Distortion and Linearity

 An unwanted change in the signal behavior is usually referred

to as distortion.
 The cause of distortion is nonlinearity of semiconductor
devices constructed with diodes and transistors.
 Linearity:
■ Function f(x) = ax + b, although a straight-line, is not
referred to as a linear function.
■ Definition: A linear function must satisfy:
● f(x + y) = f(x) + f(y), and
● f(ax) = a f(x), for arbitrary scalar constant a

1
Generalized Transfer Function

 Transfer function of an electronic circuit is, in general, a

nonlinear function.
 Can be represented as a polynomial:
■ vo = a0 + a1 vi + a2 vi2 + a3 vi3 + · · · ·
■ Constant term a0 is the dc component that in RF circuits is
usually removed by a capacitor or high-pass filter.
■ For a linear circuit, a2 = a3 = · · · · = 0.

Electronic
vi vo
circuit

2
Effect of Nonlinearity on Frequency

 Consider a transfer function, vo = a0 + a1 vi + a2 vi2 + a3 vi3

 Let vi = A cos ωt
 Using the identities (ω = 2πf):
● cos2 ωt = (1 + cos 2ωt) / 2
● cos3 ωt = (3 cos ωt + cos 3ωt) / 4
 We get,

● vo = a0 + a2A2/2 + (a1A + 3a3A3/4) cos ωt

+ (a2A2/2) cos 2ωt + (a3A3/4) cos 3ωt

3
Linear and Nonlinear Circuits and Systems

 Linear devices:
■ All frequencies in the output of a device are related to input
by a proportionality, or weighting factor, independent of
power level.
■ No frequency will appear in the output, that was not present
in the input.
 Nonlinear devices:
■ A true linear device is an idealization. Most electronic
devices are nonlinear.
■ Nonlinearity in amplifier is undesirable and causes
distortion of signal.
■ Nonlinearity in mixer or frequency converter is essential.
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Types of Distortion and Their Tests

 Types of distortion:
■ Harmonic distortion: single-tone test
■ Gain compression: single-tone test
■ Intermodulation distortion: two-tone or multitone test
● Source intermodulation distortion (SIMD)
● Cross Modulation
 Testing procedure: Output spectrum measurement

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Harmonic Distortion

 Harmonic distortion is the presence of multiples of a

fundamental frequency of interest. N times the fundamental
frequency is called Nth harmonic.
 Disadvantages:
■ Waste of power in harmonics.
■ Interference from harmonics.
 Measurement:
■ Single-frequency input signal applied.
■ Amplitudes of the fundamental and harmonic frequencies
are analyzed to quantify distortion as:
● Total harmonic distortion (THD)
● Signal, noise and distortion (SINAD) 6
Problem for Solution

 Show that for a nonlinear device with a single frequency input

of amplitude A, the nth harmonic component in the output
always contains a term proportional to An.

7
Total Harmonic Distortion (THD)

 THD is the total power contained in all harmonics of a signal

expressed as percentage (or ratio) of the fundamental signal
power.
 THD(%) = [(P2 + P3 + · · · ) / Pfundamental ] × 100%
 Or THD(%) = [(V22 + V32 + · · · ) / V2fundamental ] × 100%
■ where P2, P3, . . . , are the power in watts of second, third, . . . ,
harmonics, respectively, and Pfundamental is the fundamental signal power,
■ and V2, V3, . . . , are voltage amplitudes of second, third, . . . , harmonics,
respectively, and Vfundamental is the fundamental signal amplitude.

 Also, THD(dB) = 10 log THD(%)

 For an ideal distortionless signal, THD = 0% or – ∞ dB
8
THD Measurement

 THD is specified typically for devices with RF output.

 The fundamental and harmonic frequencies together form a
band often wider than the bandwidth of the measuring
instrument.
 Separate power measurements are made for the fundamental
and each harmonic.
 THD is tested at specified power level because
■ THD may be small at low power levels.
■ Harmonics appear when the output power of an RF device is
raised.

9
Signal, Noise and Distortion (SINAD)

 SINAD is an alternative to THD. It is defined as

SINAD (dB) = 10 log10 [(S + N + D)/(N + D)]
where
■ S = signal power in watts
■ N = noise power in watts
■ D = distortion (harmonic) power in watts
 SINAD is normally measured for baseband signals.

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Problems for Solution

 Show that SINAD (dB) > 0.

 Show that for a signal with large noise and high distortion,
SINAD (dB) approaches 0.
 Show that for any given noise power level, as distortion
increases SINAD will drop.
 For a noise-free signal show that SINAD (dB) = ∞ in the
absence of distortion.

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Gain Compression

 The harmonics produced due to nonlinearity in an amplifier

reduce the fundamental frequency power output (and gain).
This is known as gain compression.
 As input power increases, so does nonlinearity causing greater
gain compression.
 A standard measure of Gain compression is 1-dB compression
point power level P1dB, which can be
■ Input referred for receiver, or
■ Output referred for transmitter

12
 Linear Operation: No Gain Compression
Amplitude

Amplitude
time time

LNA
or PA

Power (dBm)
Power (dBm)

frequency frequency
f1 f1

13
 Cause of Gain Compression: Clipping
Amplitude

Amplitude
time time

LNA
or PA

Power (dBm)
Power (dBm)

frequency frequency
f1 f1 f2 f3

14
Effect of Nonlinearity

 Assume a transfer function, vo = a0 + a1 vi + a2 vi2 + a3 vi3

 Let vi = A cos ωt
 Using the identities (ω = 2πf):
● cos2 ωt = (1 + cos 2ωt)/2
● cos3 ωt = (3 cos ωt + cos 3ωt)/4
 We get,
● vo = a0 + a2A2/2 + (a1A + 3a3A3/4) cos ωt
+ (a2A2/2) cos 2ωt + (a3A3/4) cos 3ωt

15
Gain Compression Analysis

 DC term is filtered out.

 For small-signal input, A is small
● A2 and A3 terms are neglected
● vo = a1A cos ωt, small-signal gain, G0 = a1
 Gain at 1-dB compression point, G1dB = G0 – 1
 Input referred and output referred 1-dB power:
P1dB(output) – P1dB(input) = G1dB = G0 – 1

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1-dB Compression Point

Output power (dBm)

1 dB

1 dB
Compression
P1dB(output)

point

Linear region Compression

(small-signal) region

P1dB(input)
Input power (dBm) 17
 Testing for Gain Compression

 Apply a single-tone input signal:

1. Measure the gain at a power level where DUT is linear.
2. Extrapolate the linear behavior to higher power levels.
3. Increase input power in steps, measure the gain and
compare to extrapolated values.
4. Test is complete when the gain difference between steps 2
and 3 is 1dB.
 Alternative test: After step 2, conduct a binary search for 1-dB
compression point.

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Example: Gain Compression Test

 Small-signal gain, G0 = 28dB

 Input-referred 1-dB compression point power level,
P1dB(input) = – 19 dBm
 We compute:
■ 1-dB compression point Gain, G1dB = 28 – 1 = 27 dB
■ Output-referred 1-dB compression point power level,
P1dB(output) = P1dB(input) + G1dB
= – 19 + 27
= 8 dBm

19
Intermodulation Distortion

 Intermodulation distortion is relevant to devices that handle

multiple frequencies.
 Consider an input signal with two frequencies ω1 and ω2:
vi = A cos ω1t + B cos ω2t
 Nonlinearity in the device function is represented by
vo = a0 + a1 vi + a2 vi2 + a3 vi3 neglecting higher order terms
 Therefore, device output is
vo = a0 + a1 (A cos ω1t + B cos ω2t) DC and fundamental
+ a2 (A cos ω1t + B cos ω2t)2 2nd order terms
+ a3 (A cos ω1t + B cos ω2t)3 3rd order terms
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Problems to Solve

 Derive the following:

vo = a0 + a1 (A cos ω1t + B cos ω2t)
+ a2 [ A2 (1+cos ω1t)/2 + AB cos (ω1+ω2)t + AB cos (ω1 – ω2)t
+ B2 (1+cos ω2t)/2 ]
+ a3 (A cos ω1t + B cos ω2t)3
 Hint: Use the identity:
■ cos α cos β = [cos(α + β) + cos(α – β)] / 2
 Simplify a3 (A cos ω1t + B cos ω2t)3

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 Two-Tone Distortion Products

 Order for distortion product mf1 ± nf2 is |m| + |n|

Nunber of distortion products Frequencies

Order Harmonic Intermod. Total Harmonic Intrmodulation
2 2 2 4 2f1 , 2f2 f 1 + f2 , f2 – f1
3 2 4 6 3f1 , 3f2 2f1 ± f2 , 2f2 ± f1
4 2 6 8 4f1 , 4f2 2f1 ± 2f2 , 2f2 – 2f1 , 3f1 ± f2 , 3f2 ± f1
5 2 8 10 5f1 , 5f2 3f1 ± 2f2 , 3f2 ± 2f1 , 4f1 ± f2 , 4f2 ± f1
3f1 ± 3f2 , 3f2 – 3f1 , 5f1 ± f2 , 5f2 ± f1 ,
6 2 10 12 6f1 , 6f2
4f1 ± 2f2 , 4f2 ± 2f1
4f1 ± 3f2 , 4f2 – 3f1 , 5f1 ± 2f2 , 5f2 ± 2f1 ,
7 2 12 14 7f1 , 7f2
6f1 ± f2 , 6f2 ± f1
N 2 2N – 2 2N Nf1 , Nf2 . . . . .

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Problem to Solve

Write distortion products for two tones 100MHz and 101MHz

Harmonics
Order Intermodulation products (MHz)
(MHz)
2 200, 202 1, 201
3 300, 3003 99, 102, 301, 302
4 400, 404 2, 199, 203, 401, 402, 403
5 500, 505 98, 103, 299, 304, 501, 503, 504
6 600, 606 3, 198, 204, 399, 400, 405, 601, 603, 604, 605
97, 104, 298, 305, 499, 506, 701, 707, 703,
7 700, 707
704, 705, 706
Intermodulation products close to input tones are
shown in bold.
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 Second-Order Intermodulation Distortion
Amplitude

Amplitude
DUT

f2 – f1
f1 f2 f1 f2 2f1 2f2
frequency frequency

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Amplitude Higher-Order Intermodulation Distortion

DUT Third-order intermodulation

f1 f2 distortion products (IMD3)

2f1 – f2

2f2 – f1
frequency
Amplitude

f1 f2 2f1 2f2 3f1 3f2

frequency

25
Problem to Solve

 For A = B, i.e., for two input tones of equal magnitudes, show

that:
■ Output amplitude of each fundamental frequency, f1 or f2 , is
9
a1 A + — a3 A3
4

■ Output amplitude of each third-order intermodulation

frequency, 2f1 – f2 or 2f2 – f1 , is
3
— a3 A3
4

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Third-Order Intercept Point (IP3)

 IP3 is the power level of the fundamental for which the output of
each fundamental frequency equals the output of the closest
third-order intermodulation frequency.
 IP3 is a figure of merit that quantifies the third-order
intermodulation distortion.
 Assuming a1 >> 9a3 A2 /4, IP3 is given by

a1 IP3 = 3a3 IP33 / 4 Output a1 A

3a3 A3 / 4

IP3 = [4a1 /(3a3 )]1/2

A
IP3
27
Test for IP3

 Select two test frequencies, f1 and f2, applied to the input of

DUT in equal magnitude.
 Increase input power P0 (dBm) until the third-order products are
well above the noise floor.
 Measure output power P1 in dBm at any fundamental frequency
and P3 in dBm at a third-order intermodulation frquency.
 Output-referenced IP3: OIP3 = P1 + (P1 – P3) / 2
 Input-referenced IP3: IIP3 = P0 + (P1 – P3) / 2
= OIP3 – G
Because, Gain for fundamental frequency, G = P1 – P0
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IP3 Graph

OIP3
Output power (dBm)

P1 2f1 – f2 or 2f2 – f1
f1 or f2 20 log (3a3 A3 /4)
20 log a1 A slope = 3
slope = 1

P3

(P1 – P3)/2
P0 IIP3

Input power = 20 log A dBm

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Example: IP3 of an RF LNA

 Gain of LNA = 20 dB
 RF signal frequencies: 2140.10MHz and 2140.30MHz
 Second-order intermodulation distortion: 400MHz; outside
operational band of LNA.
 Third-order intermodulation distortion: 2140.50MHz; within the
operational band of LNA.
 Test:
■ Input power, P0 = – 30 dBm, for each fundamental frequency
■ Output power, P1 = – 30 + 20 = – 10 dBm
■ Measured third-order intermodulation distortion power, P3 = – 84 dBm
■ OIP3 = – 10 + [( – 10 – ( – 84))] / 2 = + 27 dBm
■ IIP3 = – 10 + [( – 10 – ( – 84))] / 2 – 20 = + 7 dBm 30
Source Intermodulation Distortion (SIMD)

 When test input to a DUT contains multiple tones, the input may
contain intermodulation distortion known as SIMD.
 Caused by poor isolation between the two sources and
nonlinearity in the combiner.
 SIMD should be at least 30dB below the expected
intermodulation distortion of DUT.

31
Cross Modulation

 Cross modulation is the intermodulation distortion caused by

multiple carriers within the same bandwidth.
 Examples:
■ In cable TV, same amplifier is used for multiple channels.
■ Orthogonal frequency division multiplexing (OFDM) used in WiMAX or
WLAN use multiple carriers within the bandwidth of the same amplifier.

 Measurement:
■ Turn on all tones/carriers except one
■ Measure the power at the frequency that was not turned on

 B. Ko, et al., “A Nightmare for CDMA RF Receiver: The Cross

Modulation,” Proc. 1st IEEE Asia Pacific Conf. on ASICs, Aug.
1999, pp. 400-402.
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