’s Law (local version): ∇ ⋅E = 4πρ
 Linked to the integral version
by the Divergence Theorem:
∫S
F ⋅ da = ∫V
∇ ⋅Fdv
⎛ ∂ 2f ∂ 2f ∂ 2f ⎞
Defined the Laplacian: ∇ 2f = ∇ ⋅ ( ∇f ) = ⎜ + + ⎟
⎝ ∂x 2 ∂y 2 ∂z 2 ⎠
 From Gauss’s Law: 4πρ = −∇ 2φ ρ
Electric Field
E
E = ∫ 2 r̂ dv φ = −∫ E ⋅ds
Laplace’s equation: ∇
2
φ=0 r
E = −∇φ
4πρ = ∇ ⋅E
 Average theorem, no-max/min theorem,
impossibility theorem, Charge Electric
ρ ρ φ
uniqueness theorem density φ= ∫ r dv potential

4πρ = −∇ 2φ

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