2.

BASIC OVERVIEW OF ELECTRICAL SYSTEMS

2.1 CHANGEOVER FROM DC TO AC SYSTEM

🡪 Basic idea of generation Prior to the discovery of Faraday’s Laws of electromagnetic discussion, electrical power was
available from batteries with limited voltage and current levels.
🡪 D.C generators were developed first to generate power in bulk. However, due to limitation of the D.C machine to
generate voltage beyond few hundred volts, it was not economical to transmit large amount of power over a long
distance. For a given amount of power, the current magnitude (I = P/V),
🡪 hence section of the copper conductor will be large. Thus generation, transmission and distribution of d.c power were
restricted to area of few kilometer radius with no interconnections between generating plants.
🡪 Therefore, area specific generating stations along with its distribution networks had to be used.

🡪 In later half of eighties, in nineteenth century, an electrical power system with 3- phase, 50 Hz A.C generation,
transmission and distribution networks came into existence
🡪 With adoption of a.c system, transmission of large power (MW) at higher transmission voltage become a reality. Level of
voltage could be changed virtually to any other desired level with transformers – which was not impossible with D.C
system.

ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS SYSTEM EE1002 1

2.2 TRANSMISSION SYSTEM
🡪 Consider a generating station producing 120 MW power and power is to be
transmitted over a large distance.
🡪 Let the voltage generated (line to line) at the alternator be 10 kV.
🡪 To transmit 120 MW of power at 10 kV, current in the transmission line is
calculated as,

🡪 If transmission voltage is selected 400 kV, current in the line would be only
261.5 A. Transmission Tower
🡪 Cross sectional area of the transmission line (copper conductor) will now be
much smaller compared to 10 kV transmission voltage.

ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS SYSTEM EE1002 2

 🡪 The cost of conductor will be greatly reduced if power is transmitted at higher transmission voltage.
🡪 The use of higher voltage (hence lower current in the line) reduces voltage drop across transmission line and power
transmission losses.
🡪 The magnitude of current decides the cost of copper, level of voltage decides the cost of insulators.
🡪 The idea is, in a spree to reduce the cost of copper one can not indefinitely increase the level of transmission voltage as
cost of insulators will offset the reduction copper cost.
🡪 Standard transmission voltages used are 132 kV or 220 kV or 400 kV or 765 kV depending upon how long the
transmission lines are.
🡪 At generating station (sending end) step up transformer is installed to raise the transmission voltage to desired level as
specified above.
🡪 At the load centers (receiving end), with step down transformer, voltage level should be brought down at suitable values
for supplying different types of consumers.

ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS SYSTEM EE1002 3

Typical Voltage Levels in Power system

Single Line Representation of Power

System

ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS SYSTEM EE1002 4

 Typical Layout of an interconnected Power System

ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS SYSTEM EE1002 5

2.3 DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM
Transmission System

✔ Power receive at a 11 kV (or 33 kV )substation is first

stepped down to 6 kV and with the help of under ground
cables (called feeder lines), power flow is directed to
different directions of the city. At the last level, step down
transformers are used to step down the voltage form 6 kV to
400 V.
Distribution System
✔ These transformers are called distribution transformers with
400 V, star connected secondary.

✔ N is called the neutral and taken out from the common point
of star connected secondary. Voltage between any two
phases (i.e., R-Y, Y-B and B-R) is 400 V and between any
phase and neutral is 230 V.

ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS SYSTEM EE1002 6

1. AC GENERATOR
🡪 A generator has a balanced three phase winding on the stator and called the armature.
🡪 The three coils are so placed in space that there axes are mutually 120° apart as shown in Fig 1. 3-phase power is
obtained at armature terminals.
🡪 Rotor houses a field coil and excited by D.C. The field coil produces flux and electromagnetic poles on the rotor
surface.
🡪 If the rotor is driven by an external agency, the flux linkages with three stator coils becomes sinusoidal function of
time and sinusoidal voltage is induced in them.
🡪 However, the induced voltages in the three coils (or phases) will differ in phase by 120° because the present value
of flux linkage with R-phase coil will take place after 120° with Y-phase coil and further 120° after, with B-phase
coil.

Types of AC generator

Salient pole generator Non salient pole generator

ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS SYSTEM EE1002 7
2. THERMAL POWER PLANT
🡪 In a thermal power plant coil is burnt to produce high temperature and high pressure steam in a boiler. The steam
is passed through a steam turbine to produce rotational motion.
🡪 The generator, mechanically coupled to the turbine, thus rotates producing electricity.
🡪 Chemical energy stored in coal after a couple of transformations produces electrical energy at the generator
terminals as shown in the figure below,

🡪 Stringent conditions (such as use of more

chimney heights along with the compulsory use of
electrostatic precipitator) are put by regulatory
authorities to see that the effects of pollution is
minimized.
🡪 A large amount of ash is produced every day in a
thermal plant and effective handling of the ash
adds to the running cost of the plant.
Fig. 1 Thermal Power Station

ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS SYSTEM EE1002 8

3. HYDEL POWER PLANT
🡪 In a hydel power station, water head is used to drive water
turbine coupled to the generator. Water head may be available in
hilly region naturally in the form of water reservoir (lakes etc.)
at the hill tops.

🡪 The potential energy of water can be used to drive the turbo

generator set installed at the base of the hills through piping
called pen stock.

🡪 Water head may also be created artificially by constructing dams

on a suitable river. Fig. 2 Hydel Power Plant

🡪 In contrast to a thermal plant, hydel power plants are eco-friendly, neat and clean as no fuel is to be burnt to produce electricity.

🡪 Running cost of hydel power plants are low, the initial installation cost is rather high compared to a thermal plants due to
massive civil construction necessary

ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS SYSTEM EE1002 9

4. NUCLEAR POWER PLANT
🡪 Atomic power plants work on the principle of nuclear
fission of 235U. In the natural uranium, 235U constitutes
only 0.72% and remaining parts is constituted by 99.27%
of 238U and only about 0.05% of 234U.

🡪 The concentration of 235U may be increased to 90% by

gas diffusion process to obtain enriched 235U. When 235U
is bombarded by neutrons a lot of heat energy along with
additional neutrons are produced.
Fig4. Nuclear Power Plant
🡪 These new neutrons further bombard 235U producing more heat and more neutrons. Thus a chain reaction sets up. However,
this reaction is allowed to take place in a controlled manner inside a closed chamber called nuclear reactor.

🡪 To ensure sustainable chain reaction, moderator and control rods are used. Moderators such as heavy water (deuterium) or
very pure carbon 12C are used to reduce the speed of neutrons. To control the number neutrons, control rods made of cadmium
or boron steel are inserted inside the reactor.

🡪 The control rods can absorb neutrons. To decrease the number of neutrons, the control rods are lowered down further and vice
versa. The heat generated inside the reactor is taken out of the chamber with the help of a coolant such as liquid sodium or
some gaseous fluids.

ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS SYSTEM EE1002 10

🡪 The coolant gives up the heat to water in heat exchanger to convert it to steam as shown in figure. The steam then drives the
turbo set and the exhaust steam from the turbine is cooled and fed back to the heat exchanger with the help of water feed pump.

🡪 The initial investment required to install a nuclear power station is quite high but running cost is low. Although, nuclear plants
produce electricity without causing air pollution, it remains a dormant source of radiation hazards due to leakage in the reactor.

Reference: https://archive.nptel.ac.in/courses/108/105/108105053/

ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS SYSTEM EE1002 11

 Renewable energy resources
◼ A renewable resource is defined as a natural resource that renews itself at
a rate that is faster, or equal to the rate of consumption.
◼ Renewable resources differ from resources that once depleted never
return, such as fossil fuels. Renewable resources can include perpetually
sustainable resources that never run out, such as solar power.
◼ Renewable energy is energy generated from natural resources—such as
sunlight, wind, rain, tides and geothermal heat—which
are renewable (naturally replenished).
 1. Solar Energy
🡪The Earth receives an incredible supply of solar energy.
🡪Solar energy is a free, inexhaustible resource.
❑Solar energy can be utilized directly by two technologies:
🡪Solar thermal
🡪Solar photovoltaic

13
 SOLAR THERMAL SYSTEM
❑Solar collectors are used to collect the solar energy and convert the incident
radiations into thermal energy by absorbing them.
❑This heat is extracted by flowing fluid (air or water or mixture with antifreeze)
in the tube of the collector for further utilization in different applications.
❑The collectors are classified as
🡪Non concentrating collectors or Flat-plate collector
🡪Concentrating (focusing) collectors

14
 Non-Concentrating Collectors
🡪 In these collectors the area of collector to intercept the solar radiation is equal to
the absorber plate and has concentration ratio of 1.
🡪 Flat Plate Collectors is most important part of any solar thermal energy system.
🡪 It is simplest in design.
🡪 Flat plate collector absorbs both beam and diffuse components of radiant energy.
🡪 Sun rays striking the absorber plate are absorbed causing rise of temperature of
transport fluid.
🡪 Thermal insulation behind the absorber plate and transparent cover sheets (glass
or plastic) prevent loss of heat to surroundings.
Non-Concentrating Collector
🡪 Applications of flat plate collectors
1. Solar water heating systems for residence, hotels, industry.
2. Desalination plant for obtaining drinking water from sea water.
3. Solar cookers for domestic cooking.
4. Drying applications.
5. Residence heating.
 Concentrating Collectors
🡪 Energy delivery temperatures can be increased by decreasing the area from
which the heat losses occur.
🡪 Temperatures far above those attainable by FPC can be reached if a large
amount of solar radiation is concentrated on a relatively small collection area.
🡪 This is done by interposing an optical device between the source of radiation
and the energy absorbing surface.
🡪 Concentrating collector is a device to collect solar energy with high intensity
of solar radiation on the energy absorbing surface.
🡪 Such collectors use optical system in the form of reflectors or refractors.
🡪 The high temperature is achieved at absorber because of reflecting
arrangement provided for concentrating the radiation at required location
using mirrors and lenses.
Concentrating
Collectors

19
 SOLAR PHOTOVOLTAIC (SPV) SYSTEM

🡪 SPV system convert solar energy directly into electrical energy.

🡪 Basic conversion device is SPV cell or solar cell.
🡪 A solar cell is basically an electrical current source, driven by a
flux of radiation.
🡪 Life span is about 20 years.
🡪 To increase power, groups of solar cells are electrically connected
and packaged into weather-tight modules and arrays to provide
useful output voltages and currents for a specific power output.

20
🡪 A SPV System typically
consists of 3 basic
components.
❑ PV cells - Electricity is
generated by PV cells, the
smallest unit of a PV
system.
❑ Modules - PV cells are
wired together to form
modules which are usually
a sealed, or encapsulated,
unit of convenient size for
handling.
21
Applications

◼ Space satellites
◼ Remote radio communication booster stations
◼ Marine warning lights
◼ Lighting
◼ Water pumping
◼ Medical refrigeration in remote areas
◼ Solar powered vehicles
◼ Battery charging
Working Principle of Solar Cell
◼ When light reaches the p-n junction, the light photons can easily enter
in the junction, through very thin p-type layer.
◼ The light energy, in the form of photons, supplies sufficient energy to
the junction to create a number of electron-hole pairs.
◼ The incident light breaks the thermal equilibrium condition of the
junction. The free electrons in the depletion region can quickly come to
the n-type side of the junction.
◼ Similarly, the holes in the depletion can quickly come to the p-type side
of the junction. Once, the newly created free electrons come to the
n-type side, cannot further cross the junction because of barrier
potential of the junction.
◼ Similarly, the newly created holes once come to the p-type side cannot
further cross the junction became of same barrier potential of the junction.
◼ As the concentration of electrons becomes higher in one side, i.e. n-type side
of the junction and concentration of holes becomes more in another side, i.e.
the p-type side of the junction, the p-n junction will behave like a small
battery cell.
◼ A voltage is set up which is known as photo voltage. If we connect a small
load across the junction, there will be a tiny current flowing through it.
 2. Wind Power
🡪Power is generated from the wind by converting the speed of the wind into
electricity.
🡪The faster the wind travels, the more electricity can be generated.
🡪The main type of wind turbine design that work to generate power are
horizontal axis wind turbine (HAWT).
🡪Wind-power generation is the fastest growing energy source.

25
Wind turbines are good media for generating electricity from a clean and renewable
resource for our homes and businesses. It comes with a couple of advantages for
both humans and the environment, namely the following:
🡪 A wind turbine can harness a plentiful energy source, wind.
🡪 The use of wind electricity can cut our carbon footprint because it doesn't
release any harmful gases or pollutants in the process of generating electricity.
🡪 The use of wind energy can cut our electricity bills because wind is free, and
thus, after the payment for the initial installation, electricity costs will be reduced.
🡪 We can store energy even on a calm day. If our houses are not connected to the
power grid, we can store the excess electricity produced from the wind turbine in
batteries and use it when there is no wind.
🡪 We can sell electricity back to the grid, meaning if our wind system is producing
more than what we need, someone else can use it, and thus, we can sell it.
 Main Components of a Wind-turbine
1. Rotor
🡪 The portion of the wind turbine that collects energy from the wind is called the
rotor.
🡪 The rotor usually consists of two or more wooden, fiberglass or metal blades which
rotate about an axis (horizontal or vertical) at a rate determined by the wind speed
and the shape of the blades.
🡪 The blades are attached to the hub, which in turn is attached to the main shaft.
🡪 It converts kinetic energy of wind into mechanical energy through a connected
shaft.
2. Generator
◼ The generator is that converts the turning motion of a wind turbine's blades into
electricity.
◼ Inside this component, coils of wire are rotated in a magnetic field to produce
electricity.
◼ The generator's rating, or size, is dependent on the length of the wind turbine's
blades because more energy is captured by longer blades.
◼ It is important to select the right type of generator to match intended use.
3. Transmission
◼ The number of revolutions per minute (rpm) of a wind turbine rotor can range
between some limits, depending on the model and the wind speed.
◼ Most wind turbines require a gear-box transmission to increase the rotation of the
generator to the speeds necessary for efficient electricity production.
◼ Without a transmission, wind turbine complexity and maintenance requirements
are reduced, but a much larger generator is required to deliver the same power
output as the AC-type wind turbines.
4. Tower
🡪 The tower is the main shaft that connects the rotor to the foundation. It also
raises the rotor height in the air where we can find stronger winds.
🡪 With HAWT, the tower houses the stairs to allow for maintenance and
inspection.
🡪 The tower is the part on which a wind turbine is mounted. It is not just a
support structure. It also raises the wind turbine so that its blades safely
clear the ground and so it can reach the stronger winds at higher elevations.
🡪 Towers must be strong enough to support the wind turbine and to sustain
vibration, wind loading and the overall weather elements for the lifetime of
the wind turbine.
🡪 Their costs will vary widely as a function of design and height.
5. Gearbox-
The gearbox alters the rotational velocity of the shaft to suit the generator.
6. Control and protection system-
The protection system is like a safety feature that makes sure that the turbine will
not be working under dangerous condition. This includes a brake system triggered
by the signal of higher speeds to stop the rotor from movement under excessive
wind gusts.
7. Foundation-
The foundation or the base supports the entire wind turbine and make sure that it is
well fixed onto the ground or the roof for small household wind turbines. This usually
consists of a solid concrete assembly around the tower to maintain its structural
integrity.
Working
◼ A equipment found on the weather tight compartment at the top of a
tower of an HAWT, called nacelle.
◼ The slow rotation of the shaft of an HAWT is normally increased with a
gearbox and passed to the generator.
◼ Gearbox and generator are attached directly to the turbine shaft
though a braking system.
◼ The electricity produced from the generator is taken with cables
through the tower to a substation and eventually to the grid.
◼ The rotor, gearbox and generator are mounted on a platform which is
able to rotate or yaw about a vertical axis so that the rotor shaft is
perpendicular to the wind direction.
 1. Basic circuit elements

• Electric Circuit
– An interconnection of simple electrical devices with at least one closed
path
in which current may flow.
– An Electric circuit is a mathematical model that approximates the behavior
of an actual Electrical system.
– A combination of various elements (Resistor, Inductor, Capacitor, Voltage
source, Current source) connected in any manner what so ever is called an
electrical network.

B Tech. 1st Year Electrical & Electronics Systems (EE1002)

 • Circuit Elements

– Two terminal component that cannot be

sub-divided
– Described mathematically in terms of its terminal voltage &
current

– 5 basic circuit
elementsActive Elements
•
– Voltage and Current sources
• Passive Elements
– Resistors, Inductors and Capacitors

B Tech. 1st Year Electrical & Electronics Systems (EE1002)

 • Passive Element : The element which receives energy (or absorbs energy) and
then either convert it into heat (R) or can be stored it in an electric (C) or
magnetic (L) filed.
• Active Element : The elements that supply energy to the circuit.
Example: Voltage & Current sources
Transistor (can amplify power of a signal)
Note: Transformer is an example of passive element.
power
(Becausesame
remains it does notin
both amplify theand
primary power level and
secondary
sides) of current in both directions an element with
Bilateral Element : Conduction
•
in
same magnitude. Example: R, C & L

• Unilateral Element : Conduction of current in one

directions.
Example: Diode, Transistor
B Tech. 1st Year Electrical & Electronics Systems (EE1002)
 Basic Circuit
Elements
Active Elements Passive Elements
1. Resistors
Sources
2. Inductors
3. Capacitors
Dependent Independent
sources sources

Voltage sources Current sources

Ideal (DC) Practical (DC) Ideal (DC) Practical (DC)

Voltage Voltage source Current Current source
source
+ - source
+-
Vs Vs Rs
Is Is Rs
Vs
B Tech. 1st Year Electrical & Electronics Systems (EE1002)
 Passive Elements
Resistance (R): Property of opposition to flow of current
The voltage across the resistor is proportional to the current flowing
through it ; VR α I or VR = IR, ‘R’ = VR/I; Unit - Ohm

Inductance (L): Property of opposition to the rate of change of

current

The voltage induced in the inductor is proportional to the rate of change

of current flowing through it;
eL = L (di/dt) = N (dФ/dt); L = N (dФ/di); Unit – Henry (H)
Capacitance (C): Property which opposes the rate of change of voltage;

The capacitive current is proportional to the rate of change of voltage

across it ; ic = C (dv/dt); Unit – Farad (F).
B Tech. 1st Year Electrical & Electronics Systems (EE1002)
 Ohm’s Law

• That is,
𝑣 ∝𝑖
• Ohm (scientist) defined the constant of proportionality for a resistor to be
resistance, R.
• Thus the above eq.
becomes, 𝑣 = 𝑖𝑅
which is the mathematical form of Ohm’s
law.

B Tech. 1st Year Electrical & Electronics Systems (EE1002)

 • To apply Ohm’s law, we must pay careful attention to the current direction and
voltage polarity.

• The direction of current and the polarity of voltage 𝑣 must conform with the
passive sign convention.

✔ This implies that current from a higher potential to a lower potential

flows in
order for .
𝑣 = 𝑖𝑅
✔ If current flows from a lower potential to a higher potential, 𝑣 =
.
−𝑖𝑅
B Tech. 1st Year Electrical & Electronics Systems
 • Since the value of 𝑅 can range from zero to infinity, it is important that
we
consider the two extreme possible values of 𝑅.
• An element with is called a short circuit, as shown in Fig.
• For a short circuit,
𝑣 = 𝑖𝑅 = 0

showing that the voltage is zero

but
the current could be anything.
• In practice, a short circuit is usually a connecting wire assumed to be perfect
a
conductor.

B Tech. 1st Year Electrical & Electronics Systems (EE1002)

 • Similarly, an element with is known as an open circuit, as shown in
𝑅 =∞
Fig.
• For an open circuit,

indicating that the current is zero

though the voltage could be anything.

Note : It should be pointed out that not all resistors obey Ohm’s
law.
B Tech. 1st Year A resistor that obeys Ohm’sElectrical
law is& Electronics
known Systems
as a linear
(EE1002)resistor.
 Problems
Q. A coil has a current of 50 mA flowing through it when the applied voltage

is
Sol. 𝑅 = V/I = 240𝛺
12 V. What is the resistance of the coil?

Q. A 100 V battery is connected across a resistor and causes a current of 5 mA to

flow. Determine the resistance of the resistor. If the voltage is now reduced to
25 V, what will be the new value of the current flowing?
Sol. 𝑅 = V/I = 20𝑘𝛺
Current when voltage is reduced to 25 ,
25
I = V/R = 20×103 = 1.25𝑚𝐴

Electrical & Electronics Systems (EE1002)

B Tech. 1st Year
 2. Sources
• Ideal Nature
– An ideal voltage source maintains a prescribed voltage regardless of the
current in the device. Internal resistance Rs = 0
– An ideal current source maintains a prescribed current regardless of the
voltage across the device. Internal resistance Rs =
– An ideal or practical source is called as ‘active element’
Note:-

B Tech. 1st Year Electrical & Electronics

 • Ideal Sources
• Independent Voltage & Current Sources
– Circuit Representation

Ideal Voltage Sources (DC) Ideal Current Sources (DC)

Vs
+
-
V I
s s

B Tech. 1st Year Electrical & Electronics

 • Practical Sources
• Independent Voltage & Current Sources
– Circuit Representation

Practical Voltage Practical CurrentSources

Sources V R
s s
+- I R
s s

B Tech. 1st Year Electrical & Electronics Systems (EE1002)

 • Understanding Delivering and Absorbing Power by the Source

Fig. Source and Sink configurations

B Tech. 1st Year Electrical & Electronics Systems (EE1002)

 3. Source
Transformation R +
❑ Conversion of Practical Voltage source s
a
to Current source & vice versa
V +-
s
b
-
Voltage & Current sources shown in
the figure are electrically equivalent
if +
a
V = I * R or (I = V /R )
s p p p s s I R
Rs = Rp
p p

-b
B Tech. 1st Year Electrical & Electronics Systems
 • The series combination seems to behave identically to the parallel
combination.
• One can replace one configuration for the other where needed. And this
switch is called source transformation.

B Tech. 1st Year Electrical & Electronics Systems (EE1002)

 Numerical Steps
• Each of these circuits has a series parallel structure that makes it possible to
simplify the circuit by the following steps:
• Performing source transformations.
• Replacing series or parallel resistors by an equivalent resistor.
• Replacing series voltage sources by an equivalent voltage source.
• Replacing parallel current sources by an equivalent current source.
Note:-
• Each simplification is done in such a way that the voltage or current
measured
by the meter is not disturbed.
• Generally, that requires beginning the simplification at the opposite end of
the
circuit from the meter and then working toward the meter.
B Tech. 1st Year Electrical & Electronics Systems
 Worked Examples
Example 1
Consider the circuit shown in Figure. Find the value of the voltage measured by
the voltmeter.

Figure 1 The circuit considered in Example

1
Solution:
The voltmeter measures the voltage across the current source.

B Tech. 1st Year Electrical & Electronics Systems (EE1002)

 (The color-coded probes of the voltmeter indicate the reference direction of the
voltage measured by the voltmeter.)

Figure 2 shows the circuit after the replacing the voltmeter by the equivalent
open
circuit and adding a label to show the voltage measured by the meter.

Figure 2 The circuit from Figure 1 after the replacing the voltmeter by an
open
circuit.
B Tech. 1st Year Electrical & Electronics Systems (EE1002)
 Figures 3 through 17 illustrate the use of source transformations and equivalent
resistances to simplify the circuit.

Figure 3 Separating the circuit from Figure 2 into two parts.

Figure 4 The circuit from Figure 3 after doing a source transformation.

B Tech. 1st Year Electrical & Electronics Systems (EE1002)
 Figure 5 The circuit from Figure 4 after changing the order of parallel
elements.

Figure 6 Separating the circuit from Figure 5 into two

parts.
B Tech. 1st Year Electrical & Electronics Systems (EE1002)
 Figure 7 The circuit from Figure 6 after replacing parallel resistors with
an
equivalent resistor.

Figure 8 Separating the circuit from Figure 7 into two

parts.
B Tech. 1st Year Electrical & Electronics Systems
 Figure 9 The circuit from Figure 8 after doing a source
transformation.

Figure 10 The circuit from Figure 9 after changing the order of series
elements.
Electrical & Electronics Systems (EE1002)
B Tech. 1st Year
 Figure 11 Separating the circuit from Figure 10 into two
parts.

Figure 12 The circuit from Figure 11 after replacing series voltage sources
with
an equivalent voltage source
B Tech. 1st Year
Electrical & Electronics Systems (EE1002)
 Figure 13 Separating the circuit from Figure 12 into two
parts.

Figure 14 The circuit from Figure 13 after doing a source

transformation.
B Tech. 1st Year Electrical & Electronics Systems
 Figure 15 The circuit from Figure 14 after changing the order of
parallel
elements.

Figure 16 Separating the circuit from Figure 15 into two

parts.
B Tech. 1st Year Electrical & Electronics Systems (EE1002)
 Figure 17 The circuit from Figure 16 after replacing parallel resistors with
an
equivalent
resistor.

Figure 18 The reduced

circuit.
B Tech. 1st Year Electrical & Electronics Systems
B Tech. 1st Year Electrical & Electronics Systems (EE1002)
 Example 2
Consider the circuit shown in Figure 19. Find the value of the resistance, R.

Figure 19 The circuit considered in Example

Solution: 2.

The voltmeter measures the voltage across one of the current sources.

Figure 20 shows the circuit after the replacing the voltmeter by the equivalent
open circuit and adding a label to show the voltage measured by the meter.

B Tech. 1st Year

Electrical & Electronics Systems (EE1002)
 Figures 21 through 24 illustrate the use of source transformations and equivalent
resistances to simplify the circuit.

Figure 20 The circuit from Figure 19 after the replacing the voltmeter by an
open
circuit.

Figure 21 Separating the circuit from Figure 20 into two

parts.
B Tech. 1st Year Electrical & Electronics Systems
 Figure 22 The circuit from Figure 21 after doing a source
transformation.

Figure 23 Separating the circuit from Figure 22 into two

parts.
B Tech. 1st Year Electrical & Electronics Systems (EE1002)
 Figure 24 The circuit from Figure 23 after replacing series resistors with
an
equivalent resistor

Figure 25 The circuit from Figure 24 after numbering the

nodes.
Figure 25 shows the simplified circuit after numbering the nodes.
B Tech. 1st Year Electrical & Electronics Systems
 SOME BASIC DEFINITIONS
Node- A node in an electric circuit is a point where two or more components
are connected together.

This point is usually marked with dark circle or dot. The circuit in fig. has nodes
a, b, c, and g.

Generally, a point, or a node in a circuit specifies a certain voltage level with

respect to a reference point or node.

ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS SYSTEM EE1002 66

 SOME BASIC DEFINITIONS
Branch- A branch is a conducting path between two nodes in a circuit
containing the electric elements.
These elements could be sources, resistances, or other
elements.
Fig. shows that the circuit has six branches: three resistive branches (a-c, b-c,
and b-g) and three branches containing voltage and current sources (a-, a-,
and
c-g).

ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS SYSTEM EE1002 67

 SOME BASIC DEFINITIONS
Loop- A loop is any closed path in an electric circuit i.e., a closed path or
loop
in a circuit is a connecting sequence of branches which starting and end
points
Fig.tracing
for showsthe three loops
path are,or
inclosed
effect,paths namely,
the same nodea-b-g-a; b-c-g-b;
and touches noand a-c-b-a.
other node
more than
Further, once.
it may be noted that the outside closed paths a-c-g-a and a-b-c-g-a are
also form two loops.

ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS SYSTEM EE1002 68

 SOME BASIC DEFINITIONS
Mesh- a mesh is a special case of loop that does not have any other loops
within it or in its interior.

Fig. indicates that the first three loops (a-b-g-a; b-c-g-b; and a-c-b-a)
just
identified are also ‘meshes’ but other two loops (a-c-g-a and a-b-c-g-a) are
not.

ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS SYSTEM EE1002 69

 1 - MESH & SUPER MESH
MESH CURRENT ANALYSIS

•MESH / LOOP ANALYSIS PRINCIPLE – KVL

•DIRECTION OF MESH CURRENT IS ARBITRARY AND IS GENERALLY SELECTED BASED

ON THE VOLTAGE SOURCE POLARITY.

•MESH/LOOP EQUATIONS ARE WRITTEN BASED ON THE ASSUMED CURRENT

DIRECTIONS.

ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS SYSTEM EE1002 70

 MESH CURRENT ANALYSIS…..
• For the circuit shown, obtain the mesh equations

I1 I2 I3

ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS SYSTEM EE1002 71

 Exercise

• For the circuit shown, determine the mesh currents i1 , i2 and current
through the galvanometer
M1: 40 (i1) + 100 (i1 - i2) + 20 (i1 – i3) = 0
M2: 30 (i2) + 30 (i2 – i3) + 100 (i2 – i1) = 0
M3: 10 (i3) + 20 (i3 – i1) + 30 (i3 – i2) = 10

[ i1 = 0.10197A, i2 = 0.11184A. iG = 9.87 mA]

ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS SYSTEM EE1002 72

 Super Mesh
• A super mesh occurs when a current source is contained between two essential
meshes.

• The circuit is first treated as if the current source is not there.

• This leads to one equation that incorporates two mesh currents.

• Once this equation is formed, an equation is needed that relates the two mesh
currents with the current source.

• This will be an equation where the current source is equal to one of the mesh
currents minus the other.

ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS SYSTEM EE1002 73

 Example : Super Mesh
• For the circuit shown, determine the current through the 3 ohm resistor

1(i1-i2) + 3(i3-i2) + 1 (i3) = 7

1(i2-i1) + 2 (i2) + 3 (i2-i3) = 0
(i1 – i3 )= 7

• Current through 3 ohm resistor = i2 – i3 = 0.5 A (right to left)

ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS SYSTEM EE1002 74

 2 - NODE & SUPER NODE
NODE VOLTAGE ANALYSIS
❑ Node Voltage analysis Principle – KCL
❑ One of the nodes is the reference node

❑ Number of Node equations required = (Total No. of Nodes - 1)

❑ While writing the node equations, it is assumed that the node under
consideration is at higher potential to that of other nodes connected to it

❑ The current directions at a node is decided by the above assumption

❑ Transform all convertible voltage sources to current sources, it helps
reducing the simplification.

❑ Rearrange the node voltage equations in the form [G][v]=[i]

❑ Solve for [v]

ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS SYSTEM EE1002 75

 NODE VOLTAGE ANALYSIS

• For the circuit shown, obtain the node voltage equations

1 2

0; Reference node

Rearranging the terms

ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS SYSTEM EE1002 76

 EXAMPLE
• For the circuit shown, determine the current through the galvanometer.

ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS SYSTEM EE1002 77

 Super Node
• When a circuit contains voltage sources DIRECTLY connecting two essential
nodes,
the concept of the Super node is used to write the necessary nodal
equations.

• Note that there may be more than one super node in a circuit.

• Also, a super node may possibly include more than 2 nodes.

ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS SYSTEM EE1002 78

 Example : Super Node
• For the circuit shown obtain the node voltage V1

3 (v1 – v2) + 4 (v1 - v3) = -11

3 (v2-v1) + 4 (v3-v1) + 5 v3 + 1 v2 = 28
v3 – v2 = 22
Rearranging the equations
7 v1 – 3 v2 – 4 v3 = -11
-7 v1 + 4 v2 + 9 v3 = 28
-v2 + v3 = 22

ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS SYSTEM EE1002 79

 Numerical
Q. Determine the following loop currents.

6𝛺

Sol. We obtain,

How to solve this

systems?
ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS SYSTEM EE1002 80
 Method 1: Gaussian Elimination to Triangular
form

ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS SYSTEM EE1002 81

 Method 2: Cramer’s
Rule
24 −8 −20 40 24 −20
0 18 −6 −8 0 −6
−6 36
I = 0 I = −20 0 36
1 40 −8 −20 2 40 −8 −20
−8 +18 −6 −8 +18 −6
−20 −6 +36 −20 −6 +36

40 −8 24
−818 0
I = −20 −6 0
3 40 −8 −20
−8 +18 −6
−20 −6 +36

ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS SYSTEM EE1002 82

 DC NETWORK THEOREMS
• An electrical Circuit is an interconnection of electrical components
(e.g., batteries, resistors, inductors, capacitors, switches, transistors and
voltage sources & current sources).
• An electrical circuit is a network consisting of a closed loop, giving a return
path for the current.
• Using different theorems, response of the different sources (voltage &
current) on the particular load of the circuit can be calculated.

• These theorems are as given below,

1. Superposition Theorem
2. Thevenin Theorem
3. Maximum Power Transfer Theorem
ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS SYSTEM EE1002 83
 SUPERPOSITION THEOREM
Statement:- In a linear network with several independent sources, the response in a particular branch
when all the sources are acting simultaneously is equal to the linear sum of individual responses
calculated by taking one independent source at a time. Superposition theorem is used only in linear
networks.
Problem-1-: Find the voltage drop across the 2 ohm (R2) resistor using superposition theorem.

Fig.1 Explanation of Superposition Theorem

ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS SYSTEM EE1002 84

In the above figure, the circuit with two voltage sources is divided into two individual circuits
according to this theorem’s statement.

In first case used only one voltage source and other voltage source is replace with their internal
resistance which is zero in case of voltage source and infinity in case of current source. So voltage
source is changed to short circuit and current source is changed by open circuit. And find the current in
the specific branch.
In First Case-: Applied only first voltage source and short circuit the second voltage source.
R2 and R3 are connected in parallel and equivalent resistant is connected in series with the R1.

R1eq = R2||R3 + R1
R1eq = 2||1 + 4
R1eq = 2/3 + 4
R1eq = 14/3 ohms
Current with draw from the source-1 is calculated by I1 = V1 / R1eq = 28*3/14 = 6 Amp

ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS SYSTEM EE1002 85

 Now calculate the current in the R2 branch due the first voltage source only is I11 = I1* R3 /(R3 + R2)
= 6*1/(1+2) =2 Amp
In Second Case-: Applied only second voltage source and short circuit the first voltage source.
R1 and R2 are connected in parallel and equivalent resistant is connected in series with the R 3.

R2eq = R1||R2 + R3
R2eq = 4||2 +4
R2eq = 8/6 + 4
R2eq = 16/3 ohms
Current with draw from the source-2 is calculated by I2 = V2 / R2eq = 7*3/16 = 1.31 Amp
Now calculate the current in the R2 branch due the second voltage source only is I21 = I2* R1 /(R2 + R1)
= 1.31*4/(4+2) = 0.873 Amp
Total current in the R2 branch is calculated by sum of the current flow due to the individual
voltage sources = 2 + 0.873 = 2.873 Amp

ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS SYSTEM EE1002 86

 Problem-2-: Find the value of Ix using superposition theorem.

Fig.1
There are two sources so it is required to apply the source one by one as per superposition theorem
state to calculate the value of Ix. First apply 5 V voltage source and replace current source with open
terminal.

ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS SYSTEM EE1002 87

 Step-1

Let's start with the voltage source and change the current source with its internal resistance (open circuit)
as shown in Fig 2.

Fig.2

In the Fig. it can be seen that the 4Ω and 2Ω resistors are connected in series so total resistor become 6Ω.
Similarly 3Ω and 1Ω resistors are also connected in series so total resistor become 4Ω. In addition 6Ω and 4Ω resistors are
connected in the parallel to the source voltage as shown in Fig 3.

ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS SYSTEM EE1002 88

 Fig.3

Now 4Ω and 6Ω are connected in parallel and equivalent resistance become :

R4Ω||6Ω =(4×6)/(4+6)=2.4Ω

Now calculate the value of Ix1

Ix1 =5V/2.4Ω=2.083A

ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS SYSTEM EE1002 89

To continue solving the circuit with the Superposition theorem, the voltage source is changed to the short circuit and only current source is applied on the
circuit and find the contribution of the current source on Ix. Ix2 is taken as the contribution of the current source.

Fig.4
We can easily apply KCL and find Ix2 . So, 4Ω and 2Ω are connected in parallel and also 3Ω and 1Ω are connected in parallel:

R4Ω||2Ω=(4×2)/(4+2)=4/3Ω
R3Ω||1Ω =3/4Ω

ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS SYSTEM EE1002 90

 V2Ω||4Ω=4/3*(−3) = −4V

V3Ω||1Ω =3/4*(−3) = −2.25V

Please note that the voltage drop on 4Ω||2Ω is the same as 4Ω and 2Ω voltage drops, because the circuits are equivalent and all are connected to the same
nodes. The same statement is correct for 3Ω||1Ω voltage drop and 3Ω and 1Ω voltage drops. So

V4Ω=V2Ω=V2Ω||4Ω= −4V
V3Ω||1Ω=V3Ω||1Ω=V 3Ω||1Ω =
−2.25V
ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS SYSTEM EE1002 91
To find Ix2 all we need is to write KCL at one of the nodes:

Ix2 = I2Ω − I3Ω

I2Ω =V2Ω
/2Ω=−4/2=−2A
I3Ω =V3Ω
/3Ω=−2.25/3=−0.75A
I =−1.25A
x2

Therefore, Using Superposition, Ix = Ix1 + I2x =2.083−1.25=0.8333A

ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS SYSTEM EE1002 92

 THEVENIN’S THEOREM
Steps to Analyze an Electric Circuit
1.Open the load resistor.

2.Calculate / measure the open circuit voltage. This is the Thevenin Voltage (VTH).

3.Open current sources and short voltage sources.

4.Calculate /measure the Open Circuit Resistance. This is the Thevenin Resistance (RTH).

5.Now, redraw the circuit with measured open circuit Voltage (VTH) in Step (2) as voltage source and
measured open circuit resistance (RTH) in step (4) as a series resistance and connect the load
resistor which we had removed in Step (1). This is the equivalent Thevenin circuit of that linear
electric network or complex circuit which had to be simplified and analyzed by Thevenin’s
Theorem. You have done.

6.Now find the Total current flowing through load resistor by using the Ohm’s Law: IT = VTH / (RTH +
ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS SYSTEM EE1002 93
R ).
 THEVENIN
TEOREM
Problem-1: Find VX by first finding VTH and RTH to the left of A-B using
Thevenin Theorem.

Step-1 Open the load

resistor.
Step-2 Calculate the open circuit voltage. This is the Thevenin Voltage (VTH).

ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS SYSTEM EE1002 94

 Notice that there is no current flowing in the 4 Ω resistor (A-B) is open. Thus there can be
no voltage across the resistor.

Step-3 & 4 Open current sources and short voltage sources and calculate the Open Circuit
Resistance.
This is the Thevenin Resistance (RTH).
We now deactivate the sources to the left of A-B and find the resistance seen looking in
these terminals as shown in Fig.

ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS SYSTEM EE1002 95

 RTH

RTH = 12||6 + 4 = 8 Ω

Step-5 Now draw the equivalent Thevenin circuit of that linear electric network or complex
circuit which had to be simplified and analyzed by Thevenin’s Theorem.

ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS SYSTEM EE1002 96

 We connect this to the load in order to find VX.

ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS SYSTEM EE1002 97

 Problem-2: In the circuit given circuit, find VAB by using Thevenin Theorem.

Step-1 Open the load

resistor.
Step-2 Calculate the open circuit voltage. This is the Thevenin Voltage (VTH).

We first find VTH with the 17 Ω resistor removed. Next we find RTH by looking into terminals A-B
with the sources deactivated.

ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS SYSTEM EE1002 98

ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS SYSTEM EE1002 99
 RTH

To calculate the value of the thevenin resistance all sources are changed to their internal
resistance like voltage source is changed to short circuit and the current source is changed to
open terminal. In addition for calculating the value of RTH this circuit is viewed from the open
terminal.

ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS SYSTEM EE1002 100

 Now we can see VAB = VTH *17/(14+17)
that,

ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS SYSTEM EE1002 101

 MAXIMUM POWER TRANSFER THEOREM
This theorem states that the output obtained from a network is maximum when the load resistance
RL is equal to the internal resistance of the network as seen from the terminals of the load.

According to Thevenin theorem, every network can be represented by a single voltage source
(Thevenin source) having an effective internal resistance Rth as shown in Figure.

Let us determine the value of load resistor RL so that source delivers maximum power to it.

ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS SYSTEM EE1002 102

ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS SYSTEM EE1002 103
 Thus, for maximum power transfer, the load resistance RL must be made equal to the internal resistance of
the source (or of the whole network) Rth.

In this case, the efficiency will by very poor only 50%, but the low efficiency is of no importance because the
aim is to transfer the maximum power at the output. Now the maximum power transfer to the load of the
circuit is given by:

ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS SYSTEM EE1002 104

 Problem-1: Find the value of load resistance RL for maximum power flow through it in the
circuit shown in
Figure1.

Fig 1

The power drawn by the load resistor RL will be maximum when its value is equal to the Thevenin equivalent
resistance of the network. To determine Rth across terminal AB (load), remove RL and replace the sources by
their internal resistances, that is, short circuit the voltage source and open circuit the current source, as shown
in Figure 2.
Rth = 2.43
Ω
The power transferred to the load by the source will be maximum
when:
RL = Rth = 2.43Ω
Fig 2
ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS SYSTEM EE1002 105
Problem-2: Determine the value of load resistance RL to give maximum power transfer and the
power delivered to the load as shown in Figure1.

Fig 1
The equivalent resistance of the network when viewed from terminals A and B after
removing resistor RL from the circuit and short circuiting the voltage source.
We get Thevenin
resistance

Fig 2

ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS SYSTEM EE1002 106

Maximum power will be transferred to the load, when it is equal to Thevenin’s equivalent
resistance Rth,
RL = Rth = 9 Ω

When the terminals A and B are open (i.e., load resistor RL is removed), the current flowing
through the mesh ECDFE, as shown in Figure.

Open-circuit voltage across AB, VAB = VCD = Eth = 10 ⋅ 1 = 10 V

Maximum power delivered to the

load,

ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS SYSTEM EE1002 107

 1. Introduction to Phasors
Rotation Vm v(wt) = Vm sin wt
ω v(α) = Vm sin α
N S
v Vm π 2π
α
a 0 0α ωt
Vm
b Coil -Vm
• A phasor is a graphical representation of the magnitude and angular position
of a time varying quantity such as a voltage or current in which variation is
sinusoidal.
• A phasor diagram can be used to show the relative relationship of two or
 Leading Sine Wave
Im
v(ωt)
α
Vm ωt
α
i(ωt)
• Phase angle is the angular difference between the two quantities under
consideration.
• One quantity is the reference
• Im leads Vm (or i leads v) by an angle α where Vm is the reference.
• Time domain: v(t) = Vm sin(ωt); i(t) = Im sin (ωt + α)
o
 Lagging Sine Wave

i(ωt)

α Vm 0 ωt
Im α
v(ωt)
• Im lags Vm (or i lags v) by an angle α
• Time domain: v(t) = Vm sin(ωt); i(t) = Im sin (ωt - α)
• Polar form: V = Vm / 0o; I = Im /-α
 The ‘j’ operator
jA

O A
• Any phasor when operated by ‘j’ is rotated in anticlockwise direction
by 90 degrees.

• jOA = OA /90 ;
j*jOA = - OA = OA /180 ;

•
 The ‘j’ operator …
y
C A
α
O B x
• A phasor can be resolved into two components at right angles to
each other.
• OA is a phasor.
• Horizontal component = OB
• Vertical component OC = AB
• OA=OB + jOC
 Phasor Representation
Two forms of representation: i Im
A
IA
• Polar form: represented by 0 θ1 π IB 2π θ
magnitude and the angle θ2 B
y
A
θ2 θ1 X - Ref.

• Rectangular form: represented B

by its X and Y coordinates
 Exercise
• Convert the following into polar form using calculators

• Convert the following into rectangular form using calculators

• Pure resistive circuits
• Pure inductive circuits
• Pure capacitive circuits
 1. Pure resistive circuits
Let i(t)
v(t) = Vm sin ωt --------------- (1)
v(t) R
= Im sin ωt -------------(2)
Where I = Irms
Phasor diagram v(t)
i(t)
• Phase angle between V & I = 0 0 π/ π 2 ω
• current through the resistor is in 2 π t
phase with the voltage across it.
• V & I are RMS values
 Pure Resistive Circuits - Power Consumed
• Instantaneous power,
p(t
• p(t) = v(t).i(t)
) v(t
= Vm Im sin2ωt )
i(t
)
0 π/ π 2 ω
2 π t
2. Pure Inductive Circuits
i(t)
+
v(t) L e(t)
-

v(t)
i(t)

π/2 π 3π/2 2π ωt
Pure Inductive Circuits - Phasor diagram

90º

Phase difference = 90º

 Pure Inductive Circuits …

• The inductive reactance is directly Inductiv

proportional to frequency.
e
XL = ωL = 2πf L
reactanc
e Curren
• The current through pure inductor
is inversely proportional to t
frequency. 0
I = V/(ωL) Frequenc
y
 Pure Inductive Circuits -Power Consumed
• Instantaneous power,
p(t) = v(t).i(t)
= Vm Im sinωt. sin(ωt-90)
= - Vm Im cosωt. sinωt
= -(Vm Im/2) sin2ωt v
i p
• Average Power Consumed in a
Pure Inductor ω
0 π/ π 3π/ 2
t
2 2 π
3. Pure Capacitive Circuits
i(t)

v(t)
C
v(t
)
i(t
)
π/ π 3π/ 2 ω
2 2 π t
 Pure Capacitive circuits - Phasor diagram
• Current through pure Capacitor leads the
voltage across it by 90º.
• Vm = Im/(ωC)
= XC Im.
• XC = 1/(ωC) = 1/(2πf C) ----- 90º
Capacitive reactance, in ohm Phasor diagram

Phase difference = 90º

• Phasor Diagram
 Pure Capacitive Circuits…
• The capacitive reactance is inversely
Capacitor
proportional to frequency.
current
XC = 1/ (ω C)
Capacitive
Reactance
• The current through a pure capacitor
is directly proportional to frequency.0
Frequency,
I=ωCV
ω
 Pure Capacitive Circuits - Power Consumed
• Instantaneous power,
• p(t) = v(t).i(t)
= Vm Im sinωt. sin(ωt+90)
= Vm Im cosωt. sinωt
= (Vm Im/2) sin2ωt
v
• Average Power Consumed in ia Pure p
Capacitor ω
0 π/ π 3π/ 2
t
2 2 π
• The average/active power consumed by a pure Capacitor is zero.
• Series RL Circuits
• Series RC Circuits
• Illustrations
 1. Series RL Circuit
• Phasor Diagram - R L

v(t) i(t)

φ 90º
Reference
(phasor)
 Series RL Circuit - Complex Impedance
• Complex Impedance

φ 90º
Reference
(phasor)

φ 90º
Reference
(phasor)
• The phase difference between V & I is termed as phase angle , φ.
• Also φ is termed as Impedance angle
 Series RL Circuit - Waveforms

v
i
π/2 π 3π/2 2π
ωt
φ
• The current lags behind the voltage
by a phase angle φ
 2. Series RC Circuit – Phasor diagram
• Phasor Diagram -
R C

v(t) i(t)

Reference
φ -90º (phasor)
 Series RC Circuit - Complex Impedance
• Complex Impedance
Reference
φ -90º (phasor)

Reference
φ -90º (phasor)

• The phase difference between V & I is termed as phase angle , φ.

• φ is the Impedance angle
 Series RC Circuit - Wave forms

v
i

π/2 π 3π/2 2π ωt

φ
• The current Leads behind the voltage by a phase angle φ
 Solved Examples
1. A resistance of 50Ω is connected in series with an inductance
of 100 mH across a 230V, 50 Hz, single phase AC supply.
Calculate
a) impedance
b) current drawn
c) power factor
d) power consumed
e) Draw the phasor diagram.
Ans.
a) Z = e)
V VL
b) I =
32.12º
c) Pf = 0.847 lag VR I

d) P = 759.15W
2. A resistance of 50Ω is connected in series with a capacitance
of 100 μF across a 230V, 50 Hz, single phase AC supply.
Calculate
a) impedance
b) current drawn
c) power factor
d) power consumed
e) Draw the phasor diagram.
Ans.
a) Z = e)
VR
b) I =
32.48º I
0.847 lag VC
c) Pf = 0.843 lead V

d) P = 752.81W
• Series RLC Circuits
• Complex power
• Illustrations
 Series RLC Circuit
• Let i(t) = Im sinωt R L C
• Impedance, Z=R+j(XL-XC)
(i) If XL=XC , resistive circuit v(t) i(t)
(ii) If XL>XC, RL series circuit
(iii) If XL<XC, RC series circuit Note: - i(t) is the reference
Series RLC Circuit
R L C

v(t) i(t)
 Series RLC Circuit – Power consumed
• Instantaneous power

• Average power

= Active Power
Cos φ is called the power factor
 Power Triangle

φ 90º φ 90º

P = Average power = Active power =

measured in Watt

Q = Reactive power =
measured in VAr
(Volt-Amp reactive)

S = Absolute power = Apparent power =

 Complex Power
For inductive loads, current is lagging, the angle φ is negative.

Q = Reactive power =
But in SI units, lagging reactive power is +ve.
Hence, conjugate of the angle φ is used in power calculations.

S = VI* = = =
S=P+jQ

Similarly For capacitive loads, reactive power is –ve in SI units.

S = VI* = = =
S=P-jQ
 Power Factor
- Ratio of active power to absolute power

- Also, cosine of the impedance angle is numerically same as power factor.

 Solved Examples
1. The value of the capacitor in the circuit given below is 20 μF and the
current flowing through the circuit is 0.345 A. If the voltages are as
indicated, find the applied voltage, the frequency and loss in the coil.
coil
C
I R L R L

25 V 55 V
V 40 V
50 V
Power Loss = 1.8967 W
2. A resistance of 50Ω is connected in series with an inductance of 100 mH
across a 230V, 50 Hz, single phase AC supply. Calculate
a) impedance
b) current drawn
c) power factor
d) power consumed
e) Draw the phasor diagram.
Ans:
a) Z = e)
V VL
b) I= 32.12º
VR I
c) Pf = 0.847 lag

d) P = 759.15W
3. A resistance of 50Ω is connected in series with a capacitance of 100 μF
across a 230V, 50 Hz, single phase AC supply. Calculate
a) impedance
b) current drawn
c) power factor
d) power consumed
e) Draw the phasor diagram.
Ans:
a) Z = e)
VR
b) I = I
32.48º
VC
V
c) Pf = 0.843 lag
d) P = 752.81W
 4. Write the nodal equations for the network shown in Figure and express
them in matrix form.
 Series Resonance
Reference books :

Chapter 13 of Hughes E, Electrical and Electronic Technology (8th

e), Pearson Education, 2002.

Chapter 4(4.14) of T.K.Nagsarkar & M.S.Sukhija, Basic Electrical

Engineering, OXFORD University Press.
 SERIES RESONANCE - RLC Series Circuit

v(t), variable frequency

• Is said to be in resonance, when
• Current is in phase with voltage
• Inductive reactance =Capacitive reactance; XL = XC
• Circuit Power factor is unity
• Effective Circuit impedance is resistive; Z = R
 SERIES RESONANCE - Resonant frequency (f0)
• At series Resonance
• Resonant frequency (f0)

v(t), variable frequency

 Variation of Reactance with frequency
• Series Resonance

XL=ωL

R
o ωo ω
XC=-1/ωC

ω0 is the resonance frequency.

 SERIES RESONANCE - Variation of Current
I0
I
Acceptor circuit

ωo ω
• at resonance Irms is maximum when XL = XC;
SERIES RESONANCE - Variation of phase angle

o ωo
ω

For -
• ω< ωo; XC>XL leading current
• ω= ωo; XC=XL in phase current
• ω> ωo; XC<XL lagging current
Series Resonance - Bandwidth and Half Power frequencies
i
IO

= Half the power at

ω1 ωo ω2 ω
resonant frequency
• ω1 = lower half power frequency
• ω2 = upper half power frequency
• Band Width = ω2- ω1
Relation between Band Width and Half Power Frequencies
 Series Resonance - Q - Factor
• Quality factor- a measure of selectivity
 SERIES RESONANCE - Voltage Magnification
• At Series Resonance

• Sharpness of resonance depends on R

• Small R gives sharp resonance
• Large R gives broad resonance
 PARALLEL RESONANCE - Characteristics
• At Resonance Voltage and current must be in phase
→ Hence in the case of Parallel Resonance :

• The admittance of the circuit is minimum iR iL iC

at resonance so Z is maximum & I inv(t) R L C
minimum.
• The current (maximum) drawn from the
supply is V/R
• The currents IC and IL are equal and
opposite.
• Power factor is unity
• Net susceptance is zero
 PARALLEL RESONANCE - Resonant frequency (fr)
• For pure RLC parallel circuit
Let ω be variable and ωr = Resonant frequency (fr)

At resonance, the net susceptance is zero for iR iL iC

Parallel Resonance. v(t) R L C
 PARALLEL RESONANCE - Resonant frequency (fr)
• For the Circuit shown…
• At resonance, the net susceptance is zero for R
Parallel Resonance (ωC – 1/ ωL)=0 . v(t)
C

⎛ ⎞
ωr = 1 − ⎜ R ⎟
2

L ⎝ L⎠
 PARALLEL RESONANCE - Current magnification
I
R
C
v(t) IL
ωL
L IC Φ
Φ R

• At resonance, IL and IC >>>I

• Current magnification,
PARALLEL RESONANCE - Variation of current

o ωr ω
•
 Solved Examples
[1] A series RLC circuit consisting of R=100Ω, L=10mH and C=100μF is
supplied by an ac supply of 100 volt at varying frequency.

Determine
a) Resonant frequency
b) Current at resonance
c) Half power frequencies
d) Q factor
e) Voltage across capacitor
Sol.
[2] An RLC series circuit of R=8Ω resistance should be designed to have a
bandwidth of 50 Hz. Determine the value of L and C so that the system
resonates at 200 Hz.
[3] The parallel circuit shown in figure is made to resonate by varying L.
Find the value of L if ω=5000rad/sec .
Sol.
Z1=5-j10Ω

Z2=2+jXLΩ

Im(Y1+Y2)=Im(Y) =

XL = 12.17 Ω or 0.3286Ω
L = 65.73μH or 2.434mH
[4] Show that circuit given in figure will be at resonance at supply
frequency

Sol.

• Given ω=1.4 rad/sec

• Find overall impedance (admittance)

• If it results in real answer, then frequency at resonance is 1.4

rad/sec
Introduction to Semiconductors
Objective of the lecture: Define a semiconductor
material, – no. of electrons in outer shell of
semiconductor atom, location on periodic table,
most commonly used ones etc.
 Introduction
Semiconductors are materials whose electrical
properties lie between Conductors and Insulators.

Ex : Silicon and Germanium

Give the examples of Conductors and

Insulators!

Difference in conductivity
Semiconductor Materials: Ge, Si, and GaAs
Semiconductors are a special class of elements having a
conductivity between that of a good conductor and
that of an insulator.
• They fall into two classes : single crystal and
compound
• Single crystal : Germanium (Ge) and silicon (Si).
• Compound : gallium arsenide (GaAs),
cadmium sulfide
(CdS), gallium nitride
(GaN),
The three semiconductors used most frequently in the
constructiongallium arsenide
of electronic phosphide
devices (GaAsP)
are Ge, Si, and
GaAs.
 Semiconductor Materials
• Elemental semiconductors – Si and Ge (column IV of
periodic table) –compose of single species of atoms
• Compound semiconductors – combinations of atoms of
column III and column V and some atoms from column II
and VI. (combination of two atoms results in binary
compounds)
• There are also three-element (ternary) compounds (GaAsP) and
four-elements (quaternary) compounds such as InGaAsP.
Group → 1 2 3 5 6 7 8 9 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
4
↓
Period
1 2
H He
1
3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Li Be B C N O F Ne
2
11 12
13 14 15 16 17 18
N M
Al Si P S Cl Ar
3 a g

21
4 19 20 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36
S
K Ca Ti V Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu Zn Ga Ge As Se Br Kr
c

37
38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54
5 R
Sr Y Zr Nb Mo Tc Ru Rh Pd Ag Cd In Sn Sb Te I Xe
b

55 56 * 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86
6
Cs Ba Hf Ta W Re Os Ir Pt Au Hg Tl Pb Bi Po At Rn

7 87 88 ** 104 105 106 107 108 109 110 111 112 113 114 115 116 117 118
Fr Ra Rf Db Sg Bh Hs Mt Ds Rg Uub Uut Uuq Uup Uuh Uus Uuo

* 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71
Lanthanides La Ce Pr Nd Pm Sm Eu Gd Tb Dy Ho Er Tm Yb Lu

89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100 101 102 103

Ac Th Pa U Np Pu Am Cm Bk Cf Es Fm Md No Lr
** Actinides
 History
• Diode , in 1939 was using Ge
• Transistor, in 1947 was using Ge
• In1954 Si was used in Transistor because Si is less
temperature sensitive and abundantly available.
• High speed transistor was using GaAs in 1970 (which is 5
times faster compared to Si)
• Si, Ge and GaAs are the semiconductor of choice
 Atomic Structure
Valence shell (4 valence electrons) Valence shell (4 valence electrons)

Valence
shells electron

Valence
electron
+
+

Nucleus
orbiting
electrons
orbiting
Germanium electrons
Silicon
32 orbiting electrons 14 orbiting electrons
(tetravalent) (tetravalent)
• Valence electrons: electrons in the outermost shell.
• Atoms with four valence electrons are called tetravalent.
Silicon: our primary example and focus
Atomic no. 14
14 electrons in three shells: 2 , 8 4 i.e., 4 electrons in the outer "bonding" shell Silicon forms
strong covalent bonds with 4 neighbors
The Germanium Atomic Structure
 Atomic Structure
Valence shell (3 valence electrons) Valence shell (5 valence electrons)
Valence Valence
shells electron shells electron

+ +

Nucleus orbiting
Nucleus orbiting
electrons
electrons
Gallium
Arsenic
31 orbiting electrons 33 orbiting electrons
(trivalent) (pentavalent)

• Atoms with three valence electrons are called trivalent, and

those with five are called pentavalent.
 The Silicon Atom
A covalent bond can be formed between two atoms
which have only one electron in an outer orbit or
energy level. In this case the individual electrons
from the separate atoms at the same energy level
orbit both atoms jointly as shown in figures.

Both atoms essentially share the pair of electrons at the given energy level in the
outer sub-shell, with the two electrons having opposite spins. This forms a bonding
attraction between the two atoms which is not extremely strong but is nonetheless
powerful and maintains a high degree of stability in the material.
In the case of Silicon, each of the 4 outer electrons enters into a covalent
bond
with a neighbouring atom.

A Covalent Bond Formed by

the Sharing of Electrons in an
Outer Energy Level
 Covalent Bonding

Covalent bonding of Si crystal

This bonding of atoms, strengthened by the sharing of
electrons, is called covalent bonding
 Covalent Bonding

There is sharing of
electrons, five electrons
provided by As atom and
three by the Ga atom.

Covalent bonding of GaAs crystal

 Band theory of a solid
• A solid is formed by bringing together isolated single atoms.
• Consider the combination of two atoms. If the atoms are far
apart there is no interaction between them and the energy
levels are the same for each atom. The numbers of levels at a
particular energy is simply doubled

n= n=
3 3
n= n=
2 2
n=1 n=1

Atom 1Atom 2

• If the atoms are close together the electron wave functions will
overlap and the energy levels are shifted with respect to each
other.
n= n=3 n=3
3
n= n=2 n=2
2
n=
n=1 n=1
1
Atom 1 Atom 2 Atom 1 + 2
• A solid will have millions of atoms n=
close together in a lattice so 3

these energy levels will creates

bands each separated by a gap. n=
2

• Conductors: n=
1
– If we have used up all the
electrons available and a band Conduction band,
is still only half filled, the solid half filled with
is said to be a good conductor. electrons
The half filled band is known
as the conduction band. Valence band,
filled with
electrons
• Insulators:
– If, when we have used up
all the electrons the highest band Empty
is full and the next one is conduction band
empty with a large gap Large energy gap
between the two bands, the
material is said to be a good Valence band,
insulator. The highest filled filled with
band is known as the valence electrons

band while the empty next

band is known as the
conduction band.
Semiconductors
:
• Some materials have a filled valence
Empty
band just like insulators but a small gap conduction band
to the conduction band.
Small energy gap
• At zero Kelvin the material behave just
like an insulator but at room
Valence bands,
temperature, it is possible for some filled with
electrons to acquire the energy to jump electrons
up to the conduction band. The
electrons move easily through this
conduction band under the application At zero Kelvin – no
conduction
of an electric field. This is an intrinsic
semiconductor.
Conduction
band, with some
electrons

So where are all these materials

Top valence to be found in the periodic table
band now
missing some ?
electrons

At room temperature – some

conduction
Semiconductor
materials
 Possible Semiconductor Materials
1. Very Expensive
Carbon C 6 2. Band Gap Large: 6eV
3. Difficult to produce without high contamination
1. Cheap
Silicon Si 14 2. Ultra High Purity
3. Oxide is amazingly perfect for IC applications
1. High Mobility
Germanium Ge 32 2. High Purity Material
3. Oxide is porous to water/hydrogen
(problematic)

1. Only “White Tin” is semiconductor

Tin Sn 50
2. Converts to metallic form under moderate heat

1. Only “White Lead” is semiconductor

Lead Pb 82
2. Converts to metallic form under moderate heat
 Energy Levels

The farther an electron is fromthe nucleus, the higher

is the
energy state.
 Energy Levels

An electron in the valence band of silicon must absorb more energy than
one in the valence band of germanium to become a free carrier. [free
carriers are free electrons due only to external causes such as applied
electric fields established by voltage sources or potential difference.
Objective of the lecture: Understand intrinsic
and extrinsic semiconductor behaviour, know how
to affect this behaviour through doping.
 Electrons and Holes
Si and Ge are tetravalent elements – each atom of Si (Ge) has 4 valence
electrons in crystal matrix

T=0 all electrons are bound For T> 0 thermal fluctuations can
in covalent bonds break electrons free creating
electron-hole pairs
no carriers available
for Both can move throughout the lattice
and therefore conduct current.
conduction.
 Electrons and Holes
For T>0
some electrons in the valence band
receive enough thermal energy to be
excited across the band gap to the
conduction band.
The result is a material with some
electrons in an otherwise empty
conduction band and some unoccupied
states in an otherwise filled valence
band.
referred
An emptytostate
as a in
hole.
the valence band is
Electron-hole pairs in a semiconductor.
The bottom of the conduction band
If the conduction band electron and
denotes as Ec and the top of the valence the hole are created by the excitation
band denotes as Ev. of a valence band electron to the
conduction band, they are called an
electron-hole pair (EHP).
 Silicon Lattice Structure
At 0K, all Free electron
electrons - - - - Vacancy
are tightly
shared with - Si - - Si - - Si - - Si - left by
neighbours - - - - electron.
🡪 no - - - - - Overall
Si
current - Si - - Si - - Sicharge on
flow silicon is
-Si - - -+ - - -zero 🡪
-
Si -Si - Si --
Si- this “hole”
- -- -- -- -- - must be
Si - - -
- - --- - - - positive

-S i --S i --S i
- - -
- S i - Shares electrons
- -
+ -- S i - with 4 neighbouring
- atoms 🡪 8
electrons in outer
Adding heat (even to room shell
temperature) allows some bonds to
break, and electrons can flow
 Intrinsic Material
A perfect semiconductor crystal with no impurities or lattice defects is called
an
intrinsic semiconductor.
At T=0 K – At T>0
No charge carriers Electron-hole pairs(EHPs) are
Valence band is filled with generated
electrons Conduction band is
EHPs are the only charge carriers
empty
in
intrinsic material
Since electron and holes are created in
pairs – the electron concentration in
conduction band, n (electron/cm3) is
equal to the concentration of holes in the
valence band, p (holes/cm3).
Each of these intrinsic carrier
concentrations is denoted ni.
Thus for intrinsic materials n=p=ni

Electron-hole pairs in the covalent

bonding model in the Si crystal.
 Intrinsic Material
• At a given temperature there is a certain concentration of electron-hole pairs ni. If a steady
state carrier concentration is maintained, there must be recombination of EHPs at the same
rate at which they are generated. Recombination occurs when an electron in the conduction
band makes a transition to an empty state (hole) in the valence band, thus annihilating the
pair. If we denote the generation rate of EHPs as gi (EHP/cm3·s) and the recombination rate
as ri, equilibrium requires that
ri = g i
• Each of these rates is temperature dependent. For example, gi(T) increases when the
temperature is raised, and a new carrier concentration ni is established such that the
higher recombination rate ri (T) just balances generation. At any temperature, we can
predict that the rate of recombination of electrons and holes ri, is proportional to the
equilibrium concentration of electrons n0 and the concentration of holes p0:

ri = α r n0 p 0 = α r n 2 =
gi
i
• The factor αr is a constant of proportionality which depends on
the particular mechanism by which recombination takes place.
 Increasing conductivity by temperature
As temperature increases, the number of free electrons and
holes created increases exponentially.
17 Carrier Concentration vs Temp (in Si)
1 10
16
1 10
15
1 10
14
1 10
13
Intrinsic Concentration 1 10
12
1 10
11
1 10
ni
10
1 10
(cm^-3)

T
9
1 10
8
1 10
7
1 10
6
1 10
5
1 10
4 250 300 350 400 450 500
1 10
3 T
Temperature (K)
1 10
Therefore the 100
conductivity of a semiconductor is influenced by
temperature 150 200
 Increasing conductivity
• The conductivity of the semiconductor material increases when the
temperature increases.
• This is because the application of heat makes it possible for some
electrons in the valence band to move to the conduction band.
• Obviously the more heat applied the higher the number of electrons
that can gain the required energy to make the conduction band
transition and become available as charge carriers.
• This is how temperature affects the carrier concentration.

• Another way to increase the number of charge carriers is to add

them in from an external source.
• Doping or implant is the term given to a process whereby one
element is injected with atoms of another element in order to
change its properties.
• Semiconductors (Si or Ge) are typically doped with elements such as
Boron, Arsenic and Phosphorous to change and enhance their
electrical properties.
 Extrinsic Material
By doping, a crystal can be altered so that it has a predominance of either
electrons or holes. Thus there are two types of doped semiconductors,
n-type (mostly electrons) and p-type (mostly holes). When a crystal is doped
such that the equilibrium carrier concentrations n0 and po are different
from the intrinsic carrier concentration ni, the material is said to be
extrinsic.

When impurities or lattice

Donor impurities (elements of defects are introduced,
group V): P, Sb, As additional levels are
Acceptor elements (group III): B, created in the energy
Al, Ga, In bands structure, usually
within the band gap.
Total number of electrons
III – Al – 13
IV – Si –

The valence and conduction bands 14

of silicon with additional impurity
energy levels within the energy V - P - 15
gap.
Extrinsic Material – donation of electrons
An impurity from group V introduces an
n-type material energy level very near the conduction band
in Ge or Si. This level is filled with
electrons at 0 K, and very little thermal
energy is required to excite these
electrons to the conduction band. Thus, at
about 50-100 K nearly all of the electrons
in the impurity level are "donated" to the
conduction band.
Such an impurity level is called a donor
level, and the group V impurities in Ge or
Si are called donor impurities. From figure
we note that the material doped with
donor impurities can have a considerable
concentration of electrons in the
Donation of electrons conduction band, even when the
from a donor level to the temperature is too low for the intrinsic
conduction band EHP concentration to be appreciable. Thus
semiconductors doped with a significant
number of donor atoms will have
n0>>(ni,p0) at room temperature.
Extrinsic Material – acceptance of electrons

P-type material Atoms from group III (B, Al, Ga,

and In) introduce impurity levels in
Ge or Si near the valence band. These
levels are empty of electrons at 0 K.
At low temperatures, enough thermal
energy is available to excite
electrons from the valence band into
the impurity level, leaving behind
holes in the valence band. Since this
type of impurity level "accepts"
electrons from the valence band, it is
called an acceptor level, and the
group III impurities are acceptor
Acceptance of valence band impurities in Ge and Si. As figure
electrons by an acceptor indicates, doping with acceptor
level, and the resulting impurities can create a semiconductor
creation of holes. with a hole concentration p0 much
greater than the conduction band
electron concentration n0 (this is p-
type material).
Donor and acceptors in covalent bonding model
In the covalent bonding model, donor and acceptor
atoms can be visualized as shown in the Figure. An Sb
atom (group V) in the Si lattice has the four
necessary valence electrons to complete the covalent
bonds with the neighboring Si atoms, plus one extra
electron. This fifth electron does not fit into the
bonding structure of the lattice and is therefore
loosely bound to the Sb atom. A small amount of
thermal energy enables this extra electron to
overcome its coulombic binding to the impurity atom
and be donated to the lattice as a whole. Thus it is
free toparticipate in current conduction. This process
is a qualitative model of the excitation of electrons
out of a donor level and into the conduction band.
Similarly, the group III impurity Al has only three
Donor and acceptor valence electrons to contribute to the covalent
atoms in the covalent bonding, thereby leaving one bond incomplete. With a
bonding model of a Si small amount of thermal energy, this incomplete bond
crystal. can be transferred to other atoms as the bonding
electrons exchange positions.
 Increasing conductivity by doping

- - - -
-S i --S i - S i
- S -i
- - - -
- - - -- - - + -
+ S -i AS si
- -- --S i
- - -S i
- S i -
-- -- -+--- -- -- - - -
-
- AS si - - S i - -- - AS si
- - -- - --
S i -S-i S-- i --S Si i -
- -- -- - -
- - - -
- with
• Inject Arsenic into the crystal S ian implant step.
- -
-- Si in its outer shell, (one more
+ 5 electrons
• Arsenic is Group5 element with
than silicon). -
- which can be released through
• This introduces extra electrons into the lattice
the application of heat and so produces and electron current
• The result here is an N-type semiconductor (n for negative current carrier)
 Increasing conductivity by doping
- - - -
-
- S i - - S i - - S i - Si
- - -- -+ -- +- -
-
-
- S i - - S i - -- S i -
- - - +
- Si - -S Si i
- -- -S SBi
i
- - - Si -
- - - -SBi -
- - -
+ -- --
- -+-- - - +-- + - -+-
- S i - -- S Bi -- -
- -
S i -
- SS ii -
- +- -
--- with an implant step.
• Inject Boron into the crystal
• Boron is Group3 element is has 3 electrons in its outer shell (one less than silicon)
• This introduces holes into the lattice which can be made mobile by applying heat. This
gives us a hole current
• The result is a P-type semiconductor (p for positive current carrier)
 n-Type and p-Type materials
n-Type Material
❑n-Type materials are created by
adding elements with five valence
electrons such as antimony, arsenic,
and phosphorous.

❑There is a fifth electron due to the

(Sb) atom that is relatively free to
move in the n-Type material.

❑The atoms (in this case is

antimony (Sb)) are called
donor atoms.
Doping with Sb, (antimony)
 n-Type and p-Type materials
n-Type Material

The free electrons due to the added atoms have higher energy
levels and require less energy to move to conduction band.
 n-Type and p-Type materials
p-Type Material ❑p-Type materials are created by
adding atoms with three valence
electrons such as boron, gallium, and
indium.
❑In this case, an insufficient number
of electrons to complete the
covalent bonds.
❑The resulting vacancy is called a
“hole” represented by small circle or
plus sign indicating absence of a
negative charge.
❑The atoms (in this case boron(B))
Boron are called acceptor atoms.
(B)
 B.TECH FIRST YEAR
ACADEMIC YEAR: 2020-2021

Course name: EES

Course code : EE 1002
lecture series no : 01 (one)
Credits : 4
Mode of delivery : online (Power point presentation)
Faculty :
Email-id :
PROPOSED DATE OF DELIVERY:
 “Recall concept of
Session outcome Semiconductors”
 Assignment
quiz
mid term examination –I
mid term examination –II
Assessment criteria’S
END TERM EXAMINATION
 PROGRAM OUTCOMES
MAPPING WITH CO1
[[EC1001.1]. Apply principles of physics to
describe the working of semiconductor
devices. ]

[PO1]

Engineering knowledge: Demonstrate and apply

knowledge of Mathematics, Science, and Engineering
to classical and recent problems of electronic design &
communication system.
Introduction to Semiconductors
Objective of the lecture: Define a semiconductor
– no. of electrons in outer shell, location on
periodic table, most commonly used ones etc.
 Introduction
Semiconductors are materials whose electrical
properties lie between Conductors and Insulators.

Ex : Silicon and Germanium

Give the examples of Conductors and Insulators!

Difference in conductivity
Semiconductor Materials: Ge, Si, and GaAs
Semiconductors are a special class of elements having a
conductivity between that of a good conductor and
that of an insulator.
• They fall into two classes : single crystal and compound
• Single crystal : Germanium (Ge) and silicon (Si).
• Compound : gallium arsenide (GaAs),
cadmium sulfide (CdS),
gallium nitride (GaN),
gallium arsenide phosphide (GaAsP)
The three semiconductors used most frequently in the
construction of electronic devices are Ge, Si, and GaAs.
 Energy Levels

The farther an electron is from the nucleus, the higher is the

energy state.
 Energy Levels

An electron in the valence band of silicon must absorb more energy than
one in the valence band of germanium to become a free carrier. [free
carriers are free electrons due only to external causes such as applied
electric fields established by voltage sources or potential difference.
 Majority and Minority carriers
Two currents through a diode:
Majority Carriers
•The majority carriers in n-type materials are electrons.
•The majority carriers in p-type materials are holes.
Minority Carriers
•The minority carriers in n-type materials are holes.
•The minority carriers in p-type materials are electrons.
 pn Junction
• This cannot occur in the case of the charged particles in a p-n junction because of the development
of space charge and the electric field ()
As electrons diffuse from the n region, positively charged donor atoms are
left behind. Similarly, as holes diffuse from the p region, they uncover
negatively charged acceptor atoms. These are minority carriers.
The net positive and negative charges in the n and p regions induce
an electric field in the region near the junction, in the direction from
the positive to the negative charge, or from the n to the p region.

The net positively and negatively charged regions

are shown in Figure. These two regions are referred to as the space charge
region (SCR). Essentially all electrons and holes are swept out of the space
charge region by the electric field. Since the space charge region is depleted of
any mobile charge, this region is also referred to as the depletion region
Density gradients still exist in the majority carrier concentrations at each edge of the space charge region.
This produce a "diffusion force" that acts the electrons and holes at the edges of the space charge region.
The electric field in the SCR produces another force on the electrons and holes which is in the opposite
direction to the diffusion force for each type of particle. In thermal equilibrium, the diffusion force and the
E-field () force exactly balance each other.
 p-n Junctions
At the p-n junction, the excess
conduction-band electrons on the
n-type side are attracted to the
valence-band holes on the p-type
side.

The electrons in the n-type

material migrate across the The result is the formation of a
junction to the p-type material depletion region around the junction.
(electron flow).
Anode Cathode
P N
The electron migration results in a
negative charge on the p-type side
of the junction and a positive
charge on the n-type side of the
junction.
 Diodes
The diode is a 2-terminal device.

A diode ideally conducts in only

one direction.
Diode Operating Conditions • No bias
• Forward bias
• Reverse bias

Reverse bias Forward bias

Diode Operating Conditions
No Bias

• No external voltage is applied: VD = 0 V

• No current is flowing: ID = 0 A
• Only a modest depletion region exists
 Diode Operating Conditions

Forward Bias
External voltage is applied across the p-n junction in
the same polarity as the p- and n-type materials.

• The forward voltage causes the depletion region

to narrow.
• The electrons and holes are pushed toward the p-n
junction.
• The electrons and holes have sufficient energy to
cross the p-n junction.
 Forward Bias Voltage
The point at which the diode changes from no-bias condition to
forward-bias condition occurs when the electrons and holes are
given sufficient energy to cross the p-n junction. This energy
comes from the external voltage applied across the diode.

The forward bias voltage required for a:

• gallium arsenide diode  1.2 V

• silicon diode  0.7 V
• germanium diode  0.3 V
 Diode Operating Conditions
Reverse Bias
External voltage is applied across the p-n junction in
the opposite polarity of the p- and n-type materials.

• The reverse voltage causes the depletion region to

widen.
• The electrons in the n-type material are attracted
toward the positive terminal of the voltage source.
• The holes in the p-type material are attracted toward
the negative terminal of the voltage source.
Diode equation

• Where
• VT : is called the thermal voltage.
• Is: is the reverse saturation current.
• VD : is the applied forward-bias voltage across the diode.
n : is a factor function of operation conditions and physical
construction. It has range between 1 and 2. assume n=1 unless
otherwise noted.
K : is Boltzman’s constant =1.38 x 10-23
T: is temperature in kelvins = 273+temperature in C.
q : is the magnitude of electron charge = 1.6 x 10-19 C.
Diode characteristics
I (mA) Diode symbol

P N

Reverse saturation
current (magnified)

Vγ 1 V (volts)

Cut-in or knee Vγ is 0.2 ~ 0.3 for Ge

Breakdown voltage 0.6 ~ 0.7 for Si
(μA)
Temperature dependence of diode characteristics

 Reverse saturation current approximately doubles for every 10

degree rise in temperature

I o2 = I o1 2 (T2−T 1) /10
• Where, Io1 is reverse sat current at temperature T1 and
I02 is reverse sat current at temperature T2
• Cut-in voltage decreases with increase in temperature
 Load-Line Analysis
➢ The analysis of diode can follow one of two paths: using the actual characteristics or applying an
approximate model for the device.

➢ Load Line Analysis: is used to analyse diode circuit usingits actual characteristics.
 Load-Line Analysis
➢ A straight line is defined by the parameters of the network.
➢ It is called the load line because the intersection on the vertical axes is defined by the applied load R.
 Load-Line Analysis
➢ The maximum ID equals E/R, and the maximum V D equals E.
➢ The point where the load line and the characteristic curve intersect is the Q-point, which identifies ID
and V D for a particular diode in a given circuit.
 Diode Clippers

Clippers are networks that employ

diodes to “clip” away a portion of an
input signal without distorting the
remaining part of the applied waveform.
Diode Clippers

Determining vo for the diode in

the “on” state.
 Example:
Determine the output waveform for the network.

Solution
 Example:
Determine the output waveform for the network.

Solution
 Parallel Clippers
The diode in a parallel
clipper circuit “clips” any
voltage that forward bias it.

DC biasing can be added in

series with the diode to
change the clipping level.
 Example:
Determine vo for the network shown.
Solution
 Example:
Determine vo for the network if Si
diode is used.
Solution

Determining vo for the diode in the

“on” state.
Examples:
Examples:
 CLAMPERS

A clamper is a network constructed of a diode, a

resistor, and a capacitor that shifts a waveform to
a different DC level.
 CLAMPERS
R is chosen such that the discharge
period 5τ=5RC is much larger than the
period T/2→T, and the capacitor is
assumed to hold onto all its charge.

Diode “on” and the capacitor Determining vo with the diode

charging to V volts. “off.”
CLAMPERS
 Example
Determine vo for
the network.

Solution

Determining vo and VC with the diode in the “on” state. Determining vo with the diode in the “off” state.
Example
 Clipper circuits

Clamping circuits with ideal diodes (5τ = 5RC >> T/2).

 Thanks
#Keep Learning#
COMMON EMITTER CONNECTION
• The common-emitter terminology is derived from
the fact that the emitter is common to both the
input and output sides of the configuration.

• First Figure shows common emitter npn configuration and

second figure shows common emitter pnp configuration.
COMMON EMITTER CONNECTION
• Base Current amplification factor ( ) :
β
• In common emitter connection input current is base
current and output current is collector current.
• The ratio of change in collector current to the
change in basefactor,
amplification current is
. known as base current
β ΔI
β = ΔIC
B

• Normally only 5% of emitter current flows to base,

so amplification factor is greater than 20. Usually
this range varies from 20 to 500.
 Β Α
RELATION BETWEEN AND
EXPRESSION FOR COLLECTOR CURRENT
CHARACTERISTICS OF COMMON EMITTER CONFIGURATION

• Input Characteristics: 🡪VBE vs IB characteristics is

called input
characteristics.
🡪 IB increases rapidly with
VBE . It means input
resistance is very small.
🡪 IE almost independent
of VCE.
🡪IB is of the range of micro
amps.
CHARACTERISTICS OF COMMON EMITTER CONFIGURATION
• VCE vs Ic
• Output Characteristics: characteristics is
called output
characteristics.
• IC varies linearly
with VCE ,only
when VCE is very
small.
• As, VCE increases,
IC becomes
EXPRESSION FOR COLLECTOR CURRENT
COMPARISON OF TRANSISTOR CONNECTION
TRANSISTOR LOAD LINE ANALYSIS
• In transistor circuit analysis it is necessary to determine
collector current for various VCE voltage.
• One method is we can determine the collector current at any
desired VCE voltage, from the output characteristics.
• More conveniently we can use load line analysis to
determine operating point.
TRANSISTOR LOAD LINE
ANALYSIS
• Consider common emitter npn
transistor ckt shown in figure.
• There is no input signal.
• Apply KVL in the output
ckt-
TRANSISTOR LOAD LINE ANALYSIS
OPERATING POINT

• It is called operating point because variation of

IC takes place about this point.
• It is also called quiescent point or Q-point.
 Biasing
Biasing: The DC voltages applied to a
transistor in order to turn it on so that it
can amplify the AC signal.
OPERATING POINT

The DC input establishes an

operating or quiescent point
called the Q-point.
THE THREE STATES OF OPERATION
• Active or Linear Region Operation Base–Emitter junction is forward biased
Base–Collector junction is reverse biased

•Cutoff Region Operation

Base–Emitter junction is reverse biased

•Saturation Region Operation

Base–Emitter junction is forward biased Base–Collector junction is forward
biased
No matter what type of configuration a transistor is used in, the basic
relationships between the currents are always the same, and the
base-to- emitter voltage is the threshold value if the transistor is in the
“on” state

VBE = 0.7V
IE = (β +1)I B ≅ IC
IC = βIB
• The operating point defines where the transistor will
operate on its characteristics curves under dc conditions.
• For linear (minimum distortion) amplification, the dc
operating point should not be too close to the maximum
power, voltage, or current rating and should avoid the
regions of saturation and cutoff.
DC BIASING CIRCUITS

• Fixed-bias circuit
• Emitter-follower bias circuit
• Voltage divider bias circuit
I. FIXED BIAS
• The fixed-bias configuration is the simplest of
transistor biasing arrangements, but it is also quite
unstable

• For most configurations the dc analysis begins with a

determination of the base current

• For the dc analysis of a transistor network, all capacitors

are replaced by an open-circuit equivalent
Fixed-bias circuit
The dc equivalent circuit of the fixed
bias circuit where the capacitor is replaced with an
open-circuit
THE BASE-EMITTER LOOP
From Kirchhoff’s voltage law:

+VCC – IBRB – VBE = 0

Solving for base current:

V − VBE
CC
IB = RB
COLLECTOR-EMITTER LOOP

Collector current:
I = βIB
C

From Kirchhoff’s voltage law:

V + IC RC −VCC = 0
CE

VCE = VCC − ICRC

EXAMPLE:

Determine the following for the fixed-bias configuration of the figure

shown:
(a) IBQ and ICQ (b) VCEQ (c) VB and VC (d) VBC

β =
75
 SATURATION
• Saturation conditions are normally avoided because the
base-collector junction is no longer reverse – biased and the output
amplified will be distorted.

◼ For a transistor operating in the saturation region, the current is a

maximum value for the particular design. Change the design and
the corresponding saturation level may rise or drop

• The highest saturation level is defined by the maximum

collectorcurrent as provided by the specification sheet.
SATURATION
When the transistor is operating in saturation, current
through the transistor is at its maximum possible value.

V
I Csat CC
=
R
C

V ≅0V
CE

In the previous example, the saturation level for the network is

given by:
V 12
IC CC = =
sat = R V
2.2kΩ
C 5.45mA
LOAD LINE ANALYSIS

The variables IC and VCE are related by the

equation:
V =V − IC RC
CE CC
LOAD LINE ANALYSIS
The end points of the load line are:

I
Csat

VCE = 0 V

IC = VCC / RC
V
CEcutoff

IC = 0
mA
V =
CE

V
CC

The Q-point is the operating point:

CIRCUIT VALUES AFFECT THE Q-POINT

[Movement of the Q-point with increasing level of IB]

CIRCUIT VALUES AFFECT THE Q-POINT

[Effect of an increasing level of RC on the load line the

Q-point]
CIRCUIT VALUES AFFECT THE Q-POINT

[Effect of lower values of VCC on the load line the Q-

point]
II. EMITTER-STABILIZED BIAS CIRCUIT

Adding a resistor (RE) to the

emitter circuit stabilizes the bias
circuit.
BASE-EMITTER LOOP
From Kirchhoff’s voltage law:

+ VCC - IBRB - VBE - IERE = 0

Since IE = (β + 1)IB:
VCC - IBRB - VBE - (β +1)IBRE = 0

Solving for IB:

V -V
IB = CC BE
RB + (β + 1)RE
COLLECTOR-EMITTER LOOP
From Kirchhoff’s voltage law:
I R +V +I R −V =0
E E CE C C CC

Since IE ≅ IC:

VCE = VCC – IC (RC + R E )

Also:

VE = IE RE
VC = VCE + VE = VCC - ICRC VB = VCC –
IR RB = VBE + VE
EXAMPLE:
Determine the following for the emitter bias network of the figure shown:
(a) IB (b) IC (c) VCE (d) VC (e) VE (f) VB (g) VBC

+16 V

β =
75
SATURATION
LEVEL

IC = V
CC
sat RC +E
R
LOAD-LINE ANALYSIS

V =V − IC (RC + RE )
CE CC

The endpoints can be determined from the load line.

V : I :
CEcutoff Csat
V =V VCE = 0 V
CE CC
V
IC = 0 mA IC CC
R +R
= C E
III. VOLTAGE DIVIDER BIAS

This is a very stable

bias circuit.

The currents and

voltages are nearly
independent of any
variations in β .
EXACT ANALYSIS:
 RTh = R1 || R2 ETh = R2
= R1 +2
V RV
2 RCC

Applying Kirchhoff’s voltage law in the clockwise direction in the

Thevenin network,

E − IB RTh −VBE − IE RE =
Th
0
IB E −VBE
Th (Substituting IE = (β+1)IB)
RTh +E(β
= +1)R

V =V − IC (RC + RE )
CE CC
VOLTAGE DIVIDER BIAS ANALYSIS
Transistor Saturation
Level
V
I =I = CC
Csat Cmax RC + RE

Load Line
Analysis
Saturation
Cutoff: : V
VCE = CC IC CC
V R +R
IC = 0mA C E
=
VCE = 0V
OPERATIONAL
AMPLIFIER
(OP-AMP)
Refernce Book:
◼ 1. OPAMPS and Linear
Integrated Circuits
by Ramakanth
Gayakwad
 CONTENTS

◼ Introduction
◼ OPAMP Symbol
◼ Internal block diagram
◼ Open-loop configuration
◼ Common mode rejection ratio
◼ OPAMP equivalent circuit
◼ OPAMP characteristics
 INTRODUCTION
◼ Operational Amplifier (OPAMP) is a direct coupled high-gain
amplifier fabricated on Integrated Circuit (IC)
◼ Op-amps are linear devices that are ideal for DC and AC
amplification and are used often in signal conditioning, filtering .
◼ Earlier, op-amp were used primarily to perform mathematical
operation such as summation, subtraction, differentiation and
integration etc. so named as op-amp.
◼ Typical application of op-amp includes –
1. Audio amplifier-voltage amplitude change
2. Signal generators- oscillators,
3. Signal filter circuits
4. Instrumentation circuits---Biomedical Instrumentation
 INTRODUCTION
◼ Advantages of OP-AMP over transistor amplifier
◼ Less power consumption
◼ Costs less
◼ More compact, fabricated in a single chip.
◼ More reliable
◼ Higher gain can be obtained
◼ Easy design
OPAMP TERMINALS

+VCC
v1
Non-inverting +
input A Output
Inverting input –
v2
–VEE

Here, A= Large signal voltage gain

 OP-AMP TERMINALS

◼ If input is applied to non-inverting input terminal,

then output will be in-phase with input
◼ If input is applied to inverting input terminal, then
output will be 180 degrees out of phase with input
◼ If inputs are applied to both terminals, then output
will be proportional to difference between the two
inputs
 OPAMP TERMINALS

◼ Two DC power supplies (dual) are

required
◼ Magnitudes of both may be same
◼ The other terminal of both power
supplies are connected to common
ground
◼ All input and output voltages are
measured with reference to the
common ground
OPAMP TERMINALS

Integrated Circuit
Pin Diagram

◼ Pin 1 & 5 Offset null Pin 6 Output

◼ Pin 2 & 3 input Pin 8 Not connected
◼ Pin 4 & 7 VCC
INTERNAL BLOCK DIAGRAM

Differential Intermediat Level

Output
Amplifier e Shifter
Stage
Stage Stage Stage

Dual input, Dual input Such as Complementary

Balanced output unbalanced output emitter follower symmetry
Differential amplifier Differential amplifier Using constant push-pull amplifier
current source
 INTERNAL BLOCK DIAGRAM
Four stages can be identified –
● Input stage or differential amplifier stage can amplify difference
between two input signals; Input resistance is very high; Draws
zero current from the input sources
● Intermediate stage (or stages) use direct coupling; provide very
high gain
● Level shifter stage shifts the dc level of output voltage to zero (can
be adjusted manually using two additional terminals)
● Output stage is a power amplifier stage; has very small output
resistance; so output voltage is the same, no matter what is the
value of load resistance connected to the output terminal
 OPEN-LOOP CONFIGURATION

If v1 = 0, then vo = –AOLv2 Inverting

amplifier
If v = 0, then v = A v Non- inverting amp
 OPEN-LOOP CONFIGURATION

◼ AOL is the open-loop voltage gain of OPAMP

Its value is very high
Typical value is 0.5 million
◼ So, even if input is in micro volts, output will be in volts
◼ But output voltage cannot cross the value of power supply
VCC
◼ So, if input is in milli volts, output reaches saturation value
Vsat = VCC (or VEE)
 OPEN-LOOP CONFIGURATION
◼ If v1 = v2, then ideally output should be zero
◼ But in practical Op-Amp, output is

Where, ACM is the common-mode gain of Op-Amp

◼ So, final gain equation is:
OPEN-LOOP CONFIGURATION

◼ Common-mode rejection ratio

◼ It is a measure of the ability of Op-Amp to reject the signals
common to both input terminals (noise)
◼ Defined as
PROBLEMS

◼ An OPAMP has differential voltage gain of 100,000 and CMRR of 60

dB. If non inverting input voltage is 150 μV and inverting input
voltage is 140 μV, calculate the output voltage of OPAMP
Ans: 1.01 V

◼ For an OPAMP, when v1 is 0.5 mV and v2 is –0.5 mV, output voltage

is 8 V. For the same OPAMP, when v1 = v2 = 1 mV, output voltage is
12 mV. Calculate the CMRR of the OPAMP
Ans: 56.48 dB
OPAMP equivalent circuit
Practical OPAMP

-
OPAMP CHARACTERISTICS

◼ Differential mode gain Ad

◼ It is the factor by which the difference between the two input signals is
amplified by the OPAMP

◼ Common mode gain Acm

◼ It is the factor by which the common mode input voltage is amplified by
the OPAMP

◼ Common mode rejection ratio CMRR

◼ Is the ratio of Ad to Acm expressed in decibels
 OPAMP CHARACTERISTICS
◼ Input resistance Ri
◼ It is the equivalent resistance measured between the two input
terminals of OPAMP

◼ Output resistance Ro
◼ It is equivalent resistance measured between output terminal and
ground

◼ Bandwidth
◼ It is the range of frequency over which the gain of OPAMP is almost
constant
 OPAMP CHARACTERISTICS

◼ Output offset voltage Voo

◼ It is the output voltage when both input voltages are zero
◼ Denoted as Voo

◼ Input offset voltage Vio

◼ It is the differential input voltage that must be applied at the input
terminals in order to make output voltage equal to zero
◼ Vio = |vdc1 – vdc2| for vo = 0
 OPAMP CHARACTERISTICS

◼ Input offset current Iio

◼ It is the difference between the currents in the input terminals when
both input voltages are zero
◼ Iio = | I1 – I2 | when v1 = v2 = 0

◼ Input bias current Iib

◼ It is the average of the currents in the input terminals when both
input voltages are zero
◼ Iib = (I1 + I2) / 2 when v1 = v2 = 0
OPAMP CHARACTERISTICS
◼ Slew rate SR
◼ It is the maximum rate of change of output voltage with respect to
time
◼ Slew rate has to be very high if OPAMP has to operate efficiently at
high frequencies

◼ Supply voltage rejection ratio SVRR

◼ It is the maximum rate at which input offset voltage of OPAMP
changes with change in supply voltage
 OPAMP CHARACTERISTICS

◼ Practical characteristics of 741C ◼ Ideal OPAMP

OPAMP ◼ Infinite differential mode
◼ Differential mode gain is 200,000 gain
◼ CMRR is 90 dB ◼ Zero common mode gain
◼ Input resistance is 2 MΩ ◼ Infinite CMRR
◼ Output resistance is 75 Ω ◼ Infinite input resistance
◼ Unity-gain Bandwidth is 1 MHz ◼ Zero output resistance
◼ Slew rate is 0.5 V / μs ◼ Infinite bandwidth
◼ Output offset voltage is 1 mV ◼ Infinite slew rate
◼ Input offset current is 20 nA ◼ Zero input offset voltage
◼ Input bias current is 80 nA ◼ Zero input offset current
◼ Zero output offset voltage
OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIER (OP-AMP)
CLOSED-LOOP CONFIGURATIONS

◼ Open-loop voltage gain of OPAMP is very high; such high

gain is not required in most applications
◼ In order to reduce gain, a part of output signal is fed back to
the inverting input terminal (called negative feedback)
◼ Many other OPAMP characteristics are improvised with this
INVERTING AMPLIFIER
 INVERTING AMPLIFIER

◼ Input is applied to inverting terminal

◼ Non-inverting is grounded
◼ Feedback is given to inverting terminal through resistor RF
◼ Assuming vo is less than VCC
since Ad is very high, vid should be very small; vid taken as
almost zero
◼ Current entering OPAMP input terminal is almost zero
INVERTING AMPLIFIER
INVERTING AMPLIFIER
 PROBLEMS
1. For an inverting amplifier using OPAMP, R1=1K, RF=100K, vin=0.1sin(ωt).
Find vo.
2. For an inverting amplifier, R1=10K, RF=100K. Calculate vo if vi = 25 mV dc.

3. An ac signal of rms value 2 mV needs to be amplified to 1.024 V rms, 180

degree phase shifted. Design a suitable amplifier choosing R1=1.2K
4. Design an amplifier to get an output amplified by 25 times of the input
signal .
 EXAMPLE 5

Find the output voltage Vo for the following circuit, Find the range of output voltage gain adjustment
where Vin is the input voltage . for the following circuit, where Vi is the input
voltage .
 What input voltage will result if an output voltage Vo =2V for the following circuit, wher
EXAMPLE 6Vi is the
input voltage .
 Calculate the output voltage Vo for the following circuit, where Vi is the
EXAMPLE 7: input voltage
 Find an expression for the output voltage Vo for the following circuit, where
EXAMPLE 8 Vin is the
input voltage .
 EXAMPLE 9

Find the expression for output voltage V0 of the

following circuit.
Soln.
Apply
KCL.
NON-INVERTING AMPLIFIER
NON-INVERTING AMPLIFIER

◼ Input is applied to non-inverting terminal

◼ Feedback is given to inverting terminal
◼ Output voltage will be in-phase with input voltage
◼ Here again, the following assumptions are made
◼ Since Ad is very high, vid should be very small; vid taken as almost
zero
◼ Current entering OPAMP input terminal is almost zero
NON-INVERTING AMPLIFIER
NON-INVERTING AMPLIFIER
PROBLEMS

1. For an non-inverting amplifier using OPAMP, R1=1K, RF=100K,

vin=0.1sin(ωt). Find vo.
2. For a non-inverting amplifier, R1=10K, RF=100K. Calculate vo if vi =
25 mV dc.
3. An ac signal of rms value 2 mV needs to be amplified to 1.2 V rms,
and output must be in same phase as input. Design a suitable
amplifier choosing R1=2K
EXAMPLE 4

Fin the output voltage V0 for the following circuit if v1=

2V =V2.
EXAMPLE 5

Fin the output voltage V0 for the following circuit if Vin= 2V , R1=2k and Rf= 10k.

Rf Rf
 VOLTAGE FOLLOWER

◼ Special case of non- inverting

amplifier where RF=0
◼ Voltage gain is unity. vo = vin
◼ Has very high input resistance
and very low output
resistance; Used as buffer for
impedance matching
EXAMPLE 6

Fin the output voltage V0 for the following circuit if v1=

2V =V2.
EXAMPLE 7

Fin the output voltage V0 for the Fin the output voltage V0 for the following
following circuit if v1= 2.V. circuit.
EXAMPLE 8

Calculate the range of output voltage for the circuit.

 BOOLEAN ALGEBRA

George Boole in 1854 invented a new kind of algebra known as Boolean algebra.

It is sometimes called switching algebra.

Boolean algebra is the mathematical frame work on which logic design based.

It is used in synthesis & analysis of binary logical function.

88
 BASIC LAWS OF BOOLEAN ALGEBRA

◼ Laws of complementation: The term complement means invert. i.e. to change 0’s to 1’s and 1’ to
0’s. The following are the laws of complement. =1; = 0; =A.
◼ “ OR” laws
0+0=0; 0+1=1; 1+0=1; 1+1=1
1+A=1; A+ A’ =1; A+A=A; 1+ A’ =1
◼ “ AND’’ laws
0.0=0; 0.1=0; 1.0=0; 1.1=1; A. A’ =0; A.A=A

89
 COMMUTATIVE LAW:

◼ Property 1: This states that the order in which the variables OR makes no difference in output.
i.e. A+B=B+A

A B A+B B A B+A
0 0 0 0 0 0
0 1 1 = 1 0 1
1 0 1 0 1 1
1 1 1 1 1 1

90
COMMUTATIVE LAW:

◼ Property 2: This property of multiplication states that the order in which the variables are AND
makes no difference in the output. i.e. A.B=B.A

A B A.B B A B.A
0 0 0 0 0 0
0 1 0 = 1 0 0
1 0 0 0 1 0
1 1 1 1 1 1
91
COMMUTATIVE LAWS

◼ The commutative law of addition for two variables is written as: A+B
= B+A
A B
A+ B+
B A
B A

◼ The commutative law of multiplication for two variables is written as:

AB = BA

A B
A B
B A
B A
ASSOCIATIVE PROPERTY

◼ Property1: This property states that in the OR’ing of the several variables, the result is same
regardless of grouping of variables. For three variables i.e.(A OR’ed with B)or’ed with C is same as
A OR’ed with (B OR’ed with C)
◼ i.e. (A+B)+C = A+(B+C)

93
ASSOCIATIVE PROPERTY
B+
A B C A+B (A+B)+C A+(B+C)
C
0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 1 0 1 1 1
0 1 0 1 1 1 1
0 1 1 1 1 1 = 1
1 0 0 1 0 1 1
1 0 1 1 1 1 1
1 1 0 1 1 1 1
94
1 1 1 1 1 1 1
ASSOCIATIVE PROPERTY

◼ Property2: The associative property of multiplication states that, it makes no difference in what
order the variables are grouped when AND’ing several variables. For three variables(A AND’ed
B)AND’ed C is same as A AND’ed (B AND’ed C)
◼ i.e. (A.B)C = A(B.C)

95
ASSOCIATIVE PROPERTY
A B C A.B B.C (A.B)C A(B.C)
0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 1 0 0 0 0
0 1 0 0 0 0 0
0 1 1 0 1 0 = 0
1 0 0 0 0 0 0
1 0 1 0 0 0 0
1 1 0 1 0 0 0
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 96
ASSOCIATIVE LAWS

◼ The associative law of addition for 3 variables is written as: A+(B+C) = (A+B)+C

A A A+
A+(B+C B
B ) B
(A+B)+
C B+ C C
C

◼ The associative law of multiplication for 3 variables is written as: A(BC) = (AB)C

A A A
A(BC
B B B
) (AB)
C B C C
C
DISTRIBUTIVE PROPERTY

Property 1: A(B+C) = A.B + A.C

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
A B C B+C A(B+C) A.B A.C A.B+A.C
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0
0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0
0 1 1 1 0 0 0 0
1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
1 0 1 1 1 0 1 1
1 1 0 1 1 1 0 1
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

Column number 5= Column number 8, hence the proof. 98

DISTRIBUTIVE PROPERTY
◼ Property 2: A + A’ B = A+B

A B A’ A’B A+B
A’B+A
0 0 1 0 0 0
0 1 1 1 1 = 1
1 0 0 0 1 1
1 1 0 0 1 1

99
DISTRIBUTIVE LAWS

◼ The distributive law is written for 3 variables

as follows: A(B+C) = AB + AC

B A A
B+
B B
C C X
X A
A
C A
C
X=A(B+C) X=AB+AC
RULES OF BOOLEAN ALGEBRA

_________________________________________________________
__
A, B, and C can represent a single variable or a combination of
 DUALITY

◼ The important property to Boolean algebra is called Duality principle. The Dual of any expression
can be obtained easily by the following rules.
◼ 1. Change all 0’s to 1’s
◼ 2. Change all 1’s to 0’s
◼ 3. .’s (dot’s) are replaced by +’s (plus)
◼ 4. +’s (plus) are replaced by .’s (dot’s)

102
 DUALITY

Examples:
◼ X +0=X ≡ X .1=X
◼ X+Y=Y+X ≡ X.Y=Y.X
◼ X+1=0 ≡ X.0=1

103
DEMORGAN’S THEOREMS

◼ The complement of two or more NAN Negative-

ANDed variables is equivalent to D OR
the OR of the complements of the
individual variables.

◼ The complement of two or more NO

ORed variables is equivalent to the Negative-A
R ND
AND of the complements of the
individual variables.
 DE MORGON’S FIRST THEOREM
◼ It states that “ the complements of product of two variables
equal to sum of the complements of individual variable”. i.e.
(AB)’ = A’ +B’

A B A’ B’ A.B (AB)’ A’+B’

0 0 1 1 0 1 1
0 1 1 0 0 1 ≡ 1
1 0 0 1 0 1 1
1 1 0 0 1 0 0

105
DE MORGON’S SECOND THEOREM

◼ It states that complement of sum of two variables is equal to product of complement of two
individual variables.
◼ (A+B)’ = A’ . B’

106
A B A’ B’ A+B (A+B)’ A’ *B’

0 0 1 1 0 1 1
0 1 1 0 1 0 ≡ 0
1 0 0 1 1 0 0
1 1 0 0 1 0 0

107
DEMORGAN’S THEOREMS (EXERCISES)
◼ Apply DeMorgan’s theorems to the
expressions:
FUNCTION MINIMIZATION USING
BOOLEAN ALGEBRA

◼ Examples:

(a) a + ab = a(1+b)=a

(b) a(a + b) = a.a +ab=a+ab=a(1+b)=a.

(c) a + a'b = (a + a')(a + b)=1(a + b) =a+b

(d) a(a' + b) = a. a' +ab=0+ab=ab

THE OTHER TYPE OF QUESTION

Show that;
1- ab + ab' = a
2- (a + b)(a + b') = a

1- ab + ab' = a(b+b') = a.1=a

2- (a + b)(a + b') = a.a +a.b' +a.b+b.b'
= a + a.b' +a.b + 0
= a + a.(b' +b) + 0
= a + a.1 +0
= a +a=a
MORE EXAMPLES

◼ Show that;
(a) ab + ab'c = ab + ac
(b) (a + b)(a + b' + c) = a + bc

(a) ab + ab'c = a(b + b'c)

= a((b+b').(b+c))=a(b+c)=ab+ac

(b) (a + b)(a + b' + c)

= (a.a + a.b' + a.c + ab +b.b' +bc)
=…
SIMPLIFY THE BOOLEAN EXPRESSION

◼ 1. X’Y’ Z+ X’ YZ
= ZX’[ Y’ +Y]
= Z X’[1]= ZX’
◼ 2. f = B(A+C)+C
=BA+BC+C
=BA+C(1+B)
=BA+C

112
 BOOLEAN ALGEBRA PROPERTIES
Let X: Boolean variable, 0,1: constants

1. X + 0 = X -- Zero Axiom
2. X • 1 = X -- Unit Axiom
3. X + 1 = 1 -- Unit Property
4. X • 0 = 0 -- Zero Property
5. X + X = X -- Idepotence
6. X • X = X -- Idepotence
7. X + X’ = 1 -- Complement
8. X • X’ = 0 -- Complement
9. (X’)’ = X -- Involution
10. X+Y=Y+X
11. X•Y=Y•X -- Commutative
12. X + (Y+Z) = (X+Y) + Z
13. X•(Y•Z) = (X•Y)•Z -- Associative
14. X•(Y+Z) = X•Y + X•Z
15. X+(Y•Z) = (X+Y) • (X+Z) -- Distributive
16. (X + Y)’ = X’ • Y’
17. (X • Y)’ = X’ + Y’ -- DeMorgan’s

And many more…

LOGIC GATES:

◼ Why logic gates are called gate?

Because they are based on physical semi-conductor devices, called gates.

The flow of electrons of your circuit is directed and controlled by the

logical operations that the circuit designer wanted them to follow. Then
the devices that control the flow of electrons are called gates.

What kind of gates? logic, digital gates operating with low voltages: 0 (no
difference in potential) and 1 (voltage applied).

114
LOGIC GATES

◼ What are the uses of logic gates?

115
 LOGIC GATES

◼ It is an electronic circuit, which makes logic decisions.

◼ A digital circuit is referred to as logic gate for simple reason i.e. it can be analysed based on Boolean algebra.

◼ To make logical decisions, three gates are used.

◼ They are OR, AND & NOT gate. These logic gates are building blocks, which are available in the form of IC.

116
 OR GATE

◼ The OR gate performs logical additions commonly known as OR function.

◼ Two or more inputs and only one output.

◼ The operation of OR gate is such that a HIGH(1) on the output is produced when any of the input is HIGH.

◼ The output is LOW(0) only when all the inputs are LOW.

117
LOGICAL SYMBOL: TWO INPUT OR GATE

Truth table for two input OR

gate: Input Output
A B Y= A+B
0 0 0
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 1

118
 AND GATE

◼ The AND gate performs logical multiplication.

◼ Two or more inputs and a single output.

◼ The output of an AND gate is HIGH only when all the inputs are HIGH.

◼ Even if any one of the input is LOW, the output will be LOW.

119
LOGICAL SYMBOL: TWO INPUT AND GATE

Truth table for two input AND

gate:
Input Output
A B Y=A.B
0 0 0
0 1 0
1 0 0
1 1 1 120
 NOT GATE (INVERTER)

◼ The NOT gate performs the basic logical function called inversion or complementation.

◼ The purpose of this gate is to convert one logic level into the opposite logic level.

◼ It has one input and one output.

121
LOGICAL SYMBOL: NOT GATE

Truth Input output

Table A Z= A’
0 1
1 0

122
 NAND GATE

◼ The output of a NAND gate is LOW only when all inputs are HIGH and output of the NAND is HIGH if one or more inputs are
LOW.

Input Output
A B Y = (AB)’
0 0 1
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 0

123
 NOR GATE

◼ The output of the NOR gate is HIGH only when all the inputs are LOW.

Input Output
A B Y=
0 0 1
0 1 0
1 0 0
1 1 0

124
XOR GATE OR EXCLUSIVE OR GATE

◼ In this gate output is HIGH only when any one of the input is HIGH.
◼ The circuit is also called as inequality comparator, because it produces output when two inputs are different.

125
XOR GATE OR EXCLUSIVE OR GATE

Input Output
A B Y=
0 0 0
0 1 1 Y= =A + B
1 0 1
1 1 0

126
XNOR GATE OR EXCLUSIVE NOR GATE

◼ An XNOR gate is a gate with two or more inputs and one output.
◼ XNOR operation is complementary of XOR operation. i.e. The output of XNOR gate is High, when all the inputs are
identical; otherwise it is low.

127
 Input Output
A B Y= +AB
0 0 1
◼ Truth Table: 0 1 0
1 0 0
1 1 1

128
 UNIVERSAL LOGIC GATE

◼ NAND and NOR gates are called Universal gates or Universal building blocks, because both can be used to implement any
gate like AND,OR an NOT gates or any combination of these basic gates.

129
NAND GATE AS UNIVERSAL GATE

◼ NOT operation:

AND
operation:

130
◼ OR operation:

NOR
operation:

131
NOR GATE AS UNIVERSAL GATE:

NOT operation:

AND operation:

OR operation:

NAND operation:

132
 PROBLEM

◼ Draw the logic circuit for the Boolean expression. G = WXY + YZ

133
Obtain the AND-OR implementation for F.

F = X’Y’Z’ + XYZ’ Use not gates to design X’, Y’

and Z’

134
 COMBINATIONAL LOGIC CIRCUIT FROM LOGIC
FUNCTION (CONT.)
C

A F

F=A’ + B•C’ + A’•B’ B

F= A’ (1+ B’) + B•C’

G=A’+BC’ where F=G

C
B
A G
NAND CIRCUITS

◼ To easily derive a NAND implementation of a Boolean

function:
◼ Find a simplified SOP
◼ Design SOP with basic gates
◼ Change AND-OR circuit to a NAND circuit using bubble
◼ Use the alternative symbols below
AND-OR (SOP) EMULATION
USING NANDS

Two-level implementations

a) Original SOP
b) Implementation with NANDs
AND-OR (SOP) EMULATION
USING NANDS (CONT.)

Verify:
(a) G = WXY + YZ
(b) G = ( (WXY)’ • (YZ)’ )’
= (WXY)’’ + (YZ)’’ = WXY + YZ
MULTILEVEL NAND CIRCUITS
Starting from a multilevel circuit:
1. Convert all AND gates to NAND gates with AND-NOT
graphic symbols.
2. Convert all OR gates to NAND gates with NOT-OR graphic
symbols.
3. Check all the bubbles in the diagram. For every bubble that
is not counteracted by another bubble along the same line,
insert a NOT gate or complement the input literal from its
original appearance.
SOP WITH NAND

(a) Original SOP

(b) Double inversion and grouping AND-NOT
(c) Replacement with NANDs

NOT-OR
TWO-LEVEL NAND GATE IMPLEMENTATION -
EXAMPLE

F (X,Y,Z) = Σm(0,6)
1. Express F in SOP form:
F = X’Y’Z’ + XYZ’
2. Obtain the AND-OR implementation for F.
3. Add bubbles and inverters to transform AND-OR to
NAND-NAND gates.
EXAMPLE (CONT.)

Two-level implementation with NANDs

F = X’Y’Z’ + XYZ’
EXAMPLE
Use NAND gates
and NOT gates to implement
Z=E’F(AB+C’+D’)+GH

AB
AB+C’+D’
E’F(AB+C’+D’)
E’F(AB+C’+D’)+GH
ANOTHER EXAMPLE!
NOR GATE

◼ Also a “universal” gate because ANY digital circuit can be implemented with
NOR gates alone.
◼ This can be similarly proven as with the NAND gate.
NOR CIRCUITS

◼ To easily derive a NOR implementation of a Boolean

function:
◼ Find a simplified POS
◼ Design POS using basic gates
◼ Change OR-AND circuit to a NOR circuit
◼ Use the alternative symbols below
EXAMPLE (CONT.)

Two-level implementation with NORs

F = (F’)' = (X'+Y)(X+Y')Z'
XOR AND XNOR
X Y F = X⊕Y
0 0 0
0 1 1
X F 1 0 1
Y 1 1 0

X Y F = X⊕Y
0 0 1
0 1 0
X F
1 0 0
Y 1 1 1
 ◼ XOR (also ⊕) : the “not-equal” function
◼ XOR(X,Y) = X ⊕ Y = X’Y + XY’
EXCLUSIVE-OR (XOR) FUNCTION
◼ Identities:
◼ X⊕0=X
◼ X ⊕ 1 = X’
◼ X⊕X=0
◼ X ⊕ X’ = 1
◼ Properties:
◼ X⊕Y=Y⊕X
◼ (X ⊕ Y) ⊕ W = X ⊕ ( Y ⊕ W)
XOR FUNCTION IMPLEMENTATION

◼ XOR(a,b) = ab’ + a’b

◼ Straightforward: 5 gates
◼ 2 inverters, two 2-input ANDs, one 2-input OR
◼ 2 inverters & 3 2-input NANDs
◼ Nonstraightforward:
◼ 4 NAND gates
XOR CIRCUIT WITH 4 NANDS
TRUTH TABLES

◼ Truth table: a unique representation of a Boolean function

◼ Tabular form that represents the relationship between the input variables of a function
and its output
◼ If two functions have identical truth tables, the functions are equivalent (and
vice-versa).
◼ Truth tables can be used to prove equality theorems.
◼ However, the size of a truth table grows exponentially with the number of variables
involved, hence unwieldy. This motivates the use of Boolean Algebra.
BOOLEAN EXPRESSIONS-NOT UNIQUE
x y z F G
0 0 0 1 1
◼ Unlike truth tables, expressions representing a Boolean
function are NOT unique. 0 0 1 0 0
◼ Example: 0 1 0 1 1
◼ F(x,y,z) = x’•y’•z’ + x’•y•z’ + x•y•z’
0 1 1 0 0
◼ G(x,y,z) = x’•y’•z’ + y•z’
◼ The corresponding truth tables for F(x,y,z) and G(x,y,z)
1 0 0 0 0
are to the right. They are identical. 1 0 1 0 0
◼ Thus, F(x,y,z) = G(x,y,z)
1 1 0 1 1
1 1 1 0 0
ALGEBRAIC MANIPULATION

◼ Boolean algebra is a useful tool for simplifying digital circuits.

◼ Why do it? Simpler can mean cheaper, smaller, faster.
◼ Example: Simplify F = x’yz + x’yz’ + xz.
F = x’yz + x’yz’ + xz
= x’y(z+z’) + xz
= x’y•1 + xz
= x’y + xz
CANONICAL AND STANDARD FORMS

◼ We need to consider formal techniques for the simplification of Boolean functions.

◼ Identical functions will have exactly the same canonical form.
◼ Minterms and Maxterms
◼ Sum-of-Minterms and Product-of- Maxterms
◼ Product and Sum terms
◼ Sum-of-Products (SOP) and Product-of-Sums (POS)
DEFINITIONS

◼ Literal: A variable or its complement

◼ Product term: literals connected by •
◼ Sum term: literals connected by +
◼ Minterm: a product term in which all the variables appear
exactly once, either complemented or actual literal
◼ Maxterm: a sum term in which all the variables appear
exactly once, either complemented or actual literal.
MINTERM
◼ Represents exactly one combination in the truth table.
◼ Denoted by mj, where j is the decimal equivalent of the
minterm’s corresponding binary combination (bj).
◼ A variable in mj is complemented if its value in bj is 0, otherwise
its value in bj is 1.
◼ Example: Assume 3 variables (A,B,C), and j=3. Then, bj = 011
and its corresponding minterm is denoted by

mj = A’BC
MAXTERM
◼ Represents exactly one combination in the truth table.
◼ Denoted by Mj, where j is the decimal equivalent of the
maxterm’s corresponding binary combination (bj).
◼ A variable in Mj is complemented if its value in bj is 1,
otherwise its value in bj is 0.
◼ Example: Assume 3 variables (A,B,C), and j=3. Then, bj = 011
and its corresponding maxterm is denoted by

Mj = A+B’+C’
TRUTH TABLE NOTATION FOR MINTERMS AND MAXTERMS
x y z Minterm Maxterm
0 0 0 x’y’z’ = m0 x+y+z = M0
◼ Minterms and Maxterms are 0 0 1 x’y’z = m1 x+y+z’ = M1
easy to denote using a truth
0 1 0 x’yz’ = m2 x+y’+z = M2
table.
0 1 1 x’yz = m3 x+y’+z’= M3
1 0 0 xy’z’ = m4 x’+y+z = M4
◼ Example:
Assume 3 variables x,y,z 1 0 1 xy’z = m5 x’+y+z’ = M5
(order is fixed)
1 1 0 xyz’ = m6 x’+y’+z = M6
1 1 1 xyz = m7 x’+y’+z’ = M7
CANONICAL FORMS (UNIQUE)

◼ Any Boolean function F( ) can be expressed as a

unique sum of minterms and a unique product of
maxterms (under a fixed variable ordering).
◼ In other words, every function F() has two canonical
forms:
◼ Canonical Sum-Of-Products (sum of minterms)
◼ Canonical Product-Of-Sums (product of maxterms)
CANONICAL FORMS (CONT.)
◼ Canonical Sum-Of-Products:
The minterms included are those mj such that F( ) = 1
in row j of the truth table for F( ).
F= ABC+ABC’+AB’C’

◼ Canonical Product-Of-Sums:
The maxterms included are those Mj such that F( ) = 0
in row j of the truth table for F( ).
F= (A’+B’+C’)(A’+B’+C)(A’+B+C)
EXAMPLE
◼ Truth table for f1(a,b,c) at right
a b c f1
◼ The canonical sum-of-products form for f1
is 0 0 0 0
f1(a,b,c) = m1 + m2 + m4 + m6
= a’b’c + a’bc’ + ab’c’ + abc’ 0 0 1 1
◼ The canonical product-of-sums form for f1 0 1 0 1
is 0 1 1 0
f1(a,b,c) = M0 • M3 • M5 • M7
= (a+b+c)•(a+b’+c’)• 1 0 0 1
(a’+b+c’)•(a’+b’+c’). 1 0 1 0
1 1 0 1
Observe that: mj = Mj’
1 1 1 0
SHORTHAND: ∑ AND ∏

◼ f1(a,b,c) = ∑ m(1,2,4,6), where ∑ indicates that this is a

sum-of-products form, and m(1,2,4,6) indicates that the
minterms to be included are m1, m2, m4, and m6.

◼ f1(a,b,c) = ∏ M(0,3,5,7), where ∏ indicates that this is a

product-of-sums form, and M(0,3,5,7) indicates that the
maxterms to be included are M0, M3, M5, and M7.

◼ Since mj = Mj’ for any j,

F1(a,b,c) =∑ m(1,2,4,6) = ∏ M(0,3,5,7)
CONVERSION BETWEEN CANONICAL FORMS

◼ Replace ∑ with ∏ (or vice versa) and replace those j’s that appeared in the original
form with those that do not.
◼ Example:
f1(a,b,c) = a’b’c + a’bc’ + ab’c’ + abc’
= m1 + m2 + m4 + m6
= ∑(1,2,4,6)
= ∏(0,3,5,7)
= (a+b+c)•(a+b’+c’)•(a’+b+c’)•(a’+b’+c’)
STANDARD FORMS (NOT UNIQUE)

◼ Standard forms are “like” canonical forms, except that not all variables need
appear in the individual product (SOP) or sum (POS) terms.

◼ Example:
f1(a,b,c) = a’b’c + bc’ + ac’
is a standard sum-of-products form
◼ f1(a,b,c) = (a+b+c)•(b’+c’)•(a’+c’)
is a standard product-of-sums form.
CONVERSION OF SOP FROM STANDARD TO CANONICAL FORM

◼ Expand non-canonical terms by inserting equivalent of 1 in each missing

variable x:
(x + x’) = 1
◼ Remove duplicate minterms

◼ f1(a,b,c) = a’b’c + bc’ + ac’

= a’b’c + (a+a’)bc’ + a(b+b’)c’
= a’b’c + abc’ + a’bc’ + abc’ + ab’c’
= a’b’c + abc’ + a’bc + ab’c’
CONVERSION OF POS FROM STANDARD TO CANONICAL
FORM
◼ Expand noncanonical terms by adding 0 in terms of missing
variables (e.g., xx’ = 0) and using the distributive law
◼ Remove duplicate maxterms

◼ f1(a,b,c) = (a+b+c)•(b’+c’)•(a’+c’)
= (a+b+c)•(aa’+b’+c’)•(a’+bb’+c’)
= (a+b+c)•(a+b’+c’)•(a’+b’+c’)•
(a’+b+c’)•(a’+b’+c’)
= (a+b+c)•(a+b’+c’)•(a’+b’+c’)•(a’+b+c’)
 KARNAUGH MAP
The Karnaugh map, also known as the K-map, is a method to simplify Boolean algebra expressions.

The Karnaugh map reduces the need for extensive calculations by taking advantage of humans'
pattern-recognition capability.

Karnaugh Map: A graphical technique for simplifying a Boolean expression into either form:
🡪 minimal sum of products (MSP)
🡪 minimal product of sums (MPS)

Goal of the simplification.

🡪 There are a minimal number of product/sum terms
🡪 Each term has a minimal number of literals

These terms can be used to write a minimal Boolean expression representing the
required logic.
THE KARNAUGH MAP USES THE FOLLOWING RULES FOR THE SIMPLIFICATION OF EXPRESSIONS BY GROUPING
TOGETHER ADJACENT CELLS CONTAINING ONES.

1.Groups may not include any cell containing a

zero.

2.Groups may be horizontal or vertical, but not

diagonal.
3. GROUPS MUST CONTAIN 1, 2, 4, 8 CELLS OR IN GENERAL 2 N CELLS. THAT IS IF N = 1, A
GROUP WILL CONTAIN TWO 1'S SINCE 21 = 2. IF N = 2, A GROUP WILL CONTAIN FOUR 1'S
SINCE 22 = 4.
4. EACH GROUP SHOULD BE AS LARGE AS POSSIBLE.

5.Each cell containing a one must be in at least one group.

6.GROUPS MAY OVERLAP.
7.Groups may wrap around the table.
The leftmost cell in a row may be grouped with the rightmost cell and the top cell in a column may be
grouped with the bottom cell.
8. THERE SHOULD BE AS FEW GROUPS AS POSSIBLE, AS LONG AS THIS DOES NOT
CONTRADICT ANY OF THE PREVIOUS RULES.
 SUMMMARY:

• No zeros allowed.
• No diagonals.
• Only power of 2 number of cells in each
group.
• Groups should be as large as possible.
• Every one must be in at least one group.
• Overlapping allowed.
• Wrap around allowed.
• Fewest number of groups possible.
TWO-VARIABLE K-MAP
a
0 1
b
0

1
 KARNAUGH MAPS
• Karnaugh maps, or K-maps, are often used to simplify logic problems with 2, 3
or 4 variables.

Cell = 2n ,where n is a number of variables

For the case of 2 variables, we form a map consisting of 22=4

cells as shown in Figure
A A A
0 1 0 1 0 1
B B B
0 A+B A+B 0
00 10 0 AB AB
0 2
1 A+B A+B 1 01 11 1
AB AB
1 3
Maxter Minter
m m
EXAMPLE

2-variable Karnaugh maps are trivial but can be used to

introduce the methods you need to learn. The map for a
2-input OR gate looks like this:
A 0 1
B
A
Y 0 1
B A
1 1 1
A B Y
0 0 0
B
0 1 1
1 0 1
A+B
1 1 1
EXAMPLE 1: Consider the following map. The function plotted is: Z = f(A,B) = AB’ + AB

Note that values of the input variables form the

rows and columns.
That is the logic values of the variables A and B
(with one denoting true form and zero denoting
false form) form the head of the rows and
columns respectively.

The map displayed is a one dimensional type which can be used to simplify
an expression in two variables.

There is a two-dimensional map that can be used for up to four variables,

and a three-dimensional map for up to six variables.
REFERRING TO THE MAP ABOVE, THE TWO ADJACENT 1'S ARE GROUPED
TOGETHER.

Through inspection it can be seen that variable B has its true and false
form within the group.

This eliminates variable B leaving only variable A which only has its true
form.

The minimized answer therefore is Z = A.

KARNAUGH MAPS

•3 variables Karnaugh
map
Cell = 23=8

AB
C 0 0 1 1
0 0 1 2 1 6 0 4
0
ABC ABC ABC ABC
1 3 7 5
1 ABC ABC ABC ABC
THREE-VARIABLE K-MAP

ab
c 00 01 11 10

0 m0 m2 m6 m4

1 m1 m3 m7 m5
THREE-VARIABLE K-MAP

ab
c 00 01 11 10

Edges are
adjacent
TERMINOLOGY

•Implicant
•Product term that could be used to cover minterms of a
function
•Prime Implicant
•An implicant that is not part of another implicant
•Essential Prime Implicant
•An implicant that covers at least one minterm that is not
contained in another prime implicant
GUIDELINES FOR SIMPLIFYING FUNCTIONS

•Group as many squares as possible. This eliminates the most

variables.
•Make as few groups as possible. Each group represents a
separate product term.
•You must cover each minterm at least once. However, it
may be covered more than once.
EXAMPLE
AC
A B C Y
0 0 0 1 AB
C 0 0 1 1
0 0 1 1 1
0 1 0
0 1 0 0 0 1 1 1
0 1 1 0
1 0 0 1 1 1 1
1 0 1 1
1 1 0 1
1 1 1 0 B
B + AC
Three-Variable K-Map Example
Plot 1’s (minterms) of switching function

ab
c 00 01 11 10

0 1

1 1 1 1

F m 1,3,
(
Three-Variable K-Map Example
Plot 1’s (minterms) of switching function

ab
c 00 01 11 10

0 ab
1
bc
1 1 1 1

F a, b,
THREE-VARIABLE K-MAPS
f= (0,4) = B C f= (4,5) = A B f= (0,1,4,5) = B f= (0,1,2,3) = A
∑ ∑ ∑ ∑

BC BC BC BC
00 01 00 01 00 01 00 01
A A A A
0 111 10
0 0 0 0 011 10
0 0 0 0 111 10
1 0 0 0 111 10
1 1 1

1 1 0 0 0 1 1 1 0 0 1 1 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0

f= (0,4) = A C f= (4,6) = A C f= (0,2) = A C f= (0,2,4,6) = C

∑ ∑ ∑ ∑

BC BC BC BC
00 01 00 01 00 01 00 01
A A A A
0 011 10
1 1 0 0 011 10
0 0 0 0 111 10
0 0 1 0 111 10
0 0 1

1 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 1
THREE-VARIABLE K-MAP EXAMPLES

BC BC BC
A 00 01 A 00 01 A 00 01
11 11 11
0 1 10 0 1 1 1 0 1 1
10 10
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

BC BC BC
A 00 01 A 00 01 A 00 01
11 11 11
0 1 0 1 1 1 0 1 1
10 10 10
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
FOUR VARIABLE
EXAMPLES
FOUR-VARIABLE K-MAP

ab
cd 00 01 11 10

00 m0 m4 m m8
12

01
m1 m5 m m9
13
11
m3 m7 m m
15 11
10
m2 m6 m m
14 10
FOUR-VARIABLE K-MAP
ab
cd 00 01 11 10

00

01

Edges are
adjacent
11

10

Edges are
adjacent
Exampl
e
• Use a K-Map to simplify the following Boolean
expression

F a m 0,2,3,6,8,
( (
, b,c, d 12,13,15
) )
=
Four-variable
K-Map
cd 00 01 11 10
ab
00
1 1 1
01 1
11
1 1
10
1 1

F = m 0,2,3,6,8,
Four-variable
K-Map
cd 00 01 11 10
ab
00
1 1 1
01 1
11
1 1
10
1 1

F = abd+ abc + acd +

FOUR-VARIABLE
K-MAPS
CD CD CD CD
AB 00 01 AB 00 01 AB 00 01 AB 00 01
11 10 11 10 11 10 11 10
00 1 0 0 0 00 0 0 0 0 00 0 0 0 0 00 0 0 0 0

01 0 0 0 0 01 0 1 0 0 01 0 0 0 0 01 1 0 0 1

11 0 0 0 0 11 0 1 0 0 11 0 1 1 0 11 0 0 0 0

10 1 0 0 0 10 0 0 0 0 10 0 0 0 0 10 0 0 0 0

f= (5,13) = B∙ C ∙ D f= (13,15) = A ∙ B∙ D f= (4,6) = A ∙ B∙ D

∑ ∑ ∑
(0,8) = B ∙ C ∙ D
∑
f=

CD CD CD CD
00 01 00 01 00 01 00 01
AB AB AB AB
11 10 11 10 11 10 11 10
00 0 0 1 1 00 0 0 0 0 00 0 0 1 1 00 1 0 0 1

01 0 0 1 1 01 1 0 0 1 01 0 0 0 0 01 0 0 0 0

11 0 0 0 0 11 1 0 0 1 11 0 0 0 0 11 0 0 0 0

10 0 0 0 0 10 0 0 0 0 10 0 0 1 1 10 1 0 0 1

f= (2,3,6,7) = A ∙ C f= (4,6,12,14) = B∙ D f= (2,3,10,11) = B ∙ C f= (0,2,8,10) = B ∙ D

∑ ∑ ∑ ∑
FOUR-VARIABLE
K-MAPS

CD CD CD CD
AB 00 01 AB 00 01 AB 00 01 AB 00 01
11 10 11 10 11 10 11 10
00 0 0 0 0 00 0 0 1 0 00 1 0 1 0 00 0 1 0 1

01 1 1 1 1 01 0 0 1 0 01 0 1 0 1 01 1 0 1 0

11 0 0 0 0 11 0 0 1 0 11 1 0 1 0 11 0 1 0 1

10 0 0 0 0 10 0 0 1 0 10 0 1 0 1 10 1 0 1 0

f = ∑(0, 3,5, 6, f = ∑(1, 2, 4,

f = ∑ (4,5, 6, 7) = A ∙ B f = ∑(3, 7,11,15) = C∙
9,10,12,15) 7,8,11,13,14)
D
f=A⊗B⊗C⊗D f=A⊕B⊕C⊕D
CD CD CD CD
AB 00 01 AB 00 01 AB 00 01 AB 00 01
11 10 11 10 11 10 11 10
00 0 1 1 0 00 1 0 0 1 00 0 0 0 0 00 1 1 1 1

01 0 1 1 0 01 1 0 0 1 01 1 1 1 1 01 0 0 0 0

11 0 1 1 0 11 1 0 0 1 11 1 1 1 1 11 0 0 0 0

10 0 1 1 0 10 1 0 0 1 10 0 0 0 0 10 1 1 1 1

f = ∑(1, 3,5, 7, f=∑ f=∑ f=∑

9,11,13,15) (0,2,4,6,8,10,12,14) (4,5,6,7,12,13,14,15) (0,1,2,3,8,9,10,11)
f=D f=D f=B f=B
FOUR-VARIABLE K-MAPS
EXAMPLES

CD CD CD
00 01 00 01 00 01
AB AB AB
11 10 11 10 11 10
00 1 1 1 00 1 1 1 00
01 1 1 1 01 1 01 1 1 1

11 1 1 1 11 11 1 1 1

10 1 1 10 1 1 1 10 1

CD CD CD
00 01 00 01 00 01
AB AB AB
11 10 11 10 11 10
00 1 1 00 00
01 1 1 1 1 01 01

11 1 1 1 11 11

10 1 10 10
Exampl
e
• Use a K-Map to simplify the following Boolean
expression

F m 2,3,
( (
a, b, c 6,7
) )
Three-Variable K-Map Example
Step 1: Plot the K-map
ab
c 00 01 11 10

0 1 1

1 1 1

F m 2,4,
(
Three-Variable K-Map Example
Step 2: Circle Prime
Implicants
cab 00 01 11 10 Wrong!!
We really
0 1 1 should
draw
A circle
around
1 1 1 all four 1’s

F m 2,3,
(
Three-Variable K-Map Example
Step 3: Identify Essential Prime Implicants

ab EPI EPI
c 00 01 11 10
Wrong!!
We really
0 1 1 should
draw
A circle
around
1 1 1 all four 1’s

F m 2,3,
(
Three-Variable K-Map Example
Step 4: Select Remaining Prime Implicants to
complete the cover.
ab EPI EPI
c 00 01 11 10

0 1 1

1 1 1

F m 2,3,
(
Three-Variable K-Map
Example
Step 5: Read the map. ab
ab a
c 00 01 11 10
b
0 1 1

1 1 1

F m 2,3,
(
SOLUTI
ON

F a,b,c = ab
( )
+ a b = b
Since we can still simplify the
function this means we did not use
the largest possible groupings.
Three-Variable K-Map Example
Step 3: Identify Essential Prime Implicants

ab EPI
c 00 01 11 10

0 1 1

1 1 1

F m 2,3,
(
Three-Variable K-Map
Example
Step 5: Read the map. b
ab
c 00 01 11 10

0 1 1

1 1 1

F m 2,3,
(
Solutio
n

F a,b,c
(
= b
)
SPECIAL
CASES
THREE-VARIABLE K-MAP
EXAMPLE

ab
c 00 01 11 10

0 1 1 1 1

1 1 1 1 1

F a,b,c
THREE-VARIABLE K-MAP
EXAMPLE

a
cb 00 01 11 10
0 0 0 0 0

1 0 0 0 0

F a,b,c
THREE-VARIABLE K-MAP
EXAMPLE

ab
c 00 01 11 10

0 1 1

1 1 1

F a,b,c =a
Exampl
e
• Use a K-Map to simplify the following Boolean
expression

F m 1,2,3
( (
a, b, c ,5,6
) )
Three-Variable K-Map Example
Step 1: Plot the K-map
ab
c 00 01 11 10

0 1 1

1 1 1 1

F m 1,2,3
(
Three-Variable K-Map Example
Step 2: Circle ALL Prime
Implicants
cab 00 01 11 10
0 1 1

1 1 1 1

F m 1,2,3
(
DECODERS, MULTIPLEXERS
AND ADDER/SUBTRACTOR
DECODER

◼ A n-to-2n decoder takes an n-bit input and produces 2n outputs. The n inputs
represent a binary number that determines which of the 2n outputs is uniquely true.
◼ A 2-to-4 decoder operates according to the following truth table.
◼ The 2-bit input is called S1S0, and the four outputs are Q0-Q3.
◼ If the input is the binary number i, then output Qi is uniquely true.

◼ For instance, if the input S1 S0 = 10 (decimal 2), then output Q2 is true, and Q0,
Q1, Q3 are all false.
◼ This circuit “decodes” a binary number into a “one-of-four” code.
◼ Follow the design procedures from last time! We have a truth table, so
we can write equations for each of the four outputs (Q0-Q3), based on
the two inputs (S0-S1).

◼ Q0
In this case there’s not much = simplified.
to be S1’ Here are the equations:
S0’
Q1 = S1’
S0
Q2 = S1
S0’
A PICTURE OF A 2-TO-4 DECODER
ENABLE INPUTS
◼ Many devices have an additional enable input, which is used to
“activate” or “deactivate” the device.
◼ For a decoder,
◼ EN=1 activates the decoder, so it behaves as specified earlier. Exactly one of the
outputs will be 1.
◼ EN=0 “deactivates” the decoder. By convention, that means all of the decoder’s
outputs are 0.
◼ We can include this additional input in the decoder’s truth table:
A 3-TO-8 DECODER

◼ Larger decoders are similar. Here is a 3-to-8 decoder.

◼ The block symbol is on the right.
◼ A truth table (without EN) is below.
Q0 = S2’ S1’
◼ Output equations are at the bottom right. S0’
◼ Again, only one output is true for any input combination.Q1 = S2’ S1’
S0
Q2 = S2’ S1
S0’
Q3 = S2’ S1
S0
Q4 = S2 S1’
S0’
Q5 = S2 S1’
S0
Q6 = S2 S1
◼ Do the truth table and equations look familiar?

Q0 = S1’
S0’
Q1 = S1’
S0
Q2 = S1
S0’
◼ Decoders are sometimes called minterm generators. Q3 = S1
◼ For each of the input combinations, exactly one output
S0 is true.
◼ Each output equation contains all of the input variables.
◼ These properties hold for all sizes of decoders.
◼ This means that you can implement arbitrary functions with decoders. If
you have a sum of minterms equation for a function, you can easily use a
decoder (a minterm generator) to implement that function.
MULTIPLEXERS/DEMULTIPLEXERS
MULTIPLEXERS
◼ A 2n-to-1 multiplexer sends one of 2n input lines to a single output line.
◼ A multiplexer has two sets of inputs:
◼ 2n data input lines
◼ n select lines, to pick one of the 2n data inputs
◼ The mux output is a single bit, which is one of the 2n data inputs.
◼ The simplest example is a 2-to-1
Q mux:
= S’ D0 + S
D1

◼ The select bit S controls which of the data bits D0-D1 is chosen:
◼ If S=0, then D0 is the output (Q=D0).
◼ If S=1, then D1 is the output (Q=D1).
 MORE TRUTH TABLE ABBREVIATIONS

◼ Here is a full truth table for this 2-to-1 mux, based

on the equation:
Q = S’ D0 + S
D1

Here is another kind of abbreviated truth table.

◼ Input variables appear in the output column.
◼ This table implies that when S=0, the output Q=D0, and
when S=1 the output Q=D1.
◼ This is a pretty close match to the equation.
A 4-TO-1 MULTIPLEXER

◼ Here is a block diagram and abbreviated truth table for a 4-to-1 mux.

Q = S1’ S0’ D0 + S1’ S0 D1 + S1 S0’ D2 + S1 S0

D3
IMPLEMENTING FUNCTIONS WITH
MULTIPLEXERS
◼ Muxes can be used to implement arbitrary functions.
◼ One way to implement a function of n variables is to use an n-to-1 mux:
◼ For each minterm mi of the function, connect 1 to mux data input Di. Each data
input corresponds to one row of the truth table.
◼ Connect the function’s input variables to the mux select inputs. These are used
to indicate a particular input combination.
◼ For example, let’s look at f(x,y,z) = Σm(1,2,6,7).
 A MORE EFFICIENT WAY
◼ We can actually implement f(x,y,z) = Σm(1,2,6,7) with
just a 4-to-1 mux, instead of an 8-to-1.

◼ Step 1: Find the truth table for the function, and group
the rows into pairs. Within each pair of rows, x and y
are the same, so f is a function of z only.
◼ When xy=00, f=z
◼ When xy=01, f=z’
◼ When xy=10, f=0
◼ When xy=11, f=1

◼ Step 2: Connect the first two input variables of the

truth table (here, x and y) to the select bits S1 S0 of the
4-to-1 mux.

◼ Step 3: Connect the equations above for f(z) to the

data inputs D0-D3.
BINARY ADDITION: HALF ADDER

A 0 1 A 0
Ai Bi Sum Carry 1
Bi Bi
0 0 0 0 i0 0 1 i0 0 0
0 1 1 0
1 0 1 0 1 1 0 0 1
1
1 1 0 1

Sum = Ai Bi + Ai Carry = Ai
Bi Bi
= Ai +
Bi

Half-adder
Schematic
∙ Half Adder:
o The most basic digital arithmetic circuit is the addition of two binary digits.
o A combinational circuit that performs the arithmetic addition of two bits is
called a half-adder.

Half-adder truth table and implementation

S = A`B+AB` = A⊕B C = AB
 FULL ADDER
∙ Full Adder:
o A full-adder is a combinational circuit that performs the arithmetic sum of three
input bits.
 Logic Diagram of Full Adder
◼The full adder can be thought of as two half adders connected
together, with the first half adder passing its carry to the second
half adder.

Sum = (A⊕B) ⊕C
The Boolean Expression for a full adder is: in

C-Out = A.B + C (A⊕B) = AB+AC +BC

in in in
HALF & FULL SUBTRACTOR

◼ Half Subtractor
◼ Full Subtractor
HALF- SUBTRACTOR FUNCTION TABLE
Input Output
A B Difference Borrow
0 0 0 0
0 1 1 1
1 0 1 0
1 1 0 0
HALF- SUBTRACTOR CIRCUIT
FULL-SUBTRACTOR FUNCTION TABLE
Input Output
A B C Difference Borrow
0 0 0 0 0
0 0 1 1 1
0 1 0 1 1
0 1 1 0 1
1 0 0 1 0
1 0 1 0 0
1 1 0 0 0
1 1 1 1 1
DIFFERENCE EXPRESSION
BORROW EXPRESSION

A’B’ A’B AB AB’

C’ 1

C 1 1 1
FULL-SUBTRACTOR CIRCUIT

-Draw the circuit

FULL-SUBTRACTOR BASED ON
TWO HALF-SUBTRACTORS
Full-Subtractor = Half-Subtractor + Half-Subtractor
Introduction to Sensors and Transducers
• Measurement is an important subsystem in any major system, whether it may be a mechanical
system or an electronic system. A measurement system consists of sensors, actuators,
transducers and signal processing devices.
• A sensor converts a physical event into an electrical signal, whereas an actuator converts
electrical signal into a physical event. When sensors are used at input of a system, actuators are
used to perform output function in a system as they control an external device.
• Transducers are the devices that convert energy in one form into another form. Generally the
energy is in the form of a signal. Transducer is a term collectively used for both sensors and
actuators.

intelligen
sensor
real t
world feedback
actuator
system
Thermal sensors
• Thermal sensors are everywhere: in our kettles, refrigerators,
microwaves, and water heaters. Throughout the COVID-19
pandemic, non-contact thermal sensors have been used to
check temperatures.
• Thermal sensors are also present in medical systems, food
processors, boilers, and petrochemical systems.
The Role of Thermal Sensors

• Most electronic components are rated to operate under

a range of temperatures. However, an electronic component’s
performance can get derated with an increase in
temperature from a specified ambient. When the temperature
crosses the allowable maximum limit, the component gets
damaged due to heating or thermal runaway. Because of
this, thermal characteristics play a significant role in the
component selection of electronic circuits. In automotive,
industrial, and consumer electronic applications, performance
and reliability are maintained with the help of thermal sensors.
 Thermocoupl
es
• A thermocouple is a non-linear thermal sensor.
The sensitivity and temperature ranges of the
thermocouple vary with the types of metals
bound together. The accuracy of
thermocouples is very low, but they offer a
broad range of operation, from -200℃ to 1750
℃.
• Thermocouples are the most commonly-used
thermal sensors in industrial, automotive, and
consumer applications. They work on the
principle of the Seebeck effect—the
phenomenon in which the temperature
difference between two dissimilar metal wires
produces a voltage difference. The voltage
difference is proportional to the temperature
change. A look-up table is used to convert the
voltage difference to temperature
measurements.
Resistance Temperature Detectors
(RTD)
• A Resistance Temperature Detector (also known as a
Resistance Thermometer or RTD) is an electronic device used
to determine the temperature by measuring the resistance of an
electrical wire. This wire is referred to as a temperature sensor.
If we want to measure temperature with high accuracy, an RTD
is the ideal solution, as it has good linear characteristics over a
wide range of temperatures.
• The variation of resistance of the metal with the variation of the
temperature is given as, Where, Rt and R0 are the resistance
values at toC and t0oC temperatures. α and β are the constants
depends on the metals.
This expression is for huge range of temperature. For small
range of temperature, the expression can be,

In RTD devices; Copper, Nickel and Platinum are

widely used metals. These three metals are having
different resistance variations with respective to the
temperature variations. That is called
resistance-temperature characteristics.
Thermistors
Like RTDs, thermistors also make use of resistance in temperature
measurements. Thermistors use polymer or ceramic materials instead of
platinum and copper, which make them cheaper, but less accurate, than RTDs.
There are two types of thermistors:
Negative temperature coefficient (NTC) thermistors - In this type of
thermistor, the change in resistance is inversely proportional to the temperature
variation.
Positive temperature coefficient (PTC) thermistors - In this type of
thermistor, the change in resistance is directly proportional to the temperature
variation.
The basic requirements of a sensor:
1. Range: It indicates the limits of the input in which it can vary. In case of temperature measurement, a thermocouple can have a range
of 25 – 250 0C.
2. Accuracy: It is the degree of exactness between actual measurement and true value. Accuracy is expressed as percentage of full range
output.
3. Sensitivity: Sensitivity is a relationship between input physical signal and output electrical signal. It is the ratio of change in output of
the sensor to unit change in input value that causes change in output.
4. Stability: It is the ability of the sensor to produce the same output for constant input over a period of time.
5. Repeatability: It is the ability of the sensor to produce same output for different applications with same input value.
6. Response Time: It is the speed of change in output on a stepwise change in input.
7. Linearity: It is specified in terms of percentage of nonlinearity. Nonlinearity is an indication of deviation of curve of actual
measurement from the curve of ideal measurement.
8. Ruggedness: It is a measure of the durability when the sensor is used under extreme operating conditions.
9. Hysteresis: The hysteresis is defined as the maximum difference in output at any measurable value within the sensor’s specified range
when approaching the point first with increasing and then with decreasing the input parameter. Hysteresis is a characteristic that a
transducer has in being unable to repeat its functionality faithfully when used in the opposite direction of operation.
• The core causes the magnetic field generated by the primary winding to be
coupled to the secondaries. When the core is centered perfectly between
both secondaries and the primary, as shown, the voltage induced in each
secondary is equal in amplitude and 180 deg out of phase. Thus the LVDT
output (for the series-opposed connection shown in this case) is zero
because the voltages cancel each other.
• Displacing the core to the left causes the first secondary to be more
strongly coupled to the primary than the second secondary. The resulting
higher voltage of the first secondary in relation to the second secondary
causes an output voltage that is in phase with the primary voltage.
• Likewise, displacing the core to the right causes the second secondary to
be more strongly coupled to the primary than the first secondary. The
greater voltage of the second secondary causes an output voltage to be out
of phase with the primary voltage.
• Static Pressure
• Pressure can be defined as force per unit area that a
fluid exerts on its surroundings. The basic physics of
static Pressure (P), is calculated as force (F) divided by
area (A).
• P=F/A
• The Force can be generated by liquids, gases, vapours or
solid bodies.
• Working Principle of a Pressure Transducer
• Pressure transducers have a sensing element of constant
area and respond to force applied to this area by fluid
pressure. The force applied will deflect the diaphragm inside
the pressure transducer. The deflection of the internal
diaphragm is measured and converted into an electrical
output. This allows the pressure to be monitored by
microprocessors, programmable controllers and computers
along with similar electronic instruments.
• Most Pressure transducers are designed to produce linear
output with applied pressure.
Strain Gauge Sensors or Piezoresistive
sensors
Strain Gauge Working Principle:

Piezoresistive means “pressure-sensitive resistance,” or a

resistance that changes value with applied pressure. The strain
gauge is a classic example of a piezoresistive element, a typical
strain gauge element shown here on the tip of my finger:
In order to be practical, a strain gauge must be glued (bonded)
on to a larger specimen capable of withstanding an applied force
(stress):
• As the test specimen is stretched or compressed by the
application of force, the conductors of the strain gauge are
similarly deformed. Electrical resistance of any conductor is
proportional to the ratio of length over cross-sectional area (R
∝ { l / A } ), which means that tensile deformation
(stretching) will increase electrical resistance by simultaneously
increasing length and decreasing cross-sectional area while
compressive deformation (squishing) will decrease electrical
resistance by simultaneously decreasing length and increasing
cross-sectional area.
• As the diaphragm bows outward with applied fluid pressure, the
strain gauge stretches to a greater length, causing its resistance
to increase. This change in resistance imbalances the bridge
circuit, causing a voltage (Vout) proportional to the amount of
applied pressure. Thus, the strain gauge works to convert an
applied pressure into a measurable voltage signal which may
be amplified and converted into a 4-20 mA loop current signal
(or into a digital “fieldbus” signal).
Pressure Sensor Circuit
• One capacitor is charged positive with respect to ground, while the
other is charged negative with respect to ground, as the AC voltage
source alternates positive and negative. While one capacitor of the
pressure sensor is charging, the other is discharging through Rload,
producing an output voltage (Vout).
• If both capacitances are equal, the output voltage will alternate
equally between positive and negative values, having a DC average
value of zero. If one capacitance is larger than the other, it will store
additional charge on its plates, causing it to sway the output voltage
of the Twin-T circuit in the direction of its polarity. Thus, Vout
becomes more positive as pressure increases on one side of the
sensor, and more negative as pressure increases on the other side of
the sensor.
Introduction to Drone Technology
 INTRODUCTION TO DRONE
• An unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV) or uncrewed
aerial vehicle commonly known as a drone, is an
aircraft without any human pilot, crew or
passengers on board.
• UAVs are a component of an unmanned aircraft
system (UAS), which include additionally a ground-
based controller and a system of communications
with the UAV.
•The flight of UAVs may operate under remote control
by a human operator, as remotely- piloted aircraft
(RPA), or with various degrees of autonomy, such as
autopilot assistance, up to fully autonomous aircraft
that have no provision for human intervention.
• UAVs were originally developed through the
twentieth century for military missions
PARTS OF A DRONE
KEY PARTS
• As control technologies improved and costs fall, their use in the twenty-first century
is rapidly finding many more applications including aerial photography, product
deliveries, agriculture, policing and surveillance, infrastructure inspections.
PARTS OF A DRONE
• From an engineer’s view, the key parts of a drone system are the hardware,
software, andmechanical elements; and a perfect balance between the three
provides a flawless system design.
HARDWARE
• Hardware is the electrical part of the drone system, which is eventually a PCBA
(printed circuit board assembly).
• Hardware is a multilayer PCB that accommodates the SOC (system on a chip) and
different components of the subsystems interconnected through copper traces (part
of the PCB) or physical wires. Figure shows the PCBA assembled with SOC and
subsystems on the top side (primary side).
THE SOC
• • The SOC is a miniature computer on a chip of a present generation
systems, especially a drone system.
• It’s a semiconductor device and an integrated circuit that usually integrates
digital, analog, mixed signal, and radio frequency devices on a single chip.
• SOCs are most commonly used in mobile computing and embedded
systems.
• In general, there are three distinguishable types of SOCs: SOCs built around
a microcontroller, SOCs built around a microprocessor, and specialized
SOCs designed for specific applications that do not fit into the above two
categories.
• SOC usually consume less power and have a lower cost than the multichip
systems they replace.
Subsystems
• Subsystems or electrical subsystems are technologies required in a system
to fulfill the intended usage of the system. Broadly speaking, subsystems fall
into any one of the following computer architecture parts: input, output,
storage, and communication devices.
Input
• A touch panel, keyboard, mouse, microphone, camera, sensors, and remote
control are some examples of input devices of a system.
Output
• Displays, speakers, motors, fans, and LEDs are some examples of output
devices of a system.
Storage
• Memory, flash, hard disk drive, optical drive, secure digital, and solid-state
drive are some examples of the storage devices of a system.
Communication Devices
• Wired LAN (local area network), wireless LAN, mobile networks (3G, 4G,
and LTE),
• GPS (Global Positioning System), and USB are some examples of the
communication devices of a system.
• All of the subsystems listed above may or may not be a part of a particular
drone design. The target application picks the right subsystems to be part of
the drone system design.
 PARTS OF A DRONE
SOFTWARE
There are four categories of software that need to use on the drone system:
• Firmware components
• OS and drivers
• Sensing, navigation, and control
• Application-specific components

MECHANICAL
• The mechanical system is basically the enclosures, form factor, or simple ID (industrial
design) of the drone.
• The ID determines the exterior and appearance of the drone. The ID of the drone will
usually have numerous mechanical parts in a complicated assembly with electrical parts
interconnected through mechanical or thermal interconnects.
• The most popular drone, has a quadcopter built from an X-frame or H-frame with four
servo motor/propeller units on each end with numerous other mechanical parts along with
the PCBA enclosed in plastic.
• A drone with frame as a base includes propellers, motors, landing gear, body (usually
PCBA, flight controllers, and motor drivers), and a battery.
 CLASSIFICATION
UAVs may be classified like any other aircraft, according to design configuration such as
weight or engine type, maximum flight altitude, degree of operational autonomy,operational role,
etc.
Based on the weight
• Based on their weight, drones can be classified into five categories —
• nano (weighing up to 250 g), Micro air vehicles (MAV) (250 g - 2 kg), Miniature
UAV or small (SUAV) (2-25 kg), medium (25-150 kg), and large (over 150 kg).

Based on the degree of autonomy

• Drones could also be classified based on the degree of autonomy in their flight
operations. ICAO classifies uncrewed aircraft as either remotely piloted aircraft or fully
autonomous.
• Some UAVs offer intermediate degrees of autonomy. for example, a vehicle that is
remotely piloted in most contexts but having an autonomous return-to-base operation.
• Some aircraft types may optionally fly manned or as UAVs, which may include manned
aircraft transformed into uncrewed or Optionally Piloted UAVs (OPVs).
Based on the altitude
• Based on the altitude, the following UAV classifications have been used at industry
events such as Unmanned Systems forum:
• Hand-held 2,000 ft (600 m) altitude, about 2 km range
• Close 5,000 ft (1,500 m) altitude, up to 10 km range
• NATO type 10,000 ft (3,000 m) altitude, up to 50 km range
• Tactical 18,000 ft (5,500 m) altitude, about 160 km range
• MALE (medium altitude, long endurance) up to 30,000 ft (9,000 m) and range over
200 km
• HALE (high altitude, long endurance) over 30,000 ft (9,100 m) and indefinite range
• Hypersonic high-speed, supersonic (Mach 1–5) or hypersonic (Mach 5+) 50,000 ft
(15,200 m) or suborbital altitude, range over 200 km
• Orbital low earth orbit
CIS Lunar Earth-Moon transfer
• Computer Assisted Carrier Guidance System (CACGS) for UAVs
• Based on the composite criteria
 TYPES OF DRONES
Drones can be categorized into the following six types based on their mission:
Combat: Combat drones are used for attacking in the high-risk missions.
• They are also known as Unmanned Combat Aerial Vehicles (UCAV).
• • They carry missiles for the missions. Combat drones are much like planes.

Logistics: Logistics drones are used for delivering goods or cargo. There is
a number of famous companies, such as Amazon and Domino's, which deliver
goods and pizzas via drones. It is easier to ship cargo with drones when there
is a lot of traffic on the streets, or the route is not easy to drive.
Civil: Civil drones are for general usage, such as monitoring the agriculture
fields, data collection, and aerial photography. The following picture is of an
aerial photography drone:
Reconnaissance:
Civil: Civil drones are for general usage, such as monitoring the agriculture
fields, data collection, and aerial photography. The following picture is of an
aerial photography drone:
These kinds of drones are also known as mission-control drones. A drone is
assigned to do a task and it does automatically, and usually returns to the
base by itself, so they are used to get information from the enemy on the
battlefield. These kinds of drones are supposed to be small and easy to hide.
The following diagram is a reconnaissance drone for your reference, they may
vary depending on the usage:
Target and decoy:
• These kinds of drones are like combat drones, but the difference
is, the combat drone provides the attack capabilities for the
high-risk mission and the target and decoy drones provide the
ground and aerial gunnery with a target that simulates the
missile or enemy aircrafts.
Research and development:
• These types of drones are used for collecting data from the air.
For example, some drones are used for collecting weather data or
for providing internet.

TYPES BASED ON WING

There are three types of drones depending on their wings or flying mechanism:
Fixed wing:
• A fixed wing drone has a rigid wing. They look like airplanes. These types of drones have a very
good battery life, as they use only one motor (or less than the multi-wing).
• They can fly at a high altitude. They can carry more weight because they can float on air for the
wings. There are also some disadvantages of fixed wing drones. They are expensive and require a
good knowledge of aerodynamics. They break a lot and training is required to fly them.
• The launching of the drone is hard and the landing of these types of drones is difficult.
• The most important thing you should know about the fixed wing drones is they can only move
forward. To change the directions to left or right, we need to create air pressure from the wing.
ROTARY WING
Single rotor: Single rotor drones are simply like helicopter. They
are strong and the propeller is designed in a way that it helps to
both hover and change directions.Remember, the single rotor
drones can only hover vertically in the air.
• They are good with battery power as they consume less power
than a multirotor.
• The payload capacity of a single rotor is good. However, they
are difficult to fly.. Their wing or the propeller can be dangerous if
it loosens.
Multirotor:
Multirotor drones are the most common among the drones. They
are classified depending on the number of wings they have, such
as tricopter (three propellersor rotors), quadcopter (four rotors),
hexacopter (six rotors), and octocopter (eight rotors).
• The most common multirotor is the quadcopter.
• The multirotors are easy to control. They are good with payload
delivery. They can take off and land vertically, almost anywhere.
The flight is more stable than the single rotor and the fixed wing.
• One of the disadvantages of the multirotor is power
consumption. As they have a number of motors, they consume a
lot of power.
PHYSICAL STRUCTURE OF DRONE:
• FEATURES
• Crewed and uncrewed aircraft of the same type generally have recognizably similar physical
components. The main exceptions are the cockpit and environmental control system or life
support systems.
• Some UAVs carry payloads (such as a camera) that weigh considerably less than an adult
human, and as a result, can be considerably smaller. Though they carry heavy payloads,
weaponized military UAVs are lighter than their crewed counterparts with comparable
armaments.
• Control systems for UAVs are often different than crewed craft. For remote human control, a
camera and video link almost always replace the cockpit windows; radiotransmitted digital
commands replace physical cockpit controls.

Autopilot software is used on both crewed and uncrewed aircraft, with varying feature sets .
PARTS OF BLOCK DIAGRAM
UAV computing capability followed the advances of computing technology,
beginning with analog controls and evolving into microcontrollers, then system-
on-a-chip (SOC) and single-board computers (SBC).
• System hardware for small UAVs is often called the flight controller (FC), flight
controller board (FCB) or autopilot.
• Sensors
Position and movement sensors give information about the aircraft state.
Exteroceptive sensors deal with external information like distance
measurements, while Exproprioceptive ones correlate internal and external
states.
• Non-cooperative sensors are able to detect targets autonomously so they are
used for separation assurance and collision avoidance.
• Degrees of freedom (DOF) refers to both the amount and quality of sensors
on board: 6 DOF implies 3-axis gyroscopes and accelerometers (a typical
inertial measurement unit –IMU), 9 DOF refers to an IMU plus a compass, 10
DOF adds a barometer and 11 DOF usually adds a GPS receiver.
Actuators
• UAV actuators include digital electronic speed controllers (which control the RPM
of the
motors) linked to motors/engines and propellers, servomotors (for planes and
helicopters mostly), weapons, payload actuators, LEDs and speakers.
• Software
• UAV software called the flight stack or autopilot. The purpose of the flight stack is
to obtain data from sensors, control motors to ensure UAV stability, and facilitate
ground control and mission planning communication.
• UAVs are real-time systems that require rapid response to changing sensor data.
As a result, UAVs rely on single-board computers for their computational needs.
Examples of such single-board computers include Raspberry Pis, Beagleboards,
etc. shielded with NavIO, PXFMini, etc. or designed from scratch such as NuttX,
preemptive-RT Linux, Xenomai, Orocos-Robot Operating System or DDS-ROS 2.0.
 APPLICATION OF DRONES
An unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV), commonly known as a drone, is an aircraft
without a human pilot onboard. UAVs are a component of an unmanned aircraft
system, which includes a UAV, a ground-based controller, and a system of
communications between the two.
• The flight of UAVs may operate with various degrees of autonomy, either under
remote control by a human operator or autonomously by onboard computers.
• Drones are classified into different categories based on the applications.
Applications are broad, and from the design perspective, generally fall under three
major groups: military, industrial (enterprise), and commercial.

INDUSTRIAL
• The integration of drones and IoT (Internet of Things) technology has created
numerous industrial and enterprise use cases: drones working with on-ground IOT
sensor networks can help agricultural companies monitor land and crops, energy
companies survey power lines and operational equipment, and insurance
companies monitor properties for claims and/or policies.
MILITARY
• • Drones in military applications are used for anti-aircraft target practice,
intelligence gathering and, more controversially, as weapons platforms.

COMMERCIAL
• The commercial field is a growing development, where the largest,
strongest, fastest, and most capable drones on the market are targeted
toward the professional community.
They are the types of machines that the movie industry puts to work and that
commercial agencies use to inspect infrastructure.
• Some impressive self-piloted drones survey individual farmer’s fields.
Commercial drones are the smaller consumer products that make up just a
tiny portion of the overall drone market.
Introduction
In the world of automotive engineering, the question of which engine to choose, be it an
internal combustion engine (ICE) or an electric vehicle (EV), has attracted significant
attention. As society becomes more aware of environmental impact, the decision between
ICE and EV engines becomes important.

Internal Combustion Engines (ICE)

ICE has been the dominant engine technology in the automotive industry for over a century.
These engines burn fossil fuels such as gasoline or diesel to generate power. Here are some key
points to consider when evaluating ICE engines:

•Performance and Range: ICE engines are known for their power and long-range capabilities.
They offer quick acceleration and high top speeds, making them suitable for those who enjoy
spirited driving and long-distance travel.

•Refueling Infrastructure: Gasoline and diesel fueling stations are readily available in most
areas, making it convenient to refuel ICE vehicles. The widespread infrastructure ensures you
can find fuel almost anywhere, reducing the worry of running out of power.
•Maintenance and Cost: ICE engines require regular maintenance, including oil changes,
filter replacement, and periodic tune-ups. These maintenance procedures and fuel costs
contribute to the overall ownership expense of ICE vehicles.
•Environmental Impact: ICE engines have improved in terms of emissions control, but they
still contribute to air pollution and greenhouse gas emissions. Burning fossil fuels releases
carbon dioxide (CO2) and other pollutants, which affect climate change and air quality.

Electric Vehicles (EV)

With increasing concern for the environment and advances in battery technology, electric
vehicles have gained significant popularity in recent years. Here are some key factors to
consider when evaluating EVs:
•Environmental Impact: EVs produce zero tailpipe emissions, making them attractive to
those seeking green transportation options. Using electricity, which can be generated from
renewable sources, allows EVs to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and improve air
quality.
•Fuel and Maintenance Costs: The operating cost of EVs is lower than that of ICE vehicles.
The cost of electricity is generally lower than that of gasoline or diesel, resulting in lower
fuel expenses. In addition, EVs have fewer moving parts, thereby reducing maintenance
and repair costs over time.
•Range and Charging Infrastructure: One of the primary concerns with EVs is their limited
range compared to ICE vehicles. However, advances in battery technology have greatly
improved range, and charging infrastructure is expanding rapidly. Public charging stations
and home charging solutions make charging an EV convenient, although longer journeys
may still require careful planning.

•Performance and Driving Experience: EVs provide instant torque and smooth acceleration
while providing a pleasant driving experience. While they can't match the top speeds of
some high-performance ICE vehicles, EVs excel in low-end acceleration and provide a
quieter and more relaxed ride.
 Why Electric Vehicles
Torque/Power vs. Speed Characteristics of
Characteristic Curves of an IC Engine Electric Motor

• It can be observed that the maximum power can be achieved at a particular speed of the
IC engine. But in case of electric motor maximum power can be developed constantly
above the base speed of the motor.
• Electric motors are capable of delivering a high starting torque as compared to IC engine.
The internal combustion engines work either on the principle of spark ignition or diesel
principle. In addition to the many advantages of the internal combustion engine, such as
high power to weight ratio and relatively compact energy storage, it has few fundamental
disadvantages:
i. Unlike the electric motors, the internal combustion engine cannot produce torque at
zero speed.
ii. The internal combustion engine produces maximum power at a certain engine speed.
iii. The efficiency of the engine, i.e. its fuel consumption, is very much dependent on the
operating point in the engine’s performance map.
 General Configuration of a Electric Vehicle

Introduction:
The general configuration (Block Diagram of Electric Vehicle) of the EV is shown in Fig.1 .
The EV has three major subsystems:
Electric propulsion
Energy source
Auxiliary system

The electric propulsion subsystem comprises of:

The electronic controller
Power converter
Electric Motor (EM)
Mechanical transmission
Driving wheels

B Tech. 1st Year

Block Diagram of Electric Vehicle
The energy source subsystem consists of
The energy source (battery, fuel cell, ultracapacitor)
Energy management unit
Energy refueling unit

The auxiliary subsystem consists of

Power steering unit
Temperature control unit
Auxiliary power supply
In Figure 1 the black line represents the mechanical link, the green line represents the electrical link and the
blue line represents the control information communication.

Based on the control inputs from the brake and accelerator pedals, the electronic controller provides proper
control signals to switch on or off the power converter which in turn regulates the power flow between the
electric motor and the energy source.

The backward power flow is due to regenerative braking of the EV and this regenerative energy can be stored
provided the energy source is receptive.

The energy management unit cooperates with the electronic controller to control regenerative braking and its
energy recovery. It also works with the energy-refueling unit to control refueling and to monitor usability of the
energy source.

The auxiliary power supply provides the necessary power with different voltage levels for all EV auxiliaries,
especially the temperature control and power steering units.
Power Converter:
Power converter performs the following functions:
1. It modulates flow of power from the source to the motor is impart speed−torque
characteristics required by the load.
2. It regulates source and motor currents within permissible values, such as starting,
braking, and speed reversal conditions.
3. Selects the mode of operation of motor, i.e., motoring or braking.
4. Converts source energy in the form suitable to the motor.
Energy Management System (EMS)

To maximize the energy flow and efficiency of the motors and the storage network, a central
control system that handles all distinct modules and their operation is needed.
three management operations have to be executed:
1. Electrical Management: Charging and discharging processes to avoid imbalances
between individual cells and control charging voltage and current based on battery
parameters.
2. Thermal Management: Equalizing temperature between cells/ keep all
components at operating temperature, minimizing power losses.
3. Safety Management: Correct evaluation of sensor outputs and shutdown of
elements found in a high-risk situation, like a crash
In modern EV’s configuration:

Three phase motors are generally used to provide the traction force
The power converter is a three-phase PWM inverter
Mechanical transmission is based on fixed gearing and a differential
Li-ion battery is typically selected as the energy source
 THANK YOU

SCHOOL OF ELECTRICAL, ELECTRONICS & COMMUNICATION 17