Riphah School of Computing and Innovation (RSCI),

Lahore

3rd Semester
Assignment 1

Submitted to: Ms. Amna Bibi

Student Id:
55973
Student Name:
Waheed Akhtar

BSCS-3B
4-NOV-2024
 Computer Organization & Assembly Language
(Theory)

Question#1:
Stored-program concept: The IAS computer, designed by John von Neumann
and his team, introduced the revolutionary idea of storing both data and
instructions in the same memory space. This concept meant that instructions could
be treated like data, modified, and manipulated by the program itself. The IAS
computer used cathode-ray tubes, also known as Williams’s tubes, as its main
memory. Each tube could store 1,024 bits. Other computers that were modeled
after the IAS machine include: ORACLE, JOHNNIAC, ILLIAC I, MANIAC, and IBM
701.
Key components:
 Computer can modify and access instructions directly as they were stored
in binary form.
 Data and instructions are stored in same read-write memory.
 Instructions were executed sequentially one after another.
 The contents off memory are addressable by memory location.
Almost all modern computers are built upon the stored-program concept, a
fundamental innovation that transformed computers from specialized devices into
versatile, programmable systems.
This innovation marked a significant shift in computing, moving away from fixed-
function machines to the adaptable systems that power today’s technology.

Question#2:
Vacuum Tubes Transistors
Large and bulky Small and compact
High power consumption resulting in Significantly less power consumption
more heat production. and less heat production.

Slower switching speed High switching speed

Expensive to produce Cost effective

COAL (Theory) Assignment 1 Page |1

Used in early computers Widely used in modern computers

Improvements in computer design due to Transistors:

 Transistors switch on and off much faster than vacuum tubes leading to
significant increase in processing speed.
 They reduced the overall cost off computers making them more affordable.
In essence, the invention of transistors was a game-changer for computer design,
allowing computers to become smaller, faster, more reliable, and more accessible,
thus marking the beginning of modern computing.

Question#3:
Microelectronics is the branch of electronics focused on the design and
manufacture of very small electronic components, typically on a micrometer scale.
This field involves the use of semiconductor materials, especially silicon, to create
integrated circuits (ICs) that house multiple electronic components—such as
transistors, resistors, and capacitor on a single chip.
Role of Microelectronics in the Development of Third-Generation
Computers:
 Microelectronics enabled the production of ICs, which integrated numerous
transistors and other components onto a single silicon chip.
 With multiple transistors packed into ICs, third-generation computers could
perform calculations faster and handle more complex processes.
 ICs made from microelectronics required less power, reducing both heat
output and energy requirements
 Microelectronics reduced the number of individual, manually connected
components in computers.
 The compact nature of ICs allowed third-generation computers to be
physically smaller and more affordable, paving the way for wider adoption
across industries and eventually leading to the development of personal
computers.
Microelectronics was thus a key driving force behind the third generation of
computers, enabling the transition from large, room-sized machines to smaller,
more affordable, and higher-performance computers that expanded the role of
computing in society and industry.

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Question#4:
Moore's Law is an observation made by Gordon Moore, co-founder of Intel, in
1965. He noted that the number of transistors on a microchip doubles
approximately every two years, leading to exponential growth in computing power
while keeping production costs relatively constant. Although not a physical law, this
trend has held for decades and has driven the rapid advancement of technology.
Implications of Moore’s Law for Computer Performance and Cost
1. Increased computing power:
 As transistor counts on microchips have doubled, computing
performance has also increased, enabling computers to execute tasks
faster and handle more complex applications.
 This trend has allowed for significant advancements in areas such as
data processing, artificial intelligence, and real-time analytics, as
modern computers can process vast amounts of information in
seconds
2. Cost Reduction:
 Although transistor density has increased, the cost per transistor has
decreased, making powerful computing technology more affordable.
 As production techniques have improved, manufacturers have been
able to create more powerful chips without proportional increases in
cost, making computing technology accessible to a wider range of
consumers and industries.
3. Miniaturization:
 Moore's Law has contributed to the development of smaller and
more compact devices, as more transistors can fit into a given space
on a chip.
 This miniaturization has been essential in the development of
portable devices like laptops, smartphones, and wearables, and has
enabled the integration of advanced computing capabilities into
smaller form factors.

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Question#5:

The transition from magnetic-core memory to semiconductor memory marked

a significant evolution in computer memory technology. Here’s a look at this shift
and the advantages of semiconductor memory.

Magnetic-Core Memory

 Magnetic-core memory, popular in the 1950s and 1960s, used tiny magnetic
rings (cores) to store data, with each core representing one bit.
 Data was stored by magnetizing these cores in different directions, with
wires threading through the cores to set or read each bit.
 While it was reliable and non-volatile (retaining data without power),
magnetic-core memory was relatively large, slow, and power-hungry by
today’s standards.

Semiconductor Memory

 Semiconductor memory, introduced in the late 1960s and early 1970s, used
silicon-based transistors and capacitors to store data electronically.
 Types of semiconductor memory include RAM (random-access memory),
which is volatile, and ROM (read-only memory), which is non-volatile.

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Advantages of Semiconductor Memory

 Semiconductor memory has higher speed.

 It can store more data in less physical space.
 Unlike magnetic core memory it consume less power.
 With no moving parts, semiconductor memory is more durable and reliable
than magnetic-core memory.
 It is cheaper than magnetic core memory.

Question#6:

The evolution of microprocessors has been heavily influenced by factors like bus width,
clock speed, and feature size. Each of these parameters plays a critical role in determining
a microprocessor’s performance and capabilities.

1. Bus Width

 Definition: The bus width refers to the number of bits that can be transmitted
simultaneously between the CPU and other components, like memory. Common
bus widths are 32-bit and 64-bit.
 Importance:

 A wider bus can transfer more data at once, which improves

data throughput. For instance, a 64-bit bus can transfer twice
the data per cycle compared to a 32-bit bus.
 Increased bus width allows for larger memory addressing,
enabling systems to use more RAM, which is essential for
running complex applications and large datasets.

 Impact on Performance:

 Greater bus width enables faster data exchange between the

CPU, memory, and other components, reducing bottlenecks
and enhancing overall system speed.
 Larger bus widths are especially beneficial for data-intensive
applications, such as video editing, gaming, and scientific
simulations, which require high data throughput.

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2. Clock Speed

 Definition: Clock speed is the rate at which a microprocessor executes instructions,

measured in hertz (Hz). Common units include megahertz (MHz) and gigahertz
(GHz).
 Importance:

 Clock speed determines how many cycles the CPU can

complete in a second. Higher clock speeds mean the CPU can
process more instructions per second.
 Clock speed is a key factor for performance in tasks requiring
high processing power, such as computational simulations or
gaming.

 Impact on Performance:

 Higher clock speeds result in faster execution of instructions,

leading to improved responsiveness and processing capability.
 However, as clock speeds increase, power consumption and
heat generation also rise, which can limit the extent to which
clock speeds can be increased without advanced cooling and
power management solutions.

3. Feature Size

 Definition: Feature size refers to the smallest dimension of the components on a

microprocessor chip, usually measured in nanometers (nm). It represents the size of
the transistors on the chip.
 Importance:

 Smaller feature sizes allow more transistors to be packed onto

a chip, increasing the chip’s processing power and energy
efficiency.
 Reducing feature size also allows for faster switching of
transistors, which improves the CPU’s overall speed and
reduces power consumption.

 Impact on Performance:

 Smaller feature sizes lead to higher transistor density, which

improves processing power and enables more advanced
functions on a single chip.

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  Reduced power consumption and heat output from smaller
transistors allow microprocessors to operate at higher clock
speeds more efficiently.
 The ongoing reduction of feature size has been a key driver of
Moore’s Law, supporting the exponential growth in computing
power over recent decades.

Influence on Computer Performance:

 Bus Width affects how much data can be moved at once, directly influencing data
throughput and memory access.
 Clock Speed determines the speed at which instructions are executed, enhancing the rate
of processing and application performance.
 Feature Size drives overall transistor count, power efficiency, and speed, enabling
powerful, energy-efficient, and compact designs.

Question#7:
PROS CONS
Historical Perspective Oversimplification
Provides a clear timeline of computer May oversimplify complex
evolution, showing how each stage technological changes, ignoring
builds on prior innovations. smaller, incremental advancements
within each generation.
Educational Tool Lack of Clear Boundaries
Simplifies learning for beginners by Boundaries between generations are
breaking down technological often blurry, as technologies evolve
progression into distinct stages. gradually and may overlap.
Highlights Technological Milestones Regional and Industry Variability
Emphasizes major breakthroughs, Different regions and industries adopt
such as transistors, integrated circuits, new technology at varying times,
and microprocessors. making universal classification
challenging.
Context for Current Technology Limiting Perspective on Modern
Technology
Helps understand current capabilities The model may not capture the
and provides insight into future diversity and specialization of recent
technological directions. advancements like cloud computing, AI,
or quantum computing.

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The classification of computers into generations might become less meaningful
over time for several reasons:

 Continuous Innovation Rather Than Distinct Stages.

 Hybrid and Specialized Technologies.
 Variability Across Industries and Regions
 Complexity and Interdependence of Modern Systems.
 Focus on Functionality Over Hardware

Question#8:
Generations Key Impact on society Use off Computers
Technologies

First Vacuum Tubes Primarily used for scientific Limited to large

Generation (1940s–1950s) calculations and organizations (e.g.,
government/military government, military,
purposes due to high cost and universities).
and large size.
Enabled advanced Performed basic
scientific research (e.g., calculations, data
nuclear physics) and storage, and early
cryptography during WWII. code-breaking
operations.
Society began to recognize
the potential of computing
but access was restricted
to specialized fields.

Second Transistors Smaller, faster, and Used in business

Generation (1950s–1960s) cheaper than first- applications (e.g.,
generation computers, payroll, inventory
making computers more management),
accessible to industries scientific research,
and universities. and military.
Growth in commercial Started to support
computing led to the first early database
use of computers in management and

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 business and automated business
administrative roles. tasks.
Sparked demand for
programmers and
computing professionals,
beginning to shape the
computing workforce.

Third Integrated Further reduced cost and Used for both

Generation Circuits (ICs) size, making computers business data
(1960s–1970s) more affordable and processing and more
practical for medium-sized complex scientific
businesses and computations.
universities.
Computers became more Used in fields like
powerful and began banking,
supporting real-time manufacturing, and
processing, leading to new airline reservation
business and industrial systems.
applications.
Expanded computing’s
influence into new fields
like education,
engineering, and health
care.
Fourth Microprocessors Revolutionized personal Used for word
Generation (1970s–present) computing, bringing processing,
computers into homes, spreadsheets, and
small businesses, and educational software
schools. in personal and
small business
settings.
Enabled the development Businesses began
of portable and affordable using computers for
devices, transforming how communication,
people work, sales, and financial
communicate, and learn. management.

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 Created entire industries, The internet further
including software expanded usage to
development, video online shopping,
games, and internet social networking,
services. and remote work.

Fifth Artificial Computers now support Used in advanced

Generation Intelligence and advanced AI applications, fields like AI, data
Parallel including machine analysis,
Processing learning, natural language autonomous
(1980s–present) processing, and robotics. systems, and
complex
simulations.
High-performance Enables large-scale
computing in data centers data processing,
and cloud infrastructure predictive analytics,
has transformed business and personalized
operations, healthcare, digital experiences.
and finance.
AI applications are Increasingly
reshaping industries, from embedded in
autonomous vehicles and everyday devices,
smart homes to from smartphones to
personalized marketing smart appliances.
and medical diagnostics.

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