Physics

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The Human Eye & The Colourful World

2
= mc
E ‘Eyes are most amazing
optical instruments. In fact,
as you read this sentence,
you are probably unaware of
the thousands of pieces of
visual information that your
eyes are gathering each
second. Any defect of eyes

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can be corrected by using
appropriate lenses.’

6.1 The human eye

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Components and structure
(1) The eye has a nearly spherical shape. The eye ball has a diameter of
about one inch (nearly 2.3 cm). The front portion is more sharply curved
and it is covered by a thin, transparent, protective membrane called

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‘cornea’. It is this portion which is visible from the outside.
(2) Behind cornea, there is a liquid called ‘aqueous humour’ and behind
that, there is a crystalline ‘lens’. Between the aqueous humour and the
lens, there is a muscular diaphragm called ‘iris’, which has a small hole
in it called ‘pupil’.
(3) The eye lens is composed of a fibrous, jelly like material which is hard in
the middle and gradually becomes soft towards the edges. The curvature

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of the lens is altered by the ‘ciliary muscles’ to which it is attached. THE
(4) The space between lens and the retina is filled with another liquid called SPOT
‘vitreous humour’. LIGHT
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(5) The light entering the eye forms an image on the ‘retina’ which is a Pupil appears black because any
delicate membrane having enormous number of light-sensitive cells. It light falling on it goes into the eye
contains about 125 million receptors called ‘rods’ and ‘cones’ which and there is no chance of light coming
receive the light rays and about one million optic nerve fibres which out of it from inside.
transmit the information to the brain.
(6) The region on the retina where the ‘optic nerve’ enters the eye ball is
called the ‘blind spot’. It is insensitive to the light, that is, any image
formed at this spot is not visible.
(7) The macula lutea, also called ‘yellow spot’ is the central part of the
retina responsible for sensing fine detail and for looking straight ahead.
It has high concentration of nerve endings and it is slightly raised. Its
function is to form a very clear image, by sending a large number of
electrical signals to the brain.
(8) ‘Sclera’ or ‘sclerotic’ is the outermost covering of eye and it is made of
white fibrous tissue. ‘Choroid’ is a grey membrane attached to sclera.

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Eyelid

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THE Macula
SPOT lutea
LIGHT Iris
Optic
At the junction of the optic nerve and nerve
the retina, there are no sensory cells, Pupil Lens
so no vision is possible at that spot. Cornea Blind
This is called the ‘blind spot’. Aqueous humour spot
Ciliary muscles
Sclera Choroid
Retina
Vitreous humour
Fig.1 The human eye

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Working of eye
(1) When the light enters the eye from air, most of the bending of light
occurs at cornea. Some additional bending is done by the lens so as to
form an inverted, real image of the object on retina.

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(2) When the eye is focused on a distant object, the ciliary muscle relaxes
allowing ligaments to increase tension on the lens and cause it to flatten
i.e., the lens becomes thin or less curved. In this case, the focal length of

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P
THE the eye lens has its maximum value which is equal to its distance from
SPOT the retina. The parallel rays coming into the eye from the distant object
LIGHT are focused on the retina and we see the object clearly.

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The iris is that part of the eye which
(3) When the eye is focused on a closer object, the ciliary muscle contracts,
gives it its distinctive colour. When allowing the lens, by virtue of its elasticity, to become more curved i.e.,
we say that a person has green or the lens becomes thick. In this case, the focal length of the eye lens
decreases. The ciliary muscles adjust the focal length in such a way that

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brown eyes, we refer actually to the
colour of the iris. image is formed on the retina and we see the object clearly.
(4) The light-sensitive cells get activated upon illumination and generate
electrical signals. These signals are sent to the brain via the optic nerves.
The brain interprets these signals, and finally, processes the information
so that we perceive objects as they are i.e., the brain makes an inverted
image formed on the retina again erect (or upright).
Role of iris
Iris controls the size of the pupil and therefore, helps in regulating the
amount of light entering the eye through a variable aperture (the pupil). In
low intensity of light, iris expands the pupil to allow more light to enter into
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the eye. When the light is very bright, iris contracts the pupil and the pupil
becomes very small, thus, only a small amount of light enters into the eye.
BUILDING CONCEPTS 6.1
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THE
SPOT How does the focal length depend on the curvature of eye lens? When is
the eye lens thin? When is it thick?
LIGHT Explanation
Outer coat of the eye called sclera The change in the curvature of eye lens changes its focal length. When we
is white. It is tough so that it can look at a distant object, the ciliary muscles are relaxed, the lens is then
protect the interior of the eye from thin and the focal length of the eye lens is more (about 2.3 cm). Finally, the
accidents.
image is formed on the retina and we can see the distant object clearly.
When we look at objects closer to eye, the ciliary muscles contract, so that
the eye lens becomes more rounded in shape i.e., becomes thick. The
focal length of the eye lens decreases so as to bring light from the nearby
objects into focus on the retina.

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BUILDING CONCEPTS 6.2
You might have experienced that you are not able to see objects clearly for
some time when you enter from bright light to a room with dim light. Why?
Explanation

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THE
The pupil of an eye acts like a variable aperture whose size can be varied
with the help of the iris. When the eyes are exposed to bright light, the iris
SPOT
contracts the pupil to allow less light to enter the eye i.e., the size of pupil LIGHT
is reduced in the bright light. When you enter from bright light to a room Human beings cannot see objects in
with dim light, less amount of light enters in your eyes due to reduced size ultra-violet rays as their retina cells
of the pupil. Thus, you are not able to see objects clearly for some time. are not sensitive to such short
After some time, iris expands the pupil due to dim light and allows more wavelengths that are possessed by
ultra-violet rays.
light to enter the eye and you are able to see things in the room. The pupil
opens completely in dark/dim light through the relaxation of the iris.

ACTIVE PHYSICS 6.1

1. Take a white cardboard and mark a thick cross on its left hand side. Mark

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a dot on the right side at a distance of 8 cm from the cross. Now, hold the
cardboard at arms’ length from your eyes. Close your left eye and look
continuously on the cross. At this moment, both cross and dot are visible.
Move the cardboard slowly towards you but keep your eye on the cross.

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You will observe that at a certain point, the dot disappears. At this point,
the image of dot is formed on the blind spot, and hence, it is not visible.

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THE
2. The similar activity can be done by keeping your right eye closed and

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looking at the round mark. Move the cardboard slowly towards you keeping SPOT
your eye on the dot. At some point, the cross disappears. This obviously LIGHT
means that the image of cross is formed on the blind spot.

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Nature has provided eyes with
eyelids to protect from any object
entering the eye. Eyelids also shut
out light when not required.

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8 cm
Fig.2 Active physics 6.1

ACTIVE PHYSICS 6.2

1. Stand before a mirror in a darkened room for a few minutes. Then turn on
a light in the room and observe your pupils in the mirror as they change
size.
2. You will observe that just after turning the light ‘on’, your pupil is large in
size and it decreases gradually in size.
Reason : As you were initially standing in a darkened room, iris expands
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the pupil so that your eye receive as much light as possible. When you turn
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THE
on the light, iris gradually contracts the size of pupil so that your eye receive SPOT
less amount of light.
LIGHT
Conclusion : This activity shows that the iris controls the amount of light
In general, young children have a
entering in our eyes by controlling the size of pupil. greater power of accommodation
6.2 Power of accommodation because they can clearly see objects
that are very close to them. As we age,
By contracting or relaxing the ciliary muscles connected to the lens, its the lens in our eye becomes less
shape can be changed such that we can see the nearby as well as the flexible and its ability to accommodate
distant objects clearly. This process is called ‘power of accommodation’ decreases until we are forced to use
or ‘accommodation’. corrective eye lens.
F The ability or property of the eye to change the shape of lens so as to see
the object clearly is called ‘accommodation’.
The muscles cannot be strained beyond a limit and thus, an object placed
too close to the eye cannot be seen clearly.

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CHECK YOUR CONCEPTS 6.1
See fig.3 showing two positions of eye in case (a) and case (b). Now, answer
the following :
1. In which of the two cases (a) and (b), the eye is viewing at a distant object?
2. In which case, the focal length of eye lens is less?
3. Assuming that in both cases, the eyes are normal, then in which case the
(a) image is formed at the retina?
4. In which case, the ciliary muscles are relaxed?
Near point
The nearest point for which the image can be formed clearly on the retina,
is called the ‘near point of the eye’.
Least distance of distinct vision
(b)
The minimum distance at which objects can be seen clearly without strain
Fig.3 Check your concepts 6.1
is called ‘least distance of distinct vision or clear vision’. In other
words, the distance of the near point from the eye is called the ‘least
distance of distinct vision’.

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F This distance varies with age; it increases with it because of decreasing
effectiveness of the ciliary muscles and the loss of flexibility of the lens. The
symbol used for least distance of distinct vision is D. Standard value of D for

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a young adult with normal vision is 25 cm. For a child of 10 years D is
nearly 7 to 8 cm, for an old man of 60 years D is nearly 200 cm.

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ACTIVE PHYSICS 6.3
1. Move this page slowly toward your face. At a certain position of the page

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THE you will observe that the letters of this page just begin to blur.

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SPOT 2. Hold the page at this position and ask your friend to measure the distance
LIGHT between the page and your eye using a scale. This distance from the book
Because our eyes are separated by to your eye is your near point.

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a few centimeters, each eye sees a Far point
slightly separate image. Our brain The farthest point up to which the eye can see objects clearly is called the
combines the two images into one
‘far point’ of the eye. For normal eye, far point is at infinity.
and tells us how close or far away
the various objects are present. BUILDING CONCEPTS 6.3
Why do we have two eyes for vision and not just one?
Explanation
Two eyes provide a wider field of view to us. A single eye has a horizontal
region of view of nearly 150°, but with two eyes it is about 180°. Also, the
ability to detect faint objects increases with two eyes instead of a single eye.
With a single eye, the world looks flat i.e., two-dimensional. The three-
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dimensional effect can be experienced with two eyes only.

BUILDING CONCEPTS 6.4

P
THE How do we see colours?
SPOT Explanation
LIGHT Our retina has a large number of light-sensitive cells having shapes of rods
Bees have some retina cones which and cones. The rod-shaped cells respond to the intensity of light with different
are sensitive to ultra-violet rays, degree of brightness and darkness. In dim light, the rods are sensitive but
which have wavelengths shorter than the cones are not. But the rods cannot distinguish between various colours.
that of the violet light. Thus, bees can It is the cone-shaped cells which respond to colours. They are active only in
see objects in ultra-violet rays and bright light and make colour perception possible. The cones are sensitive
can recognise colours.
to red, green and blue light to different extents. When a particular colour
like red, falls on the retina, it mainly stimulates the red colour sensitive
cones than the other kinds of cones.

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Colour blindness
Some people do not possess some cone cells that respond to certain specific
colours only. This is a genetic disorder called ‘colour blindness’. The
persons who cannot distinguish between certain colours but can see well

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THE
are called ‘colour blind’. SPOT
F The defect of eye due to which a person cannot distinguish between certain
LIGHT
colours is called ‘colour blindness’.
Driving license for vehicles is not
Cataract issued to colour blind persons.
Usually, colour blind persons cannot
The crystalline lens of some people in old age becomes hazy or even opaque
distinguish between red and green
due to development of membrane over it. This defect is called ‘cataract’ colours.
which leads to decrease or loss of vision of the eye. Cataract can be removed
by performing surgery to restore clear vision.
6.3 Defects of vision and their correction
Myopia (Near sightedness)

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A person suffering from this defect cannot see distant objects clearly. This
is because the maximum focal length is less than distance between the lens
and the retina. The parallel rays coming from the distant object focus short

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of the retina [see fig. 4(a)]. The ciliary muscles are fully relaxed in this case
and any strain in it can only further decrease the focal length which is of no

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help to see distant objects.
Reason (a) A myopic eye

This defect arises because the power of eye lens is too great, due to the

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decrease in focal length of the eye lens. This may arise due to either
excessive curvature of the cornea or elongation of the eye ball.
Hypermetropia (Far-sightedness)

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A person suffering from Hypermetropia cannot see clearly the objects closer
to the eye. The least distance of distinct vision is quite larger than 25 cm 25 cm
for that person and the person has to keep the object inconveniently away (b) A hypermetropic eye
from the eye. Thus, the image is not formed at the retina if an object is Fig.4 Defects of eyes
kept at about 25 cm away from the eye. The rays are focused behind the
retina [see fig. 4(b)].
Reason
This defect arises because either the focal length of the eye lens is too
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great or eye ball becomes too short. Due to this, light rays from nearby
objects cannot be brought to focus on the retina to give a clear image.

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CHECK YOUR ANSWERS 6.1 THE
SPOT
1. The eye is viewing at a distant object in case (b) because in this case the eye
lens is thin.
LIGHT
The retina of a chick has mostly cones
2. The focal length of the eye lens is less in case (a) because the lens is more and only a few rods. As the cones
rounded (or curved). are sensitive to bright light only, the
3. For a normal eye, the image is always formed at the retina whether it is chicks wake up with sunrise (dawn)
and sleep by the sunset (dusk).
viewing a closer or distant object. Thus, in both the cases, image is formed
at the retina.
4. In case (b), ciliary muscles are relaxed when the eye lens is thin and eye is
viewing a distant object.

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BUILDING CONCEPTS 6.5
What type of corrective lens would you suggest for the following eye defects
and why?
(a) Myopia (b) Hypermetropia
Explanation
(a) In myopia, a person cannot see the distant object clearly i.e., the far
(a)
point of a myopic eye is located at some finite distance from the eye.
Far point of
a myopic eye
Let this distance be ‘x’. Now, the parallel beam from distant object
does not form an image on the retina [see fig.5(a)]. Instead, a diverging
beam from the far point forms a clear image on the retina [see fig.5(b)].
Thus, if we make the parallel beam from the distant object to become
a diverging beam using an appropriate lens, a clear image of the distant
x<¥ object can be formed on the retina. We know that a parallel beam can
be made diverging easily by using a diverging lens i.e., a concave lens
(b) (see fig.6). Thus, for myopia, a concave lens is used as a corrective lens.
Fig.5 Building concepts 6.5
To be converted

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into a
Parallel beam Divergent beam
Can be possible

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using a concave lens
Fig.6 Corrective lens for myopia
(b) In hypermetropia, a person cannot see the closer object clearly, the

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near point of a hypermetropic eye is located at a distance greater than
25 cm from the eye. Let this distance be ‘y’. Now, the divergent beam
from a point 25 cm away from the eye does not form an image on the

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25 cm
(a) retina [see fig.7(a)]. Instead, a diverging beam from the near point located
at a distance greater than 25 cm forms a clear image on the retina
Near point for a
hypermetropic eye [see fig.7(b)]. Thus, from fig.7, we can see that if we make the more
divergent beam from the object placed at 25 cm to become a less

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divergent beam as in fig.7(b) using an appropriate lens, a clear image
of the nearby object can be formed on the retina. A more divergent
beam can be made less divergent easily by using a converging lens i.e.,
y a convex lens (see fig.8). This is simply like making a more positive
number to become less positive by adding a negative number to it.
(b)
Thus, for hypermetropia, a convex lens is used as a corrective lens.
Fig.7 Building concepts 6.5
To be converted

into a
More angle, more Less angle, less Can be possible
CBSE-2021\Module\Foundation\SET-2\10th\Physics-2\06-The Human Eye (Th).p65"

divergent beam divergent beam using a convex lens

Fig.8 Corrective lens for hypermetropia

Calculations for corrective lens for myopia

As discussed above, myopia is corrected by using a concave lens (diverging
lens) which increases the focal length in order to bring the image of the
object back on the retina itself.
Let a person can see clearly to a distance ‘x’ only (see fig.9). If we apply
x lens equation to the lens, then we have u = – ¥ and v = –x.
Fig.9 Correction for a myopic eye
1 1 1 1 1 1
By lens formula, – = or – =
v u f –x –¥ f
or f=–x
1 1
And, power is given by, P = =–
f x
(‘x’ is always taken + ve, ‘x’ and ‘f’ are in metres)
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Calculations for corrective lens for hypermetropia
Hypermetropia can be corrected by using a convex lens (converging lens)
which decreases the focal length in order to focus the image of a nearby
object at the retina. Thus, a person can see the object clearly. Let ‘y’ be
the minimum distance at which the person can see the object clearly.
Let the near point of a person having hypermetropia be at y distance
(see fig.10) from the eye (y > 25 cm). If we apply lens equation to the lens,
then we have u = – 0.25 m and v = – y. 25 cm
1 1 1 y
– =
– y – 0.25 f Fig.10 Correction for
a hypermetropic eye
1 1 1
or = -
f 0.25 y

Also, power, P = 1 = 1
-
1
=4–
1
f 0.25 y y

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(‘y’ is always taken + ve, ‘y’ and ‘f’ are in metres)
Presbyopia
Rather than resulting from a change in the shape of the eyeball, the inability

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to see objects that are close to you can also occur because the lens loses its

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THE
flexibility. This condition is known as presbyopia. As you age, the lens
SPOT

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often loses its flexibility and cannot become round enough to create clear
images of near objects.
LIGHT
Presbyopia can occur in conjunction
F The defect that arises due to ageing in which a person cannot read

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with myopia or hypermetropia. If one
comfortably and distinctly without corrective eye glasses is called already wears glasses to correct
for myopia, as presbyopia occurs,
‘presbyopia’.
the bifocal lenses can be used to
Reason accommodate both conditions.

A
The power of accommodation of the eye decreases with ageing. For most
of the people, the near point recedes, this means, the least distance of
distinct vision increases. This phenomenon arises due to the gradual
weakening of ciliary muscles and decreasing flexibility of the crystalline eye
lens.
Due to ageing, usually a person can see the distant objects clearly. This is
because, the rays from a distant object are less diverging as compared to
the rays from a near object. Thus, the lens can still focus rays from distant
objects on the retina. To cause the more sharply diverging rays from a
CBSE-2021\Module\Foundation\SET-2\10th\Physics-2\06-The Human Eye (Th).p65"

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THE
near object to be focussed on the retina, the lens has to become quite SPOT
round to shorten its focal length. Since the lens has lost its flexibility
LIGHT
(or elasticity), it cannot become quite round to focus the light rays from the
Sometimes, a person may suffer from
near object. Thus, he/she cannot see the near object clearly. both myopia and hypermetropia.
Correction Such people often use bifocal lens.
Commonly, the upper portion of
Presbyopia is literally an “old-age vision” and it is due to a reduction in bifocal lens is a concave lens (used
accommodation ability. The cornea and lens together are not able to bring for distant vision) and the lower
portion is a convex lens (used for
nearby objects into focus on the retina. The symptoms are the same as reading purpose).
with hypermetropia or farsightedness, and the condition can be corrected
with converging lens i.e., convex lens.
F These days, it is possible to correct the defects of vision by using ‘contact
lenses’.
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NUMERICAL ABILITY 6.1
1. The far point of a myopic person is 80 cm in front of the eye. What is the
focal length and power of the lens required to enable him to see very
distant objects clearly?
Solution
Here, x = 80 cm = 0.8 m.
Focal length, f = – x = – 0.8 m (A concave lens).
Refracting edge 1 1
Power, P = = = – 1.25 dioptres.
f –0.8
Angle of Refracting 2. The near point of a hypermetropic person is 75 cm from the eye. What is
prism face the focal length and power of the lens required to enable the person to
read clearly a book held at 25 cm from the eye?
Solution
Here, y = 75 cm = 0.75 m

1 1 1 1 1 100 100 4 8

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= - = - = – =4– =
f 0.25 y 0.25 (0.75) 25 75 3 3
or f = + (3/8) = + 0.375 m

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1 8
Fig.11 A triangular prism
Power, P = = = + 2.67 dioptres.
f 3

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6.4 Refraction of light through a prism
Prism (triangular prism)
In a triangular prism, there are two triangular base and three rectangular

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lateral surfaces (refracting faces) (see fig.11). These surfaces are inclined
to each other at some angle. The angle between its two lateral surfaces is
known as the angle of the prism.

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Let the incident ray be PQ, QR be the refracted ray and RS be the emergent
ray (see fig.12). The ray PQ enters from air to glass at the first refracting
surface AB. The light ray after refraction, bends towards the normal
Angle
of prism (refracted ray QR). At the second surface AC, the ray QR enters from glass
to air and bends away from the normal after refraction. The emergent ray
Angle of
RS is not parallel to the incident ray PQ due to the peculiar shape of prism.
Incident deviation
A
ray F The angle between the incident ray and the emergent ray is called
Emergent
‘angle of deviation (d)’.
A ray
Q d 6.5 Dispersion of white light by a prism
CBSE-2021\Module\Foundation\SET-2\10th\Physics-2\06-The Human Eye (Th).p65"

i i'
r r' If a beam of white light is made to fall on one face of a prism, the light
P R
emerging out from the other face of prism consists of seven colours namely
S
Violet (V), Indigo (I), Blue (B), Green (G), Yellow (Y), Orange (O) and Red
(R). The deviation suffered by the red light is minimum and for the violet
B C
light, it is maximum (see fig. 13).
Fig.12 Refraction of
light through a prism F The phenomenon of splitting up of white light into its constituent colours is
called ‘dispersion of light’.
Reason
The wavelengths of different colours of light are different and the refractive
index of glass is different for different wavelengths. Higher the wavelength,
lower will be the refractive index and thus, lower will be the deviation and
vice-versa. Thus, deviation of red light is low as its wavelength is large.
Similarly, deviation of violet light is high as its wavelength is small.

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P rism

ee n
Scr
White Red

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THE
light Orange
SPOT
Yellow
Green LIGHT
Blue The beautiful, sparkling colours
produced by ice crystals on a small
Indigo branch of a tree in winter, the vibrant
Violet colours of a rainbow, and the brilliant
flashes of colour you see when light
passes through diamonds, all these
are examples of the phenomenon
Fig.13 Dispersion of white light through a prism known as ‘dispersion’.

BUILDING CONCEPTS 6.6

When a beam of white light enters a glass prism, which has nonparallel

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Violet
sides, the rainbow of colours exiting the prism is a testimonial to the
light Red
dispersion occurring in the glass. Suppose a beam of white light enters a light
rectangular slab of material with parallel sides. When the beam exits the
Transparent

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other side, travelling in the same direction as the original beam, is there Bluish
rectangular slab
tinge
any evidence of dispersion?
Explanation

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Due to dispersion, light at the red end of the spectrum exhibits a larger
angle of refraction on entering the glass slab as compared to the light at

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the violet end (see fig.14). All colours of light return to their original direction
of propagation as they refract out back into the air. As a result, the outgoing
beam is white. But the net shift in the position of the violet light along the
edge of the glass slab is larger than the shift of the red light, so one edge

A O i te
ut li
w
of the outgoing beam has a bluish tinge (border) to it, whereas the other

go gh
h

in t
edge has a reddish tinge. The coloured edges of the outgoing beam of

g
white light are evidence of dispersion.
Initially, it was a matter of debate, whether the prism itself creates colours Reddish
in some way or it only separates the colours already present in white light. tinge
Sir Isaac Newton settled the issue by performing a simple experiment. He Fig. 14 Building concepts 6.6
put another similar prism, but in an inverted position, and let the emergent,
separated beam fall on the second prism. The resulting emergent beam
was found to be white light (see fig.15). The first prism separated the
CBSE-2021\Module\Foundation\SET-2\10th\Physics-2\06-The Human Eye (Th).p65"

white light into its component colours, which were recombined by the inverted
prism to give white light. Thus, white light itself consists of colours which
can be separated by the prism.

P
THE
t
SPOT
ligh
h ite LIGHT
W
R R R Although the p henomenon of
dispersion has been observed for
t V thousands of years, it was Sir Isaac
ligh V
ite V
Wh Newton who, in 1666, initiated the
first systematic study of dispersion.

Fig. 15 Newton’s classic experiment on dispersion of white light

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CBSE: Class X
ALLEN
CHECK YOUR CONCEPTS 6.2
1. In the fig.16, a white light is incident on a triangular prism. Name the
colour which is at third position from the top on the screen.
2. If a ray of light falls on a rectangular glass slab, why do we not see the
dispersion of light?
3. Suppose all colours of light are travelling in glass. Which colour has maximum

Screen
Wh speed in glass? Which colour has minimum speed in glass?
ite ligh
t
6.6 The Rainbow
The rainbow is the nature’s most spectacular display of the spectrum of
white light. The required conditions for the appearance of the phenomenon
Fig.16 Check your concepts 6.2 are that Sun be shining in one part of the sky and the rain be falling in
opposite part of sky. The observer’s back is towards the Sun.
The common bright rainbow known as the ‘primary rainbow’ is a colour
band, having red on the outside and violet on the inner side, seen as circular
arcs. Primary rainbow is formed due to two refractions and one internal
reflection (partial) of light falling on raindrops.

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(1) A ray of sunlight enters a single raindrop at a point A (see fig.17) near
the top and first refraction of light takes place along with dispersion
(splitting) of light into its spectrum colours, violet being deviated most

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and red the least.
(2) Arriving at the opposite side of drop, each colour is internally reflected

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into the liquid. Reaching the surface at lower boundary, each colour is
again refracted into the air. The second refraction increases (widens)
the dispersion already produced at the first.

L
(3) It is found that the violet ray emerges at an angle of 40° relative to
incoming sunlight and red light emerges at an angle of 42°. For other
colours, angles lie in between these two values.
Fig.17 Rainbow : The sun rays Formation of the rainbow

A
incident on a water drop get refracted The large number of raindrops in sky especially just after rain makes a
twice and reflected internally by a
prominent rainbow. The red light from topmost drop 1 (see fig.18) and
drop.
violet light from lowermost drop 2 reaches the observer’s eye. The violet
light from drop 1 and red light from drop 2 are directed at a level above
and below the observer’s eye respectively. Thus, the observer sees a rainbow
with red colour on the top and violet on the bottom. An intermediate drop
3 is also shown from which blue light reaches the observer’s eye. In this
way, we can see all the seven colours of rainbow in a hollow circular arc
which is making an angle of 40° and 42° at our eye.
42°
CBSE-2021\Module\Foundation\SET-2\10th\Physics-2\06-The Human Eye (Th).p65"

40°
White light 1

P
THE
let
SPOT White light Vio 3
LIGHT let
White light Vio
Sometimes, a fainter ‘secondary 2
d

ue
Re

rainbow’ with colours reversed is also Bl

d

seen along with primary rainbow. At

d
Re

t
ole
Re

very high altitudes from an Vi

aeroplane, the rainbow can be seen
as complete circles.

Fig.18 Formation of a rainbow

62
 Physics
ALLEN
6.7 Atmospheric refraction
The refraction of light caused by the earth’s atmosphere due to variable
refractive index of air at different zones is called ‘atmospheric refraction’.
Twinkling of stars
Twinkling of stars can be seen on a clear night. This is due to atmospheric Apparent
refraction of light coming from the stars (star light). As the star light enters position of star

into the earth’s atmosphere, atmospheric refraction takes place due to

gradually changing refractive index of the air. Since the physical conditions Star
of the refracting medium (earth’s atmosphere) are not stationary, star light
flux (luminous flux) entering the eye of an observer continuously fluctuates.
This means luminous energy reaching our eyes per second from the star
increases and decreases with time. Thus, the star sometimes appears brighter

refractive index
and at some other times fainter, causing the ‘twinkling of stars’.

Increasing
Star appears slightly higher than its actual position

N
As the star light enters the earth’s atmosphere, it undergoes refraction
continuously before it reaches the earth’s surface. This refraction occurs
due to the gradually changing refractive index of air. As the star light enters

E
from rarer medium to comparatively denser medium, it bends more and
more towards the normal as it is reaching the earth’s surface (see fig.19).
Thus, apparent position of star is slightly higher than its actual position

L
when it is viewed from the earth’s surface. Also, this apparent position is
not stationary but it changes with time because of variable physical conditions

L
of the refracting medium (earth’s atmosphere). Fig.19 Apparent star position
due to atmospheric refraction
BUILDING CONCEPTS 6.7

A
Why do planets not twinkle?
Explanation
The apparent size of stars is very small as compared to apparent size of
planets. Thus, the star may be considered as a ‘point sized’ source of light
and the planet as an ‘extended source’ of light. So, the planet can be
considered as a collection of large number of ‘point sized’ sources of light,
such that the dimming effect of some ‘point sources’ is nullified by the Apparent
brighter effect of the other ‘point sources’. The variable atmospheric position of sun
conditions are unable to create variations in light flux from planet entering .......
.............
..... .... .....
CBSE-2021\Module\Foundation\SET-2\10th\Physics-2\06-The Human Eye (Th).p65"

.....
..... .......... Horizon
our eye and thus, planets do not twinkle. ..... .....
.....
.....
..... .....
.....
.....
..... .....
..... .....
.....
Delayed sunset and advanced (early) sunrise ..... Earth .....
.....
..... .....
..... Sun
The sun is visible before actual sunrise and after actual sunset because of ..... .....
.....
......
......... ......
.........
....................
atmospheric refraction. Actual sunrise means the ‘sunrise on actual crossing ................
..........
of the horizon by the sun’. The refractive index of air with respect to free
space or vacuum is 1.00029 (~1.0003). Due to this, sunlight bends towards Earth's atmosphere
the surface of Earth because of refraction. Thus, the sun appears to be Fig.20 Effect of atmospheric
raised above the horizon when it is slightly below the horizon (see fig.20). refraction at the sunrise or sunset

The apparent shift in the direction of sun is about 1/2° and corresponding
time difference between actual and apparent sunrise (or sunset ) is about
2 minutes. Thus, sun is visible to us about 2 minutes before actual sunrise
and about 2 minutes after actual sunset.

63
CBSE: Class X
ALLEN
6.8 Scattering of light
The process in which the light rays are deflected by the particles of the
medium through which they pass is called scattering of light.
Tyndall effect
When rays of light fall on the fine particles of a colloidal solution, the path
of the beam is visible due to the scattering of light by the colloidal particles.
This phenomenon is called ‘Tyndall effect’.
F The scattering of light as it passes through a medium containing small

P
THE
particles is called ‘Tyndall effect’.
SPOT
The colour of the scattered light depends on the size of the scattering
LIGHT particles. Very fine particles scatter shorter wavelengths (colours at violet
Tyndall effect is observed when a fine
beam of sunlight enters a room end) by greater amount as compared to the light having longer wavelengths
through a small hole and the light (colours at red end). If the size of particles is quite large, then, the scattered
get scattered from the smoke or dust light is almost white.
particles present in the room ; when

N
sunlight passes through a canopy of
a dense forest, tiny water droplets ACTIVE PHYSICS 6.4
present in the air scatter the light.
1. Place a strong source (S) of white light at the focus of a converging lens (L 1).

E
This lens provides a parallel beam of light. Allow the light beam to pass
through a transparent glass tank (T) containing clear water. Allow the beam
of light to pass through a circular hole (C) made in a cardboard. Obtain a

L
sharp image of the circular hole on a screen (M) using a second converging
lens (L2), as shown in fig.21. Dissolve about 200 g of sodium thiosulphate

L
(hypo) in about 2 L of clean water taken in the tank. Add about 1 to 2 mL
of concentrated sulphuric acid to the water.
M
L1 L2

A S C

P
THE
SPOT
LIGHT
The ‘danger’ signals are made of red T
colour because red colour is scattered
CBSE-2021\Module\Foundation\SET-2\10th\Physics-2\06-The Human Eye (Th).p65"

Fig.21 Active physics 6.4

least by the air particles, smoke or
fog due to its longer wavelength. 2. You will find fine microscopic sulphur particles precipitating in about 2 to 3
Hence, red colour can be seen in the minutes. As the sulphur particles begin to form, you can observe the blue
same shade even at the large
light from the three sides of the glass tank. This is due to scattering of short
distance.
wavelengths by minute colloidal sulphur particles. Observe the colour of
the transmitted light from the fourth side of the glass tank facing the circular
hole. It is interesting to observe, at first, the orange red colour and then
bright crimson red colour on the screen.
3. This activity demonstrates the scattering of light that helps you to understand
the bluish colour of the sky and the reddish appearance of the Sun at the
sunrise or the sunset. We conclude that very fine particles scatter mainly
shorter wavelength light (blue light) and longer wavelength light (red light)
gets transmitted.

64
 Physics
ALLEN
BUILDING CONCEPTS 6.8
Why sky appears blue?
Explanation
The molecules of air and other fine particles in the atmosphere have size
quite smaller as compared to the wavelength of the visible light. These
particles scatter the light having shorter wavelengths at the violet or blue
end more than the light having longer wavelengths at the red end. Thus,
when the sunlight passes through the earth’s atmosphere, the fine particles
present in air scatter the blue colour more strongly in comparison to the
red colour. The scattered blue light falls on our eyes. Thus, the sky appears
blue.

Colour of the sun at sunrise and sunset

N
At the sunrise or sunset, the sun is near the horizon. Light reaching the eye
of an observer travels a larger distance through the atmosphere. Thus,
most of the blue light and shorter wavelength rays are scattered away by

E
Fig.22 Sun appears reddish at
the air particles. Hence, the light that reaches the eye of an observer is of morning and evening, it appears
white at noon.
longer wavelengths (of red end). Thus, the sun appears reddish at sunrise

L
or sunset (see fig. 22).
Sun looks white at noon

L
At the noon, the light has to travel a comparatively shorter distance through
the atmosphere before reaching the eye of an observer. Thus, only a very
little amount of blue or violet light is scattered away. Hence, the sun at

A
noon looks almost white (see fig. 22).
Clouds are generally white
The clouds are generally white because the larger particles like dust and Rectangular
water drops scatter light of all colours, almost equally and all the colours glass slab

reach our eyes equally and combine to form white light. W

h
lig ite
ht Dispersed narrow,
CHECK YOUR ANSWERS 6.2 parallel beam

1. Since the prism as shown in fig.16 is inverted thus, the colour violet is at V
CBSE-2021\Module\Foundation\SET-2\10th\Physics-2\06-The Human Eye (Th).p65"

the top while colour red is at the bottom. So in seven colours starting from R

top (V I B G Y O R), the colour blue is on third position from the top.
2. If a ray of light falls on a rectangular glass slab, the dispersion of light takes
place but the emergent beam is a very narrow and parallel beam Eye
Fig.23 Check your answers 6.2 (2)
(see fig.23). Thus, when this narrow beam enters in our eye, it converges
at a single point and we see white light instead of separated colours.
3. We know that in any transparent medium, speed of light is given by,
c 1
v= i.e., v µ .
n n
Since, refractive index for red colour is least among the seven colours of
light, speed of red colour light is maximum in glass. Refractive index of
violet colour is maximum, thus its speed is minimum in glass.
65
CBSE: Class X
ALLEN
NCERT QUESTIONS WITH SOLUTIONS
1. What is meant by power of accommodation of the 7. The least distance of distinct vision for a young adult
eye? with normal vision is about
Ans. The ability of the eye lens to adjust its focal length (a) 25 m
is called power of accommodation. (b) 2.5 cm
2. A person with a myopic eye cannot see objects (c) 25 cm
beyond 1.2 m distinctly. What should be the type (d) 2.5 m
of the corrective lens used to restore proper Ans. Option (c) is correct.
vision? The least distance of distinct vision is the minimum
Ans. To correct this defect of vision, he must use a distance of an object to see clear image. It is
concave lens. 25 cm for a young adult with a normal vision.
3. What is the far point and near point of the human 8. The change in focal length of an eye lens is caused
eye with normal vision? by the action of the

N
Ans. The far point of a human eye with normal vision (a) pupil
is at infinity while the near point is at 25 cm from (b) retina

E
the eye. (c) ciliary muscles
4. A student has difficulty reading the blackboard while (d) iris
sitting in the last row. What could be the defect Ans. Option (c) is correct.

L
the student is suffering from? How can it be By relaxation or contraction of ciliary muscles, the
corrected? curvature of the eye lens changes which eventually

L
Ans. The student is suffering from eye defect 'myopia'. changes the focal length of eye lens.
This defect can be corrected by using concave lens. 9. A person needs a lens of power –5.5 dioptres for
5. The human eye can focus objects at different correcting his distant vision. For correcting his near

A
distances by adjusting the focal length of the eye vision he needs a lens of power +1.5 dioptre. What
lens. This is due to is the focal length of the lens required for correcting
(a) presbyopia. (i) distant vision, and
(b) accommodation. (ii) near vision?
(c) near-sightedness.
Ans. (i) Focal length f is given by,
(d) far-sightedness.
1
Ans. Option (b) is correct. Human eye can change the f=
P
focal length of the eye lens to see the objects situated 1
CBSE-2021\Module\Foundation\SET-2\10th\Physics-2\06-The Human Eye_(Ex).p65"

or f =
at various distances from the eye. This ability of – 5.5
eye is called accommodation. = – 0.1818 m
6. The human eye forms the image of an object at
= – 18.18 cm
its
(a) cornea (ii) Focal length f is given by,
(b) iris 1
f=
(c) pupil P
(d) retina 1
or f =
Ans. Option (d) is correct. The human eye is like a + 1.5
camera. Its lens system forms an image on a light- = + 0.6667 m
sensitive screen called the retina. = + 66.67 cm

66
 Physics
ALLEN
10. The far point of a myopic person is 80 cm in front 14. Why do stars twinkle?
of the eye. What is the nature and power of the
Ans. Twinkling of stars can be seen on a clear night.
lens required to correct the problem?
This is due to atmospheric refraction of light coming
Ans. For myopia, focal length is given by,
from the stars (star light). As the star light enters
f = – x = – 80 cm = – 0.8 m
into the earth’s atmosphere, atmospheric refraction
1 1
Power, P = = takes place due to gradually changing refractive
f – 0.8
index of the air. Since the physical conditions of
= – 1.25 dioptres.
the refracting medium (earth’s atmospheric) are not
The lens is a concave lens.
stationary, star light flux (luminous flux) entering
11. Make a diagram to show how hypermetropia is
corrected. The near point of a hypermetropic eye the eye of an observer continuously fluctuates. This
is 1 m. What is the power of the lens required to means luminous energy entering the eyes per
correct this defect? Assume that the near point of second from the star increases and decreases with
the normal eye is 25 cm. time. Thus, the star sometimes appear brighter and
Ans. Here, y = 1 m at some other time fainter, causing the ‘twinkling

N
1 1 1 1 1 of stars’.
= - = -
f 0 .25 y 0 .2 5 1 15. Explain why the planets do not twinkle.

E
100 Ans. The apparent size of stars is very small as compared
= –1= 4 – 1 = + 3
25 to apparent size of planets. Thus, the star may be

L
or f = + (1/3) = + 0.3333 m = + 33.33 cm considered as a ‘point sized’ source of light and
the planet as an ‘extended source’ of light. So, the
1
Power, P = = + 3 dioptres. planet can be considered as a collection of large

L
f
number of ‘point sized’ sources of light, such that
the dimming effect of some ‘point sources’ is nullified
by the brighter effect of the other ‘point sources’.

A
The variable atmospheric conditions are unable to
create variations in light flux from the planet
25 cm
entering our eye and thus, planets do not twinkle.
y
12. Why is a normal eye not able to see clearly the 16. Why does the Sun appear reddish early in the
objects placed closer than 25 cm? morning?
Ans. A normal eye is unable to clearly see the objects Ans. In the morning, the sun is near the horizon. Light
placed closer than 25 cm because the ciliary muscles reaching the eye of an observer travels a larger
of eyes are unable to contract beyond a certain distance in the atmosphere. Thus, most of the blue
CBSE-2021\Module\Foundation\SET-2\10th\Physics-2\06-The Human Eye_(Ex).p65"

limit. If the object is placed at a distance less than

light and shorter wavelength rays are scattered away
25 cm from the eye, then the object appears blurred
by the air particles. Hence, the light that reaches
and produces strain in the eyes.
the eye of an observer is of longer wavelengths (of
13. What happens to the image distance in the eye
when we increase the distance of an object from red end). Thus, the sun appears reddish at sunrise
the eye? or sunset.
Ans. The size of eye cannot be increased or decreased. 17. Why does the sky appear dark instead of blue to
Therefore, the image distance remains constant. an astronaut?
When we increase the distance of an object from Ans. The sky appears dark instead of blue to an astronaut
the eye, the image distance in the eye does not
because there is no atmosphere in the outer space
change. The increase in the object distance is
compensated by the change (increase) in the focal that can scatter the sunlight. As the sunlight is not
length of the eye lens such that the image is formed scattered, no scattered light reaches the eyes of
at the retina of the eye. the astronauts and the sky appears black to them.
67
CBSE: Class X
ALLEN
SOLVED EXAMPLES
1. The near point of a patient’s eye is 50.0 cm. (b) Find the power of the lens, in diopters. Neglect
(a) What focal length must a corrective lens have to the distance between the eye and the corrective
enable the eye to see clearly an object 25.0 cm lens.
away? Neglect the eye–lens distance. (b) What is Sol. Here, u = –¥ ; v = – 25 cm ; f =?
the power of this lens?
1 1 1
Ans. Here, u = – 25 cm ; v = – 50 cm ; f =? (a) By lens equation, – =
v u f
1 1 1
(a) By lens equation, – = 1 1 1 –1
v u f or = – =
1 1 1 1 –1 1 f (–25) (– ¥) 25
or = – or = +
f (–50) (–25) f 50 25 or f = –25 cm = – 0.25 m
1 –1 + 2 1
or = = Aliter :
f 50 50
or f = + 50 cm = + 0.5 m Here, x = 25 cm
Aliter : f = – x = –25 cm = – 0.25 m

N
Here, y = 50 cm = 0.5 m 1 1
(b) Power, P = or P = = – 4 Dioptre e
1 1 1 1 1 1 f –0.25
= - or = -
f 0.25 y f 0.25 0.5 4. A retired bank officer can easily read the fine print

E
1 100 10 of the financial page when the newspaper is held
or = – =4–2= +2
f 25 5 no closer than arm’s length, 60.0 cm from the eye.
or f = + (1/2) = + 0.5 m
What should be the focal length of an eyeglass lens

L
1
(b) Power, P = that will allow her to read at the more comfortable
f
distance of 24.0 cm? What is the power of this
1

L
or P= = + 2 Dioptre lens?
+0.5
2. Suppose a lens is placed in a device that determines Sol. Here, v = – 60 cm ; u = – 24 cm ; f =?
its power as + 2.75 diopters. Find (a) the focal length 1 1 1
By lens equation, – =

A
of the lens and (b) the minimum distance at which a v u f
patient will be able to focus on an object if the
1 1 1 1 –1 1
patient’s near point is 60.0 cm. Neglect the or = – or = +
f (–60) (–24) f 60 24
eye–lens distance.
Sol. Here, P = + 2.75 dioptre ; f =?
1 –2 + 5 3 1
1 1 or = = =
(a) f = = = + 0.364 m = + 36.4 cm f 120 120 40
P + 2.75
or f = + 40 cm = + 0.4 m
(b) Here, v = – 60 cm ; u =?
1 1 1 1 1
By lens equation, – = Power, P = or P =
f +0.4
CBSE-2021\Module\Foundation\SET-2\10th\Physics-2\06-The Human Eye_(Ex).p65"

v u f
= + 2.5 Dioptre
1 1 1 1 –1 1
or – = or = – 5. A boy uses spectacles of focal length –60 cm. Name
(–60) u +36.4 u 60 36.4
the defect of vision he is suffering from. Which lens
1 –1 1 – 36.4 – 60 – 96.4 is used for the correction of this defect?
or = – = =
u 60 36.4 2184 2184 Compute the power of this lens.
Sol. Given, f = –60 cm = –0.60 m
2184 The negative sign of focal length indicates that the
or u = = – 22.6 cm
– 96.4 lens is concave.
3. A particular nearsighted patient can’t see objects Thus the boy suffers from myopia (short sightedness)
clearly when they are beyond 25 cm (the far point vision.
of the eye). (a) What focal length should the
1 1
prescribed contact lens have to correct this problem? Power of the lens = = = –1.67 D
f (-0.60)

68