KENDRIYA VIDYALAYA

RWF, YELAHANKA
(560064)
Physics Investigatory project

Name: Shivam Kr Ranjan

Class: XII A
Roll No: 18607801
 CERTIFICATE
This is to certify that the investigatory project
titled "AC Generator" has been completed by
SHIVAM KR RANJAN a student of Class 12 ’A’,
under the guidance of our Physics teacher Mr.
G. GUGAN (PGT PHYSICS) in partial fulfilment
of the requirements for the CBSE curriculum.

Internal examiner external examiner

Signature of Principal
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I wish to express my deep gratitude and sincere

thanks to the Principal, Dr. Pushpa Rani Yadav for
encouragement and for this project work. I extend
my hearty thanks to Mr. G. Gugan, physics teacher,
who guided me to the successful completion of
this project.
I am also thankful to my school, KENDRIYA
VIDYALAYA R.W.F and my classmates for their
constant motivation and cooperation. Lastly. I
extend my gratitude to my parents for their
unwavering support.
 Introduction
1) An electric generator is a device that converts mechanical energy
into electrical energy. It is a vital component in the generation of
electricity, playing a key role in modern power systems.
2) The AC Generator's input supply is mechanical energy provided by
sources like steam turbines, gas turbines, and combustion engines.
These systems generate the necessary mechanical motion that is
transformed into electrical energy. The output of an AC generator is
alternating electrical power, which consists of alternating voltage and
current, making it ideal for large-scale power distribution systems.
3) A generator forces electric current to flow through an external
circuit, enabling the delivery of power to connected devices or
systems. The source of mechanical energy for generators can vary
widely and includes reciprocating or turbine steam engines, water
falling through a turbine or waterwheel, internal combustion engines,
wind turbines, hand cranks, compressed air, or any other mechanism
capable of producing rotational motion.
4) AC generators work on the principle of Faraday's law of
electromagnetic induction. According to this law, an electromotive
force (EMF) is induced in a conductor when it experiences a change in
the magnetic flux. In an AC generator, the armature (a rotating coil)
rotates between the poles of a magnet on an axis that is perpendicular
to the magnetic field. As the armature spins, the magnetic flux linkage
changes continuously, inducing an alternating current in the coil.
5) The efficiency and reliability of generators make them indispensable
for both large-scale and small-scale applications. They are used to
power homes, industries, and infrastructure, as well as to provide
backup electricity during power outages.
6) The primary advantage of AC generators is their ability to produce
power compatible with electric power grids, which rely on alternating
current for efficient transmission over long distances. These
generators are designed to work with transformers, enabling the step-
up or step-down of voltage levels to minimize power loss during
transmission.
7) Modern generators often incorporate advanced technologies to
enhance their performance. For example, synchronous generators are
used in power plants for stable grid integration, while portable
generators are designed for emergency use or to supply power in
remote locations.
8) Generators can also be categorized into various types based on
their size, capacity, and application. Large industrial generators power
factories, whereas smaller ones are commonly used for residential
purposes or in mobile applications like RVs or boats.
9) In addition to AC generators, DC generators are also widely used in
certain applications, particularly where direct current is required, such
as in battery charging, electroplating, and railway systems. However,
the versatility and efficiency of AC generators have made them the
preferred choice for most power generation needs.
10) Overall, electric generators are critical for sustaining modern life,
powering everything from household appliances to complex industrial
machinery, and enabling the development of reliable and scalable
power systems worldwide.
Versatility in Applications: Generators are highly versatile and can be
used in various settings, from powering large industrial plants to
serving as portable power sources for homes, outdoor events, and
emergencies.
 Types Of Generator

Fig: Types of Generator

1) AC Generators (Alternating Current Generators):

• Output: Produces alternating current, where the flow of
electricity periodically reverses direction.
• Common Uses: AC generators are widely used for large-
scale power distribution systems like electric power
grids. They are essential for industrial applications,
household power supply, and infrastructure where
alternating current is standard.
• Advantages:
o Compatible with transformers for efficient voltage
adjustment (step-up or step-down).
o Ideal for transmitting electricity over long distances
with minimal losses.
 • VExample: Synchronous generators used in power plants.
2) DC Generators (Direct Current Generators):
• Output: Produces direct current, where electricity flows
in a single, constant direction.
• Common Uses: DC generators are used in applications
requiring steady and constant voltage, such as charging
batteries, electroplating, and operating small motors in
machines.
• Advantages:
o Simple design and easier to regulate for low-voltage
systems.
• Example: Generators used in battery charging systems or
certain railway systems.

Fig: Types of Generator

 Types Of AC Generator

1. Synchronous Generator
• Construction: A synchronous generator is the most
commonly used type in large power plants. It has a
rotating magnetic field created by either a rotor (field
winding) or permanent magnets and a stationary armature
(stator) that produces the electrical output.
• Operation: It operates at a constant speed that is
synchronized with the frequency of the electrical grid. The
frequency of the generated voltage is directly proportional
to the speed of the rotor and the number of poles in the
machine.
• Common Use: Power plants, large electrical systems, and
where a stable output frequency is needed.
• Advantages:
o Produces constant frequency output.
o Capable of maintaining a stable voltage level over
varying loads.
2. Induction Generator (Asynchronous Generator)
• Construction: Unlike the synchronous generator, the
induction generator has a rotor that does not need to be
synchronized with the grid. It works based on
electromagnetic induction, where the rotor is induced by
the rotating magnetic field created by the stator.
 • Operation: It requires external mechanical power (from
turbines, wind, etc.) to induce current in the stator and
does not synchronize with the grid frequency. It can also
operate as a generator when it is driven faster than its
synchronous speed.
• Common Use: Small-scale power generation, wind
turbines, and some hydroelectric stations.
• Advantages:
o Simpler construction and maintenance.
o Can be used in systems where the speed is variable,
such as wind energy applications.

• Different Method of Generating and Transmitting AC

1. Two-Phase AC System
• Description: A two-phase system uses two separate AC
voltages that are 90 degrees out of phase with each other.
This means that while one phase is at its peak, the other
is at zero, and vice versa.
• Working: In a two-phase generator, two separate coils are
placed in such a way that the current generated in each
coil has a phase difference of 90 degrees. The two
waveforms work together to provide a more continuous
power flow than a single-phase system.
 • Application: Two-phase systems were historically used in
some power generation systems but are less common
today. Some specialized equipment may still use two-
phase systems.
2. Three-Phase AC System
• Description: A three-phase system is the most widely
used method for generating and distributing alternating
current. It involves three separate AC waveforms, each
120 degrees out of phase with the others. This means
that each phase reaches its peak at different times,
creating a more stable and continuous flow of electrical
power.
• Working: In a three-phase generator, three separate coils
are positioned in such a way that the current generated in
each coil has a phase difference of 120 degrees. This
setup ensures that the combined power output is more
constant and balanced.
• Application: Three-phase generators are used in large-
scale power generation and distribution systems. They
are ideal for industrial and commercial applications
because they provide a more efficient and stable supply
of power, especially over long distances. Almost all
power plants use three-phase systems for electricity
generation and distribution.
Key Differences:
• Number of Phases: Two-phase uses two alternating
currents, while three-phase uses three.
• Power Flow: Three-phase power flow is smoother and
more continuous than two-phase because of the phase
difference.
• Applications: Three-phase is more common in modern
power generation and distribution, while two-phase is
rare.

Fig: Single Phase Fig: Three Phase

 Who Is Best In AC & DC
1. Best for Long-Distance Power Transmission: AC
(Alternating Current)
• Reason: AC is ideal for transmitting power over long
distances. The voltage of AC can easily be increased or
decreased using transformers, which helps reduce
energy loss during transmission. This is why AC is used
for most power grids and large-scale electrical
distribution.
• Famous Example: The power grids used in cities,
industries, and homes primarily use AC. Nikola Tesla and
George Westinghouse were pioneers of AC power,
making it the dominant method for electricity distribution
worldwide.
2. Best for Small, Portable Devices: DC (Direct Current)
• Reason: DC is more efficient for low-voltage, stable
applications like electronics, batteries, and charging
devices. It provides a steady and constant flow of
electricity, which is ideal for devices such as
smartphones, laptops, and electric vehicles.
• Famous Example: Batteries, like those in phones and
laptops, use DC. Additionally, solar power systems
convert sunlight into DC, which is then either stored in
batteries or converted to AC for grid use.
3. Energy Loss
• AC: When transmitting power over long distances, AC
generally experiences more energy loss compared to DC,
but the advantage is that AC can be stepped up to higher
voltages, reducing the overall loss.
• DC: DC experiences minimal energy loss during
transmission over short distances but becomes less
efficient for long-distance transmission because
increasing voltage is more challenging.
4. Use in Household Appliances
• AC: AC is widely used in household power systems
because it is easily generated, transformed, and
distributed over long distances. Most household
appliances like refrigerators, air conditioners, and fans
operate on AC.
• DC: While DC is not used directly in household electrical
systems, DC is used in devices that require low-voltage
power, such as LED lights, computer systems, and
rechargeable batteries.
5. Motor Types and Efficiency
• AC: AC motors are simpler, more durable, and less
expensive to maintain, making them ideal for industrial
machinery, large fans, and pumps. Induction motors (a
type of AC motor) are widely used due to their efficiency
and robustness.
 • DC: DC motors are used in applications where precise
control of speed and torque is required, such as electric
vehicles, small appliances, and robotics. However, they
require more maintenance due to brushes and
commutators.
6. Power Generation
• AC: Most power generation plants, whether coal, natural
gas, nuclear, or renewable sources like wind and
hydroelectric power, generate AC electricity. AC
generators are easier and more economical to build for
large-scale generation.
• DC: While DC generators are used in some special cases,
AC generators dominate for most electricity production
due to their easier conversion to different voltages and
widespread compatibility.
7. Voltage Conversion
• AC: AC voltage can easily be increased or decreased
using transformers. This allows efficient transmission of
electricity at high voltages (which reduces loss) and then
stepping it down to usable levels for homes and
businesses.
• DC: Converting DC voltage to higher or lower levels is
more difficult and typically requires specialized
electronics like DC-DC converters or inverters (which
convert DC to AC).
•
8. Communication Systems
• AC: AC is typically not used in communication systems,
although AC signals are used in alternating signal
transmission for things like radio broadcasting.
• DC: DC is used in communication systems in the form of
signal modulation (for example, DC in telegraphy). DC is
also essential for powering the transmission equipment
like routers, antennas, and amplifiers.
9. Battery Charging
• AC: AC is typically converted into DC when used for
charging batteries. A rectifier converts AC to DC, which is
then stored in batteries for later use in devices like
electric vehicles and mobile phones.
• DC: DC is ideal for charging devices and batteries directly
since batteries require DC for charging. Most electronic
devices have built-in circuits to convert AC from the
power grid to DC for charging.
9. Electromagnetic Interference
• AC: AC can cause electromagnetic interference (EMI),
particularly at higher frequencies. This interference can
affect sensitive equipment, though it is often mitigated
with shielding and filtering in industrial systems.
• DC: DC generally produces less electromagnetic
interference because the current does not alternate. This
makes DC more suitable for applications that need clean,
 stable signals, such as in electronics or low-noise
environments.
10. Safety Considerations
• AC: AC is generally more dangerous than DC at the same
voltage because it can cause the heart to fibrillate (or
"quiver"), leading to severe injury or death. However, the
frequency of AC can influence its harmful effects. Lower-
frequency AC is typically less dangerous than high-
frequency AC.
• DC: DC at the same voltage can also be dangerous, but
DC is less likely to cause heart fibrillation. It is easier for
the body to recover from a DC shock compared to AC, but
both are harmful at high enough voltages.
11. Efficiency in Electronic Devices
• AC: While AC is used in power distribution, most modern
electronics like computers, phones, and LED lights
require DC for their internal circuits. This is why power
supplies convert AC from the grid into DC.
• DC: DC is more efficient for small electronics due to its
stable, unidirectional flow. Devices like LEDs and solar
panels naturally operate on DC.
12. Applications in Renewable Energy
• AC: AC is commonly used in power plants, including
those based on renewable energy sources like wind and
hydro. AC generators are typically used to feed electricity
into the
 Theory and Working
The strong magnetic field is produced by a current flow through
the field coil of the rotor.
The field coil in the rotor receives excitation through the use of slip
rings and brushes.
Two brushes are spring-held in contact with the slip rings to provide
the continuous connection between the field coil and the external
excitation circuit.
The armature is contained within the windings of the stator
and is connected to the output.
Each time the rotor makes one complete revolution, one complete
cycle of AC is developed.
A generator has many turns of wire wound into the slots of the rotor.
The magnitude of AC voltage generated by an AC
generator is dependent on the field strength and speed of
the rotor.
Most generators are operated at a constant speed; therefore, the
generated voltage depends on field excitation, or strength.

Fig: Ac Generator Working

 Theory and Working - As the armature coil is rotated in the
magnetic field, angle between the field and normal to the coil
changes continuously. Therefore, magnetic flux linked with the
coil changes. An emf is induced in the coil. According to
Fleming's right-hand rule, current induced in AB is from A to B
and it is from C to D in the CD. In the external circuit, current
flows from B2 to B1
To calculate the magnitude of emf induced:
Suppose
A- Area of each turn of the coil
N- Number of turns in the coil
B- Strength of magnetic field
θ- Angle which normal to the coil makes with B at any instant t
Principle: based on the phenomena of electromagnetic
induction
Construction:
 Main parts of an ac generator:
Armature Rectangular coil ABCD
Filed Magnets - Two pole pieces of a strong electromagnet
Slip Rings - The ends of coil ABCD are connected to two
hollow metallic rings R₁ and R2
Brushes B₁ and B2 are two flexible metal plates or carbon
rods. They are fixed and are kept in tight contact with R₁ and R₂
respectively.

∴ Magnetic flux linked with the coil in this position:

Φ = N(B⋅A) = NBA cos θ = NBA cos ω t ...(i)
Where ' ω ' is angular velocity of the coil
As the coil rotates, angle θ changes. Therefore, magnetic flux
Φ linked with the coil changes and hence, an emf is induced in
the coil. At this instant t, if e is the emf induced in the coil, then
 Component Of AC Generator

• Field
• Armature
• Prime mover
• Rotor
• Stator
• Slip rings

Fig: Component of AC Generator

FIELD:
The field in an AC generator consists of coils of conductors
within the generator that receive a voltage from a source (called
excitation) and produce a magnetic flux.
The magnetic flux in the field cuts the armature to produce a voltage.
This
voltage is ultimately the output voltage of the AC generator.

ARMATURE:
The armature is the part of an AC generator in which voltage is
produced.
This component consists of many coils of wire that are large enough.

PRIME MOVER:
The prime mover is the component that is used to drive the AC
generator.
The prime mover may be any type of rotating machine, such as a diesel
engine, a steam turbine, or a motor.

ROTOR:
The rotor of an AC generator is the rotating component of the
generator,
The rotor is driven by the generator’s prime mover, which may be a
steam turbine, gas turbine, or diesel engine. Depending on the type of
generator, this component may be the armature or the field.
The rotor will be the armature if the voltage output is generated there;
the rotor will be the field if the field excitation is applied there.

STATOR:
The stator of an AC generator is the part that is stationary.
Like the rotor, this component may be the armature or the field,
depending on the type of generator.
The stator will be the armature if the voltage output is generated there;
the
stator will be the field if the field excitation is applied there.

SLIP RINGS:
Slip rings are electrical connections that are used to transfer power to
and from the rotor of an AC generator.
The slip ring consists of a circular conducting material that is
connected
to the rotor windings and insulated from the shaft. Brushes ride on the
slip ring as the rotor rotates. The electrical connection to the rotor is
made by connections to the brushes.
Slip rings are used in AC generators because the desired output of the
generator is a sine wave.
In a DC generator, a commutator was used to provide an output whose
current always flowed in the positive direction.
Generator Synchronization
Synchronization is the process of matching the frequency, voltage, and
phase angle of an AC generator to the power grid or another generator.
1. Why Synchronization is Important:
o Ensures smooth power delivery without disruptions.
o Prevents damage to generators and connected equipment.
2. Steps in Synchronization:
o Match frequency and voltage using speed control.
o Align phase angle using synchronization meters or software.
3. Devices Used:
o Synchroscope: Indicates phase differences.
o Automatic Synchronizers: Automatically adjust parameters
for precise synchronization.

Load Sharing Between Generators

When multiple generators operate in parallel, load sharing ensures
that each generator contributes proportionally to the total load.
1. Load Sharing Parameters:
o Active Power (KW): Controlled by adjusting the prime mover.
o Reactive Power (KVAR): Adjusted using the excitation system.
2. Techniques for Load Sharing:
o Droop control for load balancing.
o Automatic Load Sharing Systems for dynamic adjustments.
EFFICIENCY:
Efficiency of an AC generator is the ratio of the useful power output
to the total power input.
Because any mechanical process experiences some losses, no
AC generators can be 100 per cent efficient.
Efficiency of an AC generator can be calculated using Equation.
Efficiency = (Output /Input) X 100
OR
Efficiency = (POWER OUT/POWER IN) X 100
 RESULT
When the axle of generating motor is rotated, E.M.F. is produced by it.
REASON: change in FLUX through the winding of motor.

This E.M.F. remains in the circuit as long as axle is rotated.

HENCE, FARADAY’S LAW OF ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION IS
VERIFIED.
As the speed of rotor is increased, the voltage and current produced by
Generator also get increased.
REASON: Rate Of change of FLUX increases.

USES:

Aircraft auxiliary power generation, wind generators, high speed gas

turbine generators.
Hybrid electric vehicle (HEV) drive systems, automotive starter
generators.
An ac generator, or 'alternator', is used to produce ac voltages for
transmission via the grid system or, locally, as portable generators.
All of our household appliances run on ac current. Ex: Refrigerator,
washing machines, oven, lights, fan etc.
 Fig: Thermal Power Plant

LOSSES IN AC GENERATOR
1.) Internal Voltage Drop
The load current flows through the armature in all AC generators. The
armature has some amount of resistance and inductive reactance.
The combination of these make up what is known as the internal
resistance, which causes a loss in a n AC generator.
When the load current flows, a voltage drop is developed across the
internal resistance.
This voltage drop subtracts from the output voltage and, therefore,
represents generated voltage and power that is lost and not available
to the load.
2.) HYSTERESIS LOSSES
a) Hysteresis losses occur when iron cores in an AC generator are subject to
effects from a magnetic field.
b) The magnetic domains of the cores are held in alignment with the field in
c)varying numbers, dependent upon field strength.
d) The magnetic domains rotate, with respect to the domains not held
in alignment, one complete turn during each rotation of the rotor.
e) This rotation of magnetic domains in the iron causes friction and
heat.
f) The heat produced by this friction is called magnetic hysteresis loss.
After the heat-treated silicon steel is formed to the desired shape, the
laminations are heated to a dull red and then allowed to cool.
g) This process, known as annealing, reduces hysteresis losses to a very low
value.
h) To reduce hysteresis losses, most AC armatures are constructed of heat-
treated silicon steel, which has an inherently low hysteresis loss.

3.) MECHANICAL LOSSES

a) Rotational or mechanical losses can be caused by bearing friction, brush
friction on the commutator, and air friction (called windage), which is caused by
the air turbulence due to armature rotation.
b) Careful maintenance can be instrumental in keeping bearing friction to a
minimum.
c) Clean bearings and proper lubrication are essential to the reduction of bearing
friction.
d) Brush friction is reduced by ensuring: proper brush seating, proper brush use,
and maintenance of proper brush tension.
e) A smooth and clean commutator also aids in the reduction of brush friction
 BIBLIOGRAPHY

• Wikipedia.com
• Google search engine
• Geeks for Geeks
• Byju’s
• Physics NCERT book
• www.youtube.com/c/knowledgecycle