UNIT-II

Motion, Proximity and Ranging Sensors

CONTENT
 Motion sensors
 Potentiometers
 Resolvers
 Encoders- Optical, Magnetic and Inductive Encoders
 Linear Variable Differential Transformer (LVDT)
 Rotary Variable Differential Transformer (RVDT)
 Syncro, Microsyn, Accelerometer
 GPS, Bluetooth
 Range Sensors-RF beacons, Ultrasonic Ranging,
Reflective beacons, Laser Range Sensor (LIDAR)
 1.1 MOTION SENSORS
 INTRODUCTION
The study of specific measuring devices with motion
measurements.
Based on two fundamental quantities in nature (length and time)
and so many other quantities (such as Force, Pressure and
Temperature,etc) are often measured by transducing them to motion
and then measuring this resulting motion.
 It is mainly concerned with electromechanical transducers which
convert motion quantities into electrical quantities.
2.2 POTENTIOMETERS
A resistive potentiometer consist of a resistance element provided
with a movable contact.
The contact motion can be translation, rotation or a combination of
the two (helical motion in a multiturn rotational device),thus
allowing measurement of rotary and translatory displacements.
 Translatory devices have strokes from about 2 to 500mm and
rotational ones range from about 10 to as much as 60 full turns.
The cable-extension version allows very long travels (upto 40m)
and convenient mounting in situations that might be awkward for
other configuration.
 Such devices are also available using digital encoders in place of
the potentiometer or with both a potentiometer and a tachometer
generator, giving position and velocity data.
The resistance element is excited with either D.C or A.C voltage
and the output voltage is a (ideally) linear function of the input
displacement.
Resistance elements in common use may be classified as
wire –wound, conductive plastic, deposited film, hybrid or Cernet.
Potentiometer displacement transducer
• If the distribution of resistance with respect to
translational or angular travel of the wiper (moving
contact) is linear, the output voltage eo will faithfully
duplicate the input motion xi or θi , if the terminals at
eo are open circuit.
• The potentiometer output voltage is the input, to a
meter or recorder that draws some current from the
potentiometer.
• From Fig.3.4, analysis of this circuit gives,
• The above equation becomes ideal RP/Rm=0 for an open
circuit conditions.

• For no “loading” , the input –output curve is a straight

line. In actual practice, Rm ≠ α and equation 1 shows a
non-linear between e0 and xi
• To achieve good linearity, for a ‘meter’ of a given
resistance Rm , choose a potentiometer of sufficiently low
resistance relative to Rm .
• If the heat dissipation is limited to P watts, the allowable
excitation voltage is given by max
•
Loading effect of potentiometer
Wire –wound resistance shape
 RESOLVERS
• Uses: For conversion of angular position of a shaft into
cartesia co-ordinates.
• The output of the transducer is in the form of two signals,
one proportional to the sine of the angle and the other
proportional to cosine of the angle.
• A resolver is very precise electromagnetic device
comprising of two stator and two rotor windings.
Construction:
• The construction of a resolver is similar to that of a two
phase, two pole wound rotor induction motor.
• The stator windings are identical and are housed in a
magnetic structure, with the axis of two windings 90⁰ to
each other.
• Similarly , the two rotor windings are placed in a magnetic
structure and are mutually perpendicular to each other.
• Stator windings are supplied with an alternating voltage that
produces an alternating magnetic flux which induces voltages
in the two rotor windings.
• The output voltage of the rotor windings is proportional to the
stator voltage and the coupling between stator and rotor
windings.
• The way in which the windings are placed, the rotor output
voltages are proportional to the sine and cosine of the rotor
angle.
Winding Configuration of the resolver
• When one of the stator windings S1S3 is excited by an A.C source, with the
other stator windings S2S4 short circuited, the following output voltage are
obtained from the rotor.
ER 1-3 = ES 1-3 Cosθ -------------------- (1)

ER 2-4 = -ES 1-3 Sin θ -------------------------------- (2)

• When the two stator windings are excited, the outputs are us under

ER 1-3 = ES 1-3 Cosθ + ES 2-4 Sin θ -------------- (3)

ER 2- 4 = ES 2-4 Cosθ - ES 1-3 sin θ --------------------(4)

 When the two rotor windings are excited , the output from the stator
windings
ES 1-3 = ER1-3 Cosθ - ER 2-4 Sin θ -------------------- (5)

ES 2- 4 = ER 2-4 Cosθ + ER1-3 sin θ -------------------------- (6)

where θ= angular displacement of rotor

 Classification of Resolvers
(i) Computing resolvers and
(ii) Synchro resolvers
Computing Resolvers:
Uses:
 For generating sine, cosine and tangent functions as
well as for solving geometric relationships.
Synchro resolvers:
Uses:
 For data transmission
 It perform the same functions as synchro transmitters,
receivers and control transformers but with a better
accuracy.
 Applications of Resolvers
1. Vector Resolution
2. Vector Composition
3. Vector angle and component resolution
4. Pulse amplitude control and pulse resolution
5. Phase shifting
 ENCODERS
• Transducers often communicate with digital computers and
therefore transducers which have a digital output are
preferable as they are convenient to use since they can be
directly interfaced with a digital computer.
• Few transducers, exist which can provide a direct digital
output. In case, where transducers used in measurement
systems provide only an analog output. Therefore with such
transducers to use an analog to digital data which could be
handled by digital computers.
• Digital transducers are called Encoders, they are available but
they are normally in the form of linear or rotary displacement
transducers.
• Digital encoding transducers or Digitisers, enable a linear
or rotary displacement to be directly converted into
digital form without intermediate forms of analog to
digital (A/D) convertion. Such digisters may be known as
digital encoders or linear digisters or for rotary
applications, shaft digitisers or shaft encoders.
• A digitiser is the most elementary form of analog to
digital (A/D) converter because it converts a continuous
displacement an analog quantity to be defined
incrementally in some binary or decimal code.
• Based on simplicity of associated circuitry, reliability,
cost, advantages and limitations any techniques can be
choosen for achieving the conversion.
 Classification of Encoders
(i) Tachometer transducers
(ii) Incremental transducers and
(iii) Absolute transducers

Tachometer Encoders
 Has only a single output signal which consists of a pulse for
each increment of displacement. If the motion were always in one
direction, a digital counter could accumulate these pulses to
determine the displacement from a known starting point.
 Any motion in the opposite direction would also produce
identical pulses, which would produce errors.
 This digital transducer is usually used for measurement of speed,
rather than for displacement and in situations where the rotation
never reverses.
Classification of Encoders
 INCREMENTAL ENCODERS
• The problems caused by reverse motion in the case of
tachometer encoder are solved by using an incremental
encoder.
• The incremental encoder uses atleast two/ three signal
generating elements.
• The two tracks the tachometer encoder uses only one
track in the case incremental encoder are mechanically
shifted by ¼ cycle relative to each other.
• This allows detection of motion which signal rises first
thus an up down pulse counter can be used to substract
pulses whenever the motion reverses.
• A third output , which produces one pulse per
revolution at a distinct point, is sometimes provided
for Zero reference.
Advantage of Incremental encoder:
 Able to rotate through as many revolutions as the
application requires.
 Any false pulse resulting from electric noise will
errors that persist even when the noise disappears.
 The failure of system power also causes total
information about the position data which cannot be
retrieved even after re-application of power.
 ABSOLUTE ENCODERS
• Generally limited to measurement of a single
revolution.
• They use multiple tracks and outputs, which are read
out in parallel to produce binary representation of the
angular shaft input position.
• There is a one-to-one correspondence between binary
output, position data are recovered when power is
restored after an outage.
• The transient electric noise causes only transient
measurement errors.
 Absolute Encoders

• Generally limited to measurement of a single

revolution. They use multiple tracks and outputs,
which are read out imparallel to produce binary
representation of the angular shaft input position.
• Since there is a one-to-one correspondence
between binary output, position data are
recovered when power is restored after an outage.
• The transient electric noise causes only transient
measurement errors.
 Construction of Encoders
• Encoders are of 3 types mentioned above, can be
constructed as
(i) Contacting type and (ii) non-Contacting type
Contacting or Brush type (Resistive encoders)
 The shaded areas are made of conducting material and the
unshaded areas are made of non-conducting materials.
 Brushes are placed on the transducer which act as sliding
contacts .
 The circuit of sliding contacts, which come in contact with
conducting areas are completed and the circuits of others
which make contacts with insulated areas are not
completed.
 Thus the encoders gives out a digital read out which is an
indication of position and hence the encoder determines the
displacement.
• The read-out lamps are only shown for explanatory function.
The four lamp-lines could be sent to a digital computer
directly..If a visual read-out were desired, these for voltages
would be applied to a binary-to-decimal conversion module
and then read out decimally on a display.
• While the code pattern of natural and Gray binary codes is
most convenient for explaining how motion is represented in
the familiar natural binary system, many commercial encoders
use a different code patterns such as Gray code in order to
avoid errors resulting from small misalignments which occur
in practical applications.
• The gray code output may not be compatible with the read-out
device, conversion from gray code to natural binary system
may be necessary. This is accomplished by using standard
logic gates as shown in Fig.
Linear Diplacement digital transducer

Natural and Gray binary codes

• Gray code is used for overcoming the inherent
disadvantages of a natural binary code. In a natural
binary code, a change of decimal number by one may
result in a change of number of bits.
• In the above example quoted above, the transition
from natural number to 7 to 8, would need a change
in all four bits as number 7 is represented by 0111 and
number 8 by 1000.
 OPTICAL
Incremental Encoder:
 Incremental encoders creates a series of equally spaced signals
corresponding to the mechanical increment required.
 For example, if we divide a shaft rotation into 100 parts, an
encoder would be selected to supply 1000 square wave cycles
per revolution. By using a counter to count these cycles, we can
find out how much the shaft has rotated
 Optical encoders tend to follow one of two principles of
operation.
They consist of either a system of coded tracks consisting of
transparent and opaque section and associated lamps and
photocells to detect the corresponding switching sequence, or they
rely on the use of more fringe techniques, capable of much higher
resolution when used for incremental measurement.
SHAFT ENCODERS
• The absolute digitiser comprises an assembly consisting of
a gray – coded pattern photographically reproduce on a
glass disc mounted on the input shaft.
• The code consists of ten annular tracks each with a pattern
of opaque and transparent sections. The code reading
system employs a filament lamp and collimating lens from
which light passes through the disc and a narrow radial slit,
to be detected by ten photovoltaic cells.
• Depending on the angular position of the shaft, certain
cells receive light from the transparent portions of the disc
and enable the outputs from all ten cells to reproduce the
shaft position directly in parallel - gray - coded form.
• The output which is noise free, is suitable for amplification
and subsequent processing for use in digital servo systems,
computers, data logging and visual displays.
 MAGNETIC ENCODER
• In case of magnetic encoders, the conducting portions of the contacting type
encoders are replaced by magnetic tape with magnetized portions and non
conducting portions are represented by non-magnetized portions as shown in
figure below.
• For magnetizing the portions a coating of magnetic material powder is made.
• The sensing section consists of toroidal cores, each provided with two coils,
namely reading coil (R - coil) and Interrogate coil (I - coil).
• These sensing coils are placed closer to the pattern of the magnetic encoder,
but there is no contact with the encoder.
• The detection of the magnetized portions saturates the toroidal core, and
suitable output signal is generated.
• When the interrogate coil is energized with a constant voltage signal of 200
KHz, the reading coil generates the output signals as a transformer action.
• If the toroidal core is over the magnetized portion, the output signal from the R
- Coil is low and when the core is over the non - magnetized portion, the
output signal from the R - coil is high.
MAGNETIC ENCODER
 INDUCTIVE
i) Change of self inductance
 ii) Mutual Inductance
• The mutual inductance between the coils can be varied by
variation of self inductances or the coefficient of coupling.

However, the mutual inductance can

• be converted into a self inductance by connecting the coils
in series. The self -inductance of such an arrangement
varies L1 + L2 – 2 M to L1 + L2 + 2 M with one of the
coils being stationary while the other is movable. The self
inductance of each coil is constant but the mutual
inductance changes depending upon the displacement of
the movable coil.
 iii) Production of Eddy Currents
• These inductive transducers work on the principle that if a
conducting plate is placed near a coil carrying alternating
current, eddy currents are produced in the conducting plate.
• The conducting plate acts as a short - circuited secondary
winding of a transformer.
• The eddy currents flowing in the plate produce a magnetic
field of their own which act against the magnetic field
produced by the coil. This results in reduction of flux and
thus the inductance of the coil is reduced.
• The nearer is the plate to the coil, the higher are the eddy
currents and thus higher is the reduction in the inductance of
the coil. Thus the inductance
• of the coil alters with variation of distance between the plate
and the coil.
 Types of Inductive Transducer
1. Air Cored Coils
 Air cored coil transducers can be operated at a higher carrier frequency
because of absence of eddy current losses in air cores.
 The inductance of air cored coils is independent of the current carried by
the coil as the permeability of air is constant and does not depend upon the
current carried by the coil.
 Hence air cored coil tranducer can be used for measurement of
displacement variations occurring at fairly high frequencies.
2. Iron Cored Coils
 The greatest disadvantage of iron cored coils transducers is that their
inductance is not constant but depends upon the value of the current carried
by the coil.
 Also, at high frequencies, the eddy current loss tends to be high and
therefore iron cored coil transducers cannot be used beyond a particular
frequency.
 The frequency of supply voltage should not exceed 20 KHz for iron core
transducer to keep the core losses to acceptable values.
CAPACITIVE TRANSDUCERS
• The capacitance transducer works on the principle
of change of capacitance which may be caused by
 Change in overlapping area A
 Change in the distance d between the plates
Change in dielectric constant
• These changes are caused by physical variables
like displacement, force and pressure in most of
the cases.
• The change in capacitance may be caused by
change in dielectric constant as is the case in
measurement of liquid or gas levels.
Transducer using Change in Area of
Plates
Transducers Using Change in Distance
Between Plates
Differential Arrangement of Capacitive
Transducer
Variation of Dielectric Constant for
Measurement of Displacement
 Variation of Dielectric Constant
for Measurement of Liquid Level
 LINEAR VARIABLE DIFFERENTIAL TRANSFORMER
(LVDT)
• The most widely used inductive transducer to translate the linear
motion into electrical signal is the linear variable differential
transformer (LVDT).
• The transformer consist of a single primary winding P and two
secondary windings S1 and S2 wound on a cylindrical former.
• The secondary windings have equal number of turns and are identically
placed on either side of the primary winding.
• The primary winding is connected to an alternating current source.
• A movable soft iron core is placed insider the former.
• The displacement to be measured is applied to the arm attached to the
soft iron core.
• In order to overcome the problem of eddy current losses in the core,
nickel - iron alloy is used as core material and is slotted longitudinally.
 Operations:
• The output voltage of secondary winding S1 is ES1 and that
of secondary winding S2 is ES2. In order to convert the
output voltage from S1 and S2 into a single voltage signal,
the two secondary S1 and S2 are connected in series are
shown in figure 2.20. Thus the output voltage of the
transducer is the difference of the two voltages.
Differential output voltage
• Eo = ES1 – ES2
Case1:
• When the core is at its normal (NULL) position, the flux linking
with both the secondary windings are equal and hence equal emfs
are induced in them. Thus at null position ES1 = ES2. Since the
output voltage of the transducer is the difference of the two
voltages, the output voltage Eo is zero at null position.
Case2:
• Now if the core moved to the left of the null position, more flux
links with winding S1 and less with winding S2.Hence output
voltage ES2 of the secondary winding S1 and more than ES2. The
magnitude of output voltage is Eo = ES1 – ES2 and the output
voltage is in phase with the primary voltage.
Case3:
• Now if the core is moved to the right of the null position, the flux
linking with winding S2 becomes larger than that linking with
winding S1. This result in ES2 becoming larger than ES1. The
output voltage in this case is Eo = ES2 – ES1and is 180° out of
phase with the primary voltage.
 In practice, output voltage is not zero
at null position, but some residual
voltage exists at output terminals of
LVDT but it is usually less than 1% of
maximum value of output voltage in
linear range as shown in figure.
 Other causes of residual voltage are
stray magnetic fields and temperature
effects.
 However, with improved
technological methods and with the
use of better ac sources, the residual
voltage can be reduced to almost a negligible value.
 Advantages of LVDT
• High Range
• Immunity from External Effects
• High Input and High Sensitivity
• Ruggedness
• Low Hysteresis
• Low Power Consumption
 Disadvantage of LVDT
1. Large displacements are required for differential output.
2. They are sensitive to stray magnetic field.
3. Many a time, the transducer performance is affected by
vibration.
4. The receiving instrument must be selected to operate on
AC signals or a demodulator network must be used if a DC
output is required.
5. The dynamic response is limited mechanically by the
mass of the core and electrically by the frequency of
applied voltage.
The frequency of the carrier should be at least ten times the
highest frequency component to be measured.
6. Temperature affects the performance of the transducer.
Applications
• LVDTs are used to measure
1.Displacement
2. Force,
3. Weight
4. Pressure,
5. Position.
 ROTARY VARIABLE DIFFERENTIAL
TRANSFORMER (RVDT)

• RVDT is used to sense the angular displacement and it is similar to

the LVDT except that its core is cam shaped and may be rotated
between the windings by means of shaft are shown in figure.
 Operations
• The operation of a RVDT is similar to that of LVDT. At the
null position of the core, the output voltages of secondary
winding S1 and S2 are equal and in opposition.
• Therefore, the net output is zero. Any angular displacement
from the null position will result in a differential voltage
output. The greater this angular displacement, the greater
will be the differential output. Hence the response of the
transducer is linear.
• Clockwise rotation produces an increasing voltage of a
secondary winding of one phase while counter clock-wise
rotation produces an increasing voltage of opposite phase.
Hence the amount of angular displacement and its direction
may be ascertained from the magnitude and phase of the output
voltage of the transducer.
 SYNCHRO
Definition:
The Synchro is a type of transducer which transforms the
angular position of the shaft into an electric signal. It is used as
an error detector and as a rotary position sensor. The error
occurs in the system because of the misalignment of the shaft. The
transmitter and the control transformer are the two main parts of
the synchro.
Synchros System Types
The synchro system is of two types. They are
• Control Type Synchro.
• Torque Transmission Type Synchro.
Torque Transmission Type Synchros
• This type of synchros has small output torque,
and hence they are used for running the very light
load like a pointer. The control type Synchro is
used for driving the large loads.
Control Type Synchros System
• The controls synchros is used for error detection
in positional control systems. Their systems
consist two units. They are
• Synchro Transmitter
• Synchro receiver
Synchros Transmitter
– Their construction is similar to the three phase
alternator. The stator of the synchros is made of
steel for reducing the iron losses. The stator is
slotted for housing the three phase windings.
The axis of the stator winding is kept 120⁰ apart
from each other.
• The coils of the stator windings are connected in star.
The rotor of the synchros is a dumbbell in shape, and a
concentric coil is wound on it. The AC voltage is applied
to the rotor with the help of slip rings.
 The voltage applied to the rotor induces the
magnetizing current and an alternating flux along
its axis.
 The voltage is induced in the stator winding
because of the mutual induction between the rotor
and stator flux.
 The flux linked in the stator winding is equal
to the cosine of the angle between the rotor and
stator. The voltage is induced in the stator
winding.
 MICROSYN
• Microsyn is another name of the variable reluctance transducer.
• There are two major parts such as a ferromagnetic rotor and a stator
assembly.
• In the stator, four coils a, b, c and d are connected together with that the
voltage induced in coils a and c should be same as the voltages induced
in coils b and d at NULL position of the ferromagnetic rotor.
• Based on the rotation of the rotor in clockwise directions there will be
increased reluctance in the coils a and c and decreased reluctance in the
coils b and d which gives a net output voltage (Eo).
• If the rotation in counter clockwise directions it produces same kind of
effect in coils b and d with 180° phase shift.
• With the help of microsyns, it is possible to detect very small motion
which provides output signal for even 0.01° of changes in angles.
• Microsyns have the sensitivity as high as five volt per degree rotations.
Variable Reluctance Transducer
 ACCELEROMETERS
• An accelerometer is an electromechanical device
that measures acceleration forces.
• These forces may be static, like the constant force
of gravity pulling at our feet, or they could be
dynamic - caused by moving or vibrating the
accelerometer.
• The accelerometers measure the inertia force
generated when a mass is affected by change in
velocity.
• This force may change the tension of a string or
cause a deflection of beam or may even change
the vibrating frequency of a mass.
• The Accelerometers are composed of three main
elements: a mass, a suspension mechanism that positions
the mass and a sensing element that returns a
observation proportional to the acceleration of the mass.
• Some devices include an additional servo loop that
generates an opposite force to improve the linearity of
the sensor.
• Many of the accelerometers arc based on the pendulum
principle. They are built with a proof mass, a spring
hinge and a sensing device.
 ROTARY VARIABLE DIFFERENTIAL TRANSFORMER (RVDT)
• RVDT is used to sense the angular displacement and it is similar to the LVDT except that
its core is cam shaped and may be rotated between the windings by means of shaft are
shown in figure.
 Operations
• The operation of a RVDT is similar to that of LVDT. At the
null position of the core, the output voltages of secondary
winding S1 and S2 are equal and in opposition.
• Therefore, the net output is zero. Any angular displacement
from the null position will result in a differential voltage
output. The greater this angular displacement, the greater
will be the differential output. Hence the response of the
transducer is linear.
• Clockwise rotation produces an increasing voltage of a
secondary winding of one phase while counterclock - wise
rotation produces an increasing voltage of opposite phase.
Hence the amount of angular displacement and its direction
may be ascertained from the magnitude and phase of the
output voltage of the transducer.
 GPS (GLOBAL POSITIONING SYSTEM)
• The Global Positioning System (GPS) is a space-
based navigations system that provides location
and time information in all weather conditions,
anywhere on or near the earth where there is an
unobstructed line of sight to four or more GPS
satellites.
• GPS is "space based satellite navigation system"
which can show the exact position on or near the
Earth surface, anytime, anywhere, in any weather
condition.
• The GPS system provides critical capabilities to
military, civil and commercial users around the
world.
 Advantage & Disadvantage
• The principle advantage of using GPS over land based beacons
is that the GPS signal is readily available which reduces the
deployment cost and time of the system.
• Further, a GPS system is less susceptible to damage since the
satellites, the beacons of the GPS, are maintained by
international reputed organizations.
• GPS is extremely effective for outdoor ground-based and
flying robots.
• A disadvantage of this technique is that the stationary receiver
must be installed, its location must be measured very carefully,
and of course the moving robot must be within kilometers of
this static unit in order to benefit from the DGPS technique.
 System Description
1. The Space Segment: Consists of satellites and
transmitted signals.
Special Features of the Space Segment:
The Operational GPS Constellation consists of
minimum 24 satellites, each in its own orbit,
approximately about 20,200 km. above the Earth, in 12
hours (nearly 11hrs 58 min). There are often more than
24 operational satellites as new ones are launched to
replace older satellites.
The satellite orbits repeat almost the same ground
track (as the earth turns beneath them) once each day.
The orbit altitude is such that the satellites repeat the
same track and configuration over any point
approximately each 24 hours (4 minutes earlier each
day).
 2. The Control Segment:
• Consists of ground stations (located around the world) that
make sure the satellites are working properly.
• Control Segments formerly consists of 5 tracking stations
situated at Hawaii, Ascension Island, Diego Garcia, Kwajalein
and the Master Control facility is located at Schriever Air force
Base( Formerly Falcon AFB) in Colorado Springs.
• Newly added control stations after 2005 are Washington DC
England, Ecuador, Argentina, Bahrain and Australia.
• These Monitor stations measure signals from the SVs, which
are incorporated into orbital models for each satellites.
• Master stations collect the data about the satellites of this
system continuously from the other tracking stations.
• MCS process the tracking data for computation of satellite
ephemerides (or co- ordinate) and satellite clock parameters.
• The Master control station uploads ephemeris and clock data to
SVs.
 3. The User Segment
• Consists of receivers, which we can hold in our hand or mount in
our car.
• The GPS user segment consists of the GPS receivers and the user
community. GPS receivers convert SV signals into position,
velocity and time estimates.
• Four satellites are required to compute the four dimensions of X,
Y, Z (Position) and Time.
• GPS receivers are used for navigation, positioning, time
dissemination and other research.
• Navigation in three dimensions is the primary function of GPS.
• Navigation receivers are made for aircraft, ships, and ground
vehicles and for hand carrying by individuals.
• Precise positioning is possible using GPS receivers at reference
locations providing corrections and relative positioning, geodetic
control and plate tectonic studies are example.
GPS user segment
 Applications of GPS
1. Road Traffic Congestion
2. Tectonics
3. GPS and Terrorism
4. GPS of Mining
5. GPS and Tours
6. Navigation
7. Disaster Relief
8. GPS-Equi Radio Sondes and Dropsondes
9. Fleet Tracking
10. Cellular Telephony
11. Robotics
 BLUETOOTH
• Bluetooth is a standardized protocol for sending and receiving data via
2.4 GHz wireless link.
• It's a secure protocol and it's perfect for short-range, lowpower, low-
cost, wireless transmissions between electronic devices.
Working of Bluetooth
 The Bluetooth protocol operates at 2.4 GHz
in the same unlicensed ISM frequency band where RF protocols
like ZigBee and WiFi also exist.
 There is a standardized set of rules and specifications that
differentiates it from other protocols.
 If you have a few hours to kill and want to learn every nook and
cranny
of Bluetooth, check out the published specifications, otherwise here's a
quick
overview of what makes Bluetooth special.
• BWT-enabled devices operate in the unrestricted
2.4-gigahertz (GHz) Industrial, Science, Medical
(ISM) band. The ISM band ranges between 2.400
• GHz and 2.483 GHz. BWT-enabled devices use
seventy-nine 1-megahertz frequencies (from 2.402
to 2.480 GHz) in the ISM band.
 Connection Process
1. Inquiry
If two Bluetooth devices know absolutely nothing
about each other, one must run an inquiry to try to
discover the other. One device sends out the inquiry
request, and any device listening for such a request
will respond with its address, and possibly its name
and other information.
2. Paging (Connecting)
Paging is the process of forming a connection between
two Bluetooth devices. Before this connection can be
initiated, each device needs to know the address of the
other (found in the inquiry process).
 3. Connection
After a device has completed the paging process, it enters the
connection state. While connected, a device can either be
actively participating or it can be put into a low power sleep
mode.
Active Mode: This is the regular connected mode, where the
device is actively transmitting or receiving data.
Sniff Mode: This is a power-saving mode, where the device
is less active. It'll sleep and only listen for transmissions at a set
interval (e.g. every 100 ms).
Hold Mode: Hold mode is a temporary, power-saving mode
where a device sleeps for a defined period and then returns
back to active mode when that interval has passed. The master
can command a slave device to hold.
Park Mode: Park is the deepest of sleep modes. A master can
command a slave to "park", and that slave will become inactive
until the master tells it to wake back up.
4. Bonding and Pairing
When two Bluetooth devices share a special affinity for each other,
they can be bonded together. Bonded devices automatically
establish a connection whenever they're close enough.
5. Power Classes
The transmit power, and therefore range, of a Bluetooth module is
defined by its power class. There are three defined classes of
power: Some modules are only able to operate in one power class,
while others can vary their transmit power.
6. Bluetooth Profiles
Bluetooth profiles are additional protocols that build upon the
basic Bluetooth standard to more clearly define what kind of data a
Bluetooth module is transmitting. While Bluetooth specifications
define how the technology works,profiles define how it's used.
 RANGE SENSORS
• Commonly used range sensors in robotics:
1.Tactile and Proximity sensors
2. Ultrasonic Sensors
3. IR Range Sensors
4. Laser Range Finders
5.Vision Systems
• Each varies in complexity, size, weight,
expense, accuracy, etc..
• The detection range is defined as the maximum
distance that the sensor can read reliably.
 RF BEACON (RADIO FREQUENCY BEACON-
1M TO 100 M)
• A radio beacon is a transmitter at a known location, which transmits a
continuous or periodic radio signal with limited information content on a
specified radio frequency.
• Occasionally the beacon function is combined with some other transmission,
like telemetry data or meteorological information.
• The Millibot localization system i s based on trilateration, i.e., determination
of the position based on distance measurements to known landmarks or
beacons.
• GPS is an example of a trilateration system; the position of a GPS unit on
earth is calculated from distance measurements to satellites in space.
• Similarly, the Millibot localization system determines the position of each
robot based on distance measurements to stationary robots with known
positions.
• The localization system uses ultrasound pulses the distances between robots.
• Periodically, each beacon simultaneously emits a radio frequency(RF) pulse
and an ultrasonic pulse.
Radio Frequency Beacon
 Applications of Radio beacons
1. Air and sea navigation,
2. Propagation research,
3. Robotic mapping,
4. Radio-frequency identification (RFID) / Near
Field Communication (NFC) and
5. Indoor guidance, as with real-time locating
systems (RTLS) like Syledis or simultaneous
localization and mapping (SLAM).
 REFLECTIVE BEACONS
1. Beacon based Localization
Beacon navigation systems are the most common navigation aids
on ships and aircrafts as well as on commercial mobile robot
systems. Active beacons can be detected reliably and provide
accurate positioning information with minimal processing.
As a result, this approach allows high sampling rates and yields
high reliability, but it does also incur high cost in installation and
maintenance. Most of the beacon based localization systems rely
on a set of beacons placed at known positions in the environment.
The mobile robot vehicle is equipped with a sensor(s) that can
observe the beacons and the navigational system uses these
observations and knowledge of the beacon positions to locate the
robot vehicle.
ESTIMATION PROCESS
2. Trilateration
 Trilateration is a method to determine the position of
an object based on simultaneous range measurements
from three stations located at known sites.
 In trilateration navigation systems, there are usually
three or more transmitters mounted at known
locations in the environment and one receiver on
board the robot.
3.Triangulation
 It is the most widespread method used to localize a
mobile robot vehicle.
 In this configuration there are three or more active
transmitters mounted at known locations
 ULTRASONIC SENSORS
• The sensor sends a sonic pulse signal, which is reflected
by the object to be detected.
• The time, which the pulse signal requires from the
sensor to the object and back, is measured and evaluated.
• The distance is calculated from the time and the pulse
speed.
• Ultrasonic sensors are suitable for use in difficult
industrial environments.
• Disturbances such as dust, soiling or fog do not influence
measurements.
• Mutually interfering light influences or temperature
fluctuations are not a problem either.
• The distance is calculated from time and the
pulse speed.
• Ultrasonic sensors are suitable for use in
different industrial environments. Disturbances
such as dust, soiling or fog do not influence
measurements.
• Mutually interfering light influences or
temperature fluctuations are not a problem.
• Because almost every material reflects sonic
waves, its use is recommended for level
measurements, foils or transparent objects.
Ultrasonic Principle
 Classification of Ultrasonic Sensors
1.Short –Range Distance
(Displacement) Precision in the mm range
Precision instruments, which measure optically
in a range from 24mm to 70mm using very
advanced technology.
Detect the smallest deviations or even in the µm
range.
Used in the electronics and automotive
industries as well as in the area of robotics.
2. Mid –Range Distance sensors
The solution for measuring ranges from 13mm to 4m
 The solution for measuring ranges from 13mm to
24m
 High-tech measurement instruments for customer
requirements in the mid-measuring range.
Innovative sensor technologies such as OES3 and
time of flight measurement enable resolutions
down to 0.1mm.
 Highly precise and reproducible measurements are
just as much a matter of course as is the extremely
simple commissioning.
3. Long –Range Distance Sensors
 Developed for maximum range from 200mm to
1,200mm
 Typical application areas of long-range sensors
are distance measurement to prevent collisions,
detecting small parts at large scanning distances,
measuring differences, measuring diameters,
measuring gauge heights, positioning parts, etc.
 The sensors are distinguished by a high degree of
dynamic performance and the precision of the
devices, multifunctional switching inputs and
outputs, excellent background suppression as well
as user-friendly installation and alignment
concepts.
 Robust designs as well as optionally available accessories
ensure reliable use of the sensors even in harsh ambient
conditions.
 Factory automation, Logistics automation and Process
Automation.
Advantages of ultrasonic range sensors
1. Reliable with good precision
2. Not as prone to outside interference
3. Good maximum range
4. Inexpensive
Disadvantages
1. Sensitive to smoothness & angle to obstacles
2. Poor resolution
3. Prone to self-interference from echos
4. Cannot detect obstacles too close
 LIGHT DETECTION AND RANGING (LIDAR)
• Laser Range Finders are perhaps the most accurate
sensors for measuring distances.
• Light distance and ranging (LIDAR) systems use the
time taken by the light to fly back and forth to an object
in an effort to measure the distance to this target.
• Building a LIDAR system can be made with either a
high-speed analog to-digital converter (ADC) or a time-
to-digital converter (TDC).
• Lidar systems use one of three techniques:
a) Pulsed Modulation
b) Amplitude Modulation Continuous Wave (AMCW)
c) Frequency Modulation Continuous Wave (FMCW)
 The actual calculation for measuring how far a returning light
photon has travelled to and from a target is calculated by
 Distance= (Speed of light x Time taken)/2
LiDAR Platforms
 Aerial for highly detailed, local elevation data. Satellite covers large
areas with less detail.
LiDAR Operational Theory
 A pulse of light is emitted and the precise time is recorded.
 The reflection of that pulse is detected and the precise time is
recorded.
 The reflection of that pulse is detected and the precise time is
recorded.
 Using the constant speed of light, the delay can be converted to a
“slant range” distance.
 Knowing the position and orientation of the sensor, the XYZ
coordinate of the reflective surface can be calculated.
Main Components of LIDAR systems
Light Detection and Ranging Systems use five
main components
1.Laser
2.Scanners and Optics
3.Photodetector and Receiver Electronics
4.Inertial Measurement unit and GPS
5.Data Processor
LIDAR
1.Laser
 The laser serves as the source of the energy for the light
pulses.
 The wavelength of the laser deployed in LIDAR systems differ
from one application to another due to the specific
requirements of certain applications.
 For instance, Airborne LiDAR systems use 1064nm diode
pumped YAG lasers whereas Bathymetric systems use 532nm
double diode pumped YAG lasers which penetrate water upto
40 meters with much less attenuation than the airborne
1064nm version.
 However, the lasers used are usually of low energy to ensure
safety.
 Better resolution can be attained with shorter pulses provided
the receiver detector and electronics have sufficient bandwidth
to manage the increased data flow.
2. Scanners and Optics
 It is an important part of any LIDAR system. They are in
charge of projecting laser pulses to surfaces and receiving back
the reflected pulses from the surface.
 The speed at which images are developed by a LIDAR system
is dependent on the speed at which the scanners capture the
backscattered beams, the optics used in a LIDAR system must
be of high precision and quality to obtain the best results
especially for mapping. The type of lenses, specific glass
choice, along with the optical coatings used are major
determinants of the resolution and range capabilities of the
LIDAR.
 Depending on the application, a variety of scanning methods
can be deployed for different resolutions. Azimuth and
elevation scanning and dual axis scanning are some of the
most popular scanning method.
3.Photodetector and Receiver Electronics
The photo detector is a device that reads and
record the back scattered signal to the system.
There are two main types of photo detector
technologies, solid state detectors, such as
silicon avalanche photodiodes and
photomultipliers.
4.Inertial Measurement unit and GPS
 When a Light Detection and Ranging Sensor is
mounted on an aeroplane statellite or automobiles, it is
necessary to determine the absolute position and the
orientation of the sensor to maintain useable data.
 Global Positioning Systems (GPS) provide accurate
geographical information regarding the position of the
sensor and an Inertial Measurement Unit (IMU) records
the accurate orientation of the sensor at that location.
 These two devices provide the method for translating
sensor data into static points for use in a variety of
systems.
5.Data Processor
• A high capacity processor is usually at any LIDAR
system. It is used to synchronize and coordinate the
activities of all the individual components of the LIDAR
systems. The processor integrates the elevation data and
along with the data of Interial Measuring Unit and a GPS
unit.
• With the help of these systems the Light Detection and
Ranging sensor collect data points, the location of the
data is recorded along with the GPS sensor.
• Data is required to process the return time for each pulse
scattered back to the sensor and calculate the variable
distances from the sensor or changes in land cover
surfaces.
• After the survey, the data are downloaded and processed using
specially designed computer software (LIDAR point Cloud
Data Processing Software).
• The final output is accurate, geographically registered
longitude (X), latitude (Y) and elevation (Z) for every data
point.
• The LIDAR mapping data are composed of elevation
measurements of the surface and are attained through aerial
topographic surveys.
• By using elevation points data may be used to create detailed
topographic maps.
• With these data points even they also allow the generation of a
digital elevation model of the ground surface.
• Thus, the advancements in the processing power of computing
elements has been one of the major drivers of LIDAR
technology.
Advantages
1. High speed and accurate data acquisition.
2. High penetration.
3. Not affected by the intensity of light in its
environment and can be used at night or in the sun.
4. High Resolution Imaging compared to other
methods.
5. No Geometrical distortions.
6. Easily integrates with other data acquisition
methods.
7. It has minimum human dependence which is good in
certain applications where human error could affect
the reliability of data.
Disadvantages
1.Relatively expensive.
2.Unreliable in turbulent water applications.
3. Ineffective during heavy rain, fog or snow conditions.
4.Degraded at high sun angles and reflection.
5.Precise alignment must be maintained.
Applications
1. It is used to measure density of clouds and
concentration of O2, Co2.
2. It creators high resolution map for the military
purpose.
3. It is used for study of cloud and its behaviour.