Chapter -03

Relations, Functions and Binary Operations

Introduction (Relations)

In this section, we are going to analyze about various types of relations and their

properties. In addition, we are going to introduce the ordered sets and their applications.

Relationships between elements of sets occur in many contexts. Every day we deal with

relationships such as those between a business and its telephone number, an employee

and his or her salary, a person and a relative, and so on. In mathematics we study

relationships such as those between a positive integer and one that it divides, an integer

and one that it is congruent to modulo 5, a real number and one that is larger than it, a real

number x and the value f (x) where f is a function, and so on.

An Order Pair

An order pair consists of two elements say 𝑎 and 𝑏 in which 𝑎 is the first element and 𝑏 is

the second element. Such an ordered pair is written as (𝑎, 𝑏). Two ordered pairs (𝑎, 𝑏).

and (𝑐, 𝑑). are equal if and only if 𝑎 = 𝑐. and 𝑏 = 𝑑.

In general, the ordered pair (𝑎, 𝑏)is different from (𝑏, 𝑎).

Cartesian Product

Let A and B be sets. The Cartesian Product of A and B denoted by 𝐴 × 𝐵, is the set of

ordered pairs (𝑎, 𝑏) where 𝑎 ∈ 𝐴 and 𝑏 ∈ 𝐵. That is (i.e)

𝐴 × 𝐵 = {(𝑎, 𝑏) | 𝑎 ∈ 𝐴 , 𝑏 ∈ 𝐵 }

The Cartesian product of B and A is denoted by 𝐵 × 𝐴

𝐵 × 𝐴 = {(𝑏, 𝑎) | 𝑏 ∈ 𝐵 , 𝑎 ∈ 𝐴 }

𝐴×𝐵 ≠𝐵×𝐴
When 𝐴 = 𝐵 then Cartesian product represents 𝐴 × 𝐴 is written as A2 (read as A-two not

A squared).

Example: -

i. If A = {1, 2, 3}, B ={x, y} then A  B = {(1, x), (1, y), (2, x), (2, y), (3, x), (3, y)}.

B  A = {(x, 1), (x, 2), (x, 3), (y, 1), (y, 2), ( y, 3)}.

(0,0) (0,1) (0,2) (0,3) . .

iii. If 𝐴 = ℝ , then 𝐴 × 𝐴 = ℝ2 is the set of coordinates of all the points in the 2-

dimensional coordinate plane. (𝑖. 𝑒 ℝ2 = ℝ × ℝ = {(𝑥, 𝑦)|𝑥, 𝑦 ∈ ℝ})

iv. Example: - 𝐴 = {1}, 𝐵 = {𝛼, 𝛽} and C = {ϕ, ψ} then

𝐴×𝐵×𝐶 = {(1, 𝛼, ϕ), (1, 𝛼, ψ),(1, 𝛽, ϕ), (1, 𝛽, ψ)}

(𝐴 × 𝐵) × 𝐶 = {((1, 𝛼), ϕ), ((1, 𝛼), ψ),((1, 𝛽), ϕ), ((1, 𝛽), ψ)}

𝐴 × (𝐵 × 𝐶) = {(1, (𝛼, ϕ)), (1, (𝛼, ψ)),(1, (𝛽, ϕ)), (1, ( 𝛽, ψ))}

Note: -

1. 𝐴 × ∅ = ∅

2. If A = m and B = n, then A  B = mn.

3. If 𝐴and 𝐵 are sets, 𝐴  𝐵 = 𝐵  𝐴 if and only if 𝐴 = 𝐵 , or 𝐴 = ∅ or 𝐵 = ∅.

4. In general, if A1, A2 , …, An are n sets then ( a1, a2, …, an) where 𝑎𝑖 ∈ 𝐴𝑖 ;

i = 1, 2, …, n is called an ordered n-tuple, and their Cartesian product is defined

by 𝐴1  𝐴2  … 𝐴𝑛 = {( a1, a2, …, an)| 𝑎𝑖 ∈ 𝐴𝑖 }; i = 1, 2, …, n

5. (𝑎1 , 𝑎2 , … , 𝑎𝑛 ) and (𝑎1′ , 𝑎2′ , … , 𝑎𝑛′ ) are equal if and only if 𝑎𝑖 = 𝑎𝑖′ for

i = 1, 2, …, n.

6. If Ai = mi, for i = 1, 2, …, n, then |A1  A2  …  An| = m1m2…mn.

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Definition (Relation)

Let A and B be two sets. Then any subset of R of the Cartesian product 𝐴 × 𝐵 is called a

relation from A to B .

i.e. R is a relation from A to B if and only if 𝑅 ⊆ 𝐴 × 𝐵.

If R is a relation from A to B, we say that aA is related to bB, if (a, b) R.

Note: -

1. If R is a relation from a set A to B and (𝑎, 𝑏) ∈ 𝑅, we say that a is related to b in

the relation R and is denoted by aRb

i.e. (𝑎, 𝑏) ∈ 𝑅 ⟺ aRb

2. If (𝑎, 𝑏) ∉ 𝑅 then we say that a is not related to b in the relation R (aR b).

Example: -

(i) Let 𝐴 = {𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐}. Then 𝑅 = {(𝑎, 𝑏), (𝑎, 𝑐), (𝑐, 𝑐), (𝑐, 𝑏)} is a relation in A.

Moreover aRb , aRb , aRb , aRb .but c is not related to a, b is not related to a.

If 𝑅 ⊆ 𝐴 × 𝐴, then R is a relation on A.

(ii) Let S={(0, 0), (1, 1), ( –1, 1), (2, 4), ( –2, 4), (3, 9), ( –3, 9), …} be the relation R on

ℤ.i.e. R = {(a, b) | a, b ℤ and b = a2}. Then 3R 9, 8R 65, etc.

(iii)Let A ={1, 2, 3, 4}, B = {0, 2, 4} and let R = {(a, b) | aA, bB such that a < b}.

Then R = {(1, 2), (1, 4), (2, 4), (3, 4)}.

Definition

The domain of a relation R  A  B, denoted by Dom(R), is the set of elements aA such

that (a, b)R. Ran(R), the range of R is the set of elements bB such that (a, b)R.

Definition (Inverse Relation)

Let R be a relation from A to B. Let 𝑅 = {(𝑎, 𝑏): 𝑎 ∈ 𝐴 ,𝑏 ∈ 𝐵}. Then the relation

{(𝑏, 𝑎): (𝑎, 𝑏) ∈ 𝑅} is called the inverse relation of R from B to A and is denoted by 𝑅 −1

3
i.e. 𝑅 −1 = {(𝑏, 𝑎): (𝑎, 𝑏) ∈ 𝑅}

Example: -

Let A = {1, 2, 3}, B ={a, b} then R = {(1, a), (1, b), (3, a)} is a relation from A to B. The

inverse relation of 𝑅 is 𝑅 −1 = {(𝑎, 1), (𝑏, 1), (𝑎, 3)}.

Definition (R relative set)

If R is a relation from A to B and xA, then the R–relative set of x, denoted by R(x), is the

set {yB | xR y}.

Similarly, if A1  A then R(A1) = {yB | xRy for xA1}.

Example: -

If A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}, and R = {(1, 1), (1, 2), (2, 3), (3, 1), (4, 5)} then

R(1) = {1, 2}.

If A1 = {2, 3, 5} then R(A1) = {1, 3}.

Theorem

Let R be a relation from A to B, and let A1 and A2 be subsets of A.

Then

1. If A1  A2 then R(A1)  R(A2),

2. R(A1A2) = R(A1)R(A2),

3. R(A1A2)  R(A1)R(A2).

Definition (Reflexive Relation)

Let R be a relation on a set A. Then R is called reflexive, if for every 𝑎 ∈ 𝐴, (𝑎, 𝑎) ∈ 𝑅.

i.e. R is reflexive if and only if (𝑎, 𝑎) ∈ 𝑅, ∀𝑎 ∈ 𝐴.

i.e. R is reflexive if and only if aRa , ∀𝑎 ∈ 𝐴.

In other words, R is reflexive, if every element A is related to itself.

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Example: -

1. Let V = {1, 2, 3, 4} then R = {(1, 1), (2,4), (3,3),(4,1),(4,4)}. Then R is not a

reflexive relation, Since (2, 2) R.

Notice that all order pairs (𝑎, 𝑎) must belong to R in order for R to be reflexive.

Definition (Symmetric Relation)

Let R be a relation on a set A. Then R is called symmetric, if (𝑎, 𝑏) ∈ 𝑅 implies

(𝑏, 𝑎) ∈ 𝑅.

i.e. R is symmetric if and only if (𝑎, 𝑏) ∈ 𝑅 ⇒ (𝑏, 𝑎) ∈ 𝑅.

i.e. R is symmetric if and only If aRb ⇒ bRa.

In other words, if a is related to b then b is also related to a.

Example:-

1. Let A = {1, 2, 3, 4} then R = {(1, 3), (2,4), (4,2),(3,1),(4,4)} is a symmetric

relation on A.

2. Let A = {1, 2, 3, 4} then R = {(1, 3), (2,4), (4,2),(3,1),(2,3)} is not a symmetric

relation on A. Since (2,3) ∈ 𝑅 but (3,2) ∉ 𝑅.

Definition (Transitive Relation)

A relation R on a set A is called transitive if (𝑎, 𝑏) ∈ 𝑅 and (𝑏, 𝑐) ∈ 𝑅 implies (𝑎, 𝑐) ∈ 𝑅.

i.e. R is transitive ⟺ (𝑎, 𝑏) ∈ 𝑅 ∩ (𝑏, 𝑐) ∈ 𝑅 ⇒ (𝑎, 𝑐) ∈ 𝑅

Example: -

1. Let A = {a, b, c} then R = {(a, b), (c, b), (b, a),(a, c)} ⊆ 𝐴 × 𝐴 is not transitive as

(𝑎, 𝑏) ∈ 𝑅 ∩ (𝑏, 𝑎) ∈ 𝑅, but (𝑎, 𝑎) ∉ 𝑅

Definition (Equivalence Relation)

A relation R in a set A is an equivalence relation if and only if R is reflexive, symmetric

and transitive.

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Exercises: -

Let A = {1, 2, 3}, and R be the relation on A as defined below:

(i) {(1, 1), (2, 2), (3, 3), (1, 2), (2, 1)}

(ii) {(1, 1), (2, 2), (1, 2), (2, 1), , (3, 2)}

(iii) {(1, 1), (2, 2), (3, 3), (2, 1), (1, 2), (3, 2), (2, 3)}

(iii) {(1, 1), (2, 2), (3, 3), (2, 1), (1, 2), (3, 2), (2, 3), (1, 3), (3, 1)}

Solution

(i) 𝑅 is reflexive if (𝑎, 𝑎) ∈ 𝑅 ∀ 𝑎 ∈ 𝐴

Here (1,1) ∈ 𝑅 , (2,2) ∈ 𝑅 , (3,3) ∈ 𝑅 ,Therefore R is reflexive.

R is symmetric if (𝑎, 𝑏) ∈ 𝑅 and (𝑏, 𝑎) ∈ 𝑅 ∀ 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝐴.

Here (1,2) ∈ 𝑅 and (2,1) ∈ 𝑅 ,Therefore R is symmetric.

R is transitive if (𝑎, 𝑏) ∈ 𝑅 and (𝑏, 𝑐) ∈ 𝑅 then (𝑎, 𝑐) ∈ 𝑅 ∀ 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐 ∈ 𝐴

Here(1,1) ∈ 𝑅 and (1,2) ∈ 𝑅 then (1,2) ∈ 𝑅

(2,2) ∈ 𝑅 and (2,1) ∈ 𝑅 then (2,1) ∈ 𝑅

(1,2) ∈ 𝑅 and (2,2) ∈ 𝑅 then (1,2) ∈ 𝑅

(1,2) ∈ 𝑅 and (2,1) ∈ 𝑅 then (1,1) ∈ 𝑅

(2,1) ∈ 𝑅 and (1,2) ∈ 𝑅 then (2,2) ∈ 𝑅

Therefore R is transitive.

(ii) is not reflexive, not symmetric and not transitive.

(iii) Not transitive.

(iv) Reflexive, symmetric and transitive.

Matrix representation of a relation

We can represent a relation between two finite sets with a matrix as follows:

If A = {a1, a2, …, am} and B = {b1, b2, …, bn}are finite sets containing m and n elements

respectively, and R is a given relation from A to B, we represent R by the matrix

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 1 if (ai , b j )  R
MR = (𝑚𝑖𝑗 )𝑚×𝑛 where mij  
0 if (ai , b j )  R.

The matrix MR is called the matrix of R. Note that MR is a Boolean Matrix.

Example: -

1. Let A = {1, 2, 3, 4} , B = {0, 2, 4} and R = {(𝑎, 𝑏)|𝑎 ∈ 𝐴, 𝑏 ∈ 𝐵 , 𝑎 < 𝑏 }

A  B = {(1, 0), (1, 2), (1,4), (2,0), (2,2), (2,4),(3, 0), (3, 2), (3,4), (4,0), (4,2),

(4,4)}.

R = {(1, 2), (1,4),(2,4),(3, 4)}

0 1 1
 
0 0 1
Then MR =  .
0 0 1
 
0 0 
 0

 1 0 0 1
 
2. If MR =  0 1 1 0  , find the relation R from A = {a1, a2, a3} to B = {b1, b2,
 1 1 1 0
 

b3, b4}.

Solution

Since (ai, aj) = 1 if and only if mij = 1,

R = {(a1, b1), (a1, b4), (a2, b2), (a2, b3), (a3, b1), (a3, b2), (a3, b3)}.

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Introduction (Functions)

one of the most important concepts in mathematics is that of a function. The term “map”,

“mapping”, “transformation”, and many others mean the same thing; the choice word to

use in a given situation is usually determined by tradition and the mathematical

background of the person using the term. The concept of a function from real numbers to

real numbers will almost certainly be familiar to you already. For instance, the equation

𝒚 = 𝒙𝟐 + 𝒙 + 𝟏

Determines a function from real numbers to real numbers. We can draw its graph. We are

able to plot the graph of this function because, for each value of 𝒙 𝐢𝐧 ℝ, we can calculate

the corresponding value of y: we just substitute the value of x concerned into the equation

and carry out the computation. What the above equation does is provide us with a general

rule for calculating values.

Functions from ℝ 𝐭𝐨 ℝ defined by the equations in this fashion are special cases of the

general function concept that we introduce next.

Let A and B be any non-empty sets. A function from A to B is a rule that associates with

each member of A a unique number of B. we make no restrictions on the rule; the only

crucial points are that

 The rule must associate a member of B to every element of A;

 The element of B that we associate with a given member a of A must be unique

for that a.

Definition (Function)

Suppose that to each element in a set A there is assigned, by some manner or other, a

unique element of a set B. We call such assignments a function. If we let f denote these

assignments, then we write

𝒇∶𝑨 ⟶𝑩

8
Which reads “ f is a function of A into B ” . The set A is called the “domain” of the

function f and B is called the “co-domain” of f. Further, if 𝒂 ∈ 𝑨 then the element B

which is assigned to a is called the “image” of a and is denoted by 𝒇(𝒂) which reads “f of

a”.

Or A function (or a mapping or a transformation) f from a non-empty set A to a non-

empty set B is a relation from A to B which satisfies the condition for each a in A in the

domain in the relation there exist a exactly one b in B such that (𝒂, 𝒃) ∈ 𝒇.

Note: - 𝒇 ∶ 𝑨 ⟶ 𝑩 is a function ⟺

1. 𝒇(𝒂) ∈ 𝑩, ∀ 𝒂 ∈ 𝑨:

2. 𝒂 = 𝒃 ⇒ 𝒇(𝒂) = 𝒇(𝒃).

Example: -

1. Let 𝒇 ∶ ℝ ⟶ ℝ be a function defined by 𝒇(𝒙) = 𝒙𝟐 , ∀ 𝒙 ∈ ℝ

2. The rational function 𝒇 ∶ ℝ ⟶ ℝ such as

𝒙𝟑 − 𝟒𝒙𝟐 + 𝒙 − 𝟏𝟏
𝒇(𝒙) =
(𝒙𝟐 + 𝟏)𝟓

3. The absolute value function 𝒇 ∶ ℝ ⟶ ℝ+ is defined by

𝒙 𝐢𝐟 𝒙 ≥ 𝟎
𝒇(𝒙) = {
−𝒙 𝐢𝐟 𝒙 ≤ 𝟎

4. Let A = {1, 2, 3, 4} and B = {x, y, z}. Then  = {(1, x), (1, y), (2, z), (3, x)} is not a

function as (1) is not uniquely defined.

1 X
2
3 Y
4
z

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Note: -

1. Let A be a non-empty set. Define f: A  A by f (a) = a,  aA.  is a function and

it is called the identity function (or identity mapping) of A.

2. Let A and B be non-empty sets and f : A  B be such that f (a) = b aA, where b

is a fixed element in B. Such a function is called a constant function.

Solution

3x
f is everywhere defined. If y(IR), then y = , for some x IR
x 12

3  9  4y2
ie. yx2 – 3x + y = 0. If y  0, then x = .
2y

y IR  9 – 4y2  0. Hence, –3/2  y  3/2 and y  0.

If y = 0, then x = 0 and 0( IR). Thus, Im() = {y IR–3/2  y  3/2}

Definition (Equal Function)

The two functions f and g are equal if,

i. f and g have the same domain;

ii. f and g have the same co-domain;

iii. f (x) = g (x) ,∀ 𝑥 ∈ 𝐴, where A is the common domain.

The equal functions are denoted by 𝑓 = 𝑔

Example: - Let 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 where 𝑥 ∈ ℝ. Let 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 where 𝑥 ∈ ℂ. Then the function

f is not equal to g since they have different domains.

Definition (Injective Function)

Let f be a function from a set A into a set B then f is called a one to one or injective

function. If distinct elements of A have distinct images.

i.e 𝑓 𝑖𝑠 1 − 1 ⟺ 𝑎 ≠ 𝑏 ⇒ 𝑓(𝑎) ≠ 𝑓(𝑏) for 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝐴.

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Or injective (or one-to-one), if each element of B has not more than one element of

Dom( f ) mapped on to B.

Example: -

i.
a 1
b 2
c 3
4
d

Definition (Surjective Function)

Let f be a function from a set A into a set B then f is called onto or surjective function, if

𝑓(𝐴) = 𝐵.

i.e. f is onto ⇔ 𝑓(𝐴) = 𝐵.

i.e. f is onto ⟺ ∀ 𝑏 ∈ 𝐵 ∃ 𝑎 ∈ 𝐴 such that 𝑓(𝑎) = 𝑏

In this case we say that f is a function from A onto B.

surjective (or onto), if each element of B has at least one element of Dom(f) mapped on to

it.

Example: -

i.
1 x
2
3 y
4 z

Definition (Bijective Function)

Let f be a function from a set A into a set B then f is called bijective function if and only

if it is both injective and surjective.

i.e. f is bijective ⟺ f is 1-1 and onto

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Definition (Inverse Image)

Given a function : AB, the inverse image (or pre-image) of an element bB, with

respect to , denoted by  – 1(b), is the set {aA(a) = b}. If C is a subset of B, then

 – 1(C): = { – 1(c)cC} is a subset of A.

Example: -

b1
a1
a2 b2

a3 b3

In here Φ (𝑎1) = 𝑏1

Φ (𝑎2) = 𝑏2

Φ (𝑎3) = 𝑏3

a1
b1
b2 a2
b3 a3

In here Φ−1 (𝑏1) = 𝑎1

Φ−1 (𝑏2) = 𝑎2

Φ−1 (𝑏3) = 𝑎3

Definition (Inverse Function)

Let 𝑓 ∶ 𝐴 ⟶ 𝐵 be a function Then the inverse function of 𝑓 denoted by 𝑓 −1 from

𝑓 −1 ∶ 𝐵 ⟶ 𝐴 , is defined by 𝑓(𝑎) = 𝑏 ⟺ 𝑓 −1 (𝑏) = 𝑎.

Example: -

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Definition (Invertible Function)

A function 𝒇 ∶ 𝑨 ⟶ 𝑩 is said to be invertible if there exists a function 𝑔 ∶ 𝐵 ⟶ 𝐴 such

that the map 𝑔 ∘ 𝒇 ∶ 𝑨 ⟶ 𝐴 is the identity map on A, and 𝑓 ∘ 𝑔 ∶ 𝐵 ⟶ 𝐵 is the identity

map on B

A function  from A to B is said to be invertible if its inverse relation  – 1 is a function

from B to A. Then Dom( – 1) = Ran ().

Note

i. A function  is injective if and only if a1  a2  (a1)  (a2)  a1, a2Dom()

if and only if (a1) = (a2) a1 = a2,  a1, a2Dom().

ii. A function  from A to B is surjective if and only if Ran() = B.

iii. If  is invertible then Dom(-1) = Ran().

Theorem

Let  be function from A to B.

i. is invertible if and only if  is injective.

ii. is invertible   –1 is also injective.

Definition (Composite functions)

Let 𝑓 ∶ 𝐴 ⟶ 𝐵 and 𝑔 ∶ 𝐵 ⟶ 𝐶 be function with the property of that domain of g is the

same as co-domain of f. Then the composite function denoted by 𝑔 ∘ 𝑓 from A to C is

defined by (𝑔 ∘ 𝑓)(𝑥) = 𝑔(𝑓(𝑥))

In general (𝑓 ∘ 𝑔) ≠ (𝑔 ∘ 𝑓)

Let ℎ: 𝐴 ⟶ 𝐵 and 𝑔 ∶ 𝐵 ⟶ 𝐶 and 𝑓 ∶ 𝐶 ⟶ 𝐷 be functions then (𝑓 ∘ 𝑔) ∘ ℎ = 𝑓 ∘

(𝑔 ∘ ℎ)

(𝑓 ∘ 𝑔)−1 = 𝑔−1 ∘ 𝑓 −1

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Example: -

Let A = {x1, x2, x3, x4}, B = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5} and C = {, , }.

Let : A  B and    C be defined by (x1) = 1, (x2) = 1, (x3) = 3, (x4) = 4.

(1) = , (2) = , (3) = , (4) = , (5) = .

1 
X1
2
X2
3 
X3
4
X4
5 

Φ 

Then (x1) = , (x2) = , (x3) = , (x4) =  .

Ran() = { , }.

Definition

Let  and  be given functions from A to B. If Dom() = Dom() and (a) = (a),

aDom(), we say that  is equal to  and denote this fact by  = .

Next, consider A = {x1, x2, x3, x4} and the mappings : A  A ,  A  A defined by

(x1) = x1, (x2) = x2 , (x3) = x4 , (x4) = x3 and  (x1) = x2 ,  (x2) = x3,  (x3) = x4 and

 (x4) = x1 .

Then (x1) = x2, (x2) = x3, (x3) = x1, (x4) = x4 and ( x1) = x2,

( x2) = x4, (x3) = x3, (x4) = x1.

Since (x2)  ( x2)

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we see that even when  and  are defined, they need not be equal.

Theorem

Let : A  B,    C and  C  D be given. Then () = ().

Theorem

Let : A  B and    C be given. Then

i. If ,  are injective then  is injective.

ii. If ,  are surjective then  is surjective.

Example

Let A = {xℝ | x  -½} and B = {x ℝ | x  ¼}. If f: A  B is defined by

f(x) = x2 + x, show that f is bijective.

Solution

If f(x) = f(y) for x, y A, then x2 + x = y2 + y  x2 + x + ¼ = y2 + y + ¼

 (x + ½)2 = (y + ½ )2  x + ½ = y + ½ (as x, y  -½)

 x = y.

Hence f is injective

 1  1  4b
Take any bB. Then x = is a solution of x2 + x = b.
2

 1  1  4b
Let a = . Then a  -½, and hence aA. Since f(a) = b, f is surjective.
2

Example: -

Consider 𝑓: ℤ ⟶ ℤ and 𝑔: ℤ ⟶ ℤ defined by 𝑓(𝑛) = 2𝑛 + 3 and 𝑔(𝑛) = 3𝑛 + 2 find

i. (𝑓 ∘ 𝑔)(𝑛)

ii. (𝑔 ∘ 𝑓)(𝑛)

(𝑓 ∘ 𝑔)(𝑛) = 𝑓(𝑔(𝑛)) = 𝑓(3𝑛 + 2) = 2(3𝑛 + 2) + 3 = 6𝑛 + 7

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(𝑔 ∘ 𝑓)(𝑛) = 𝑔(𝑓(𝑛)) = 𝑔(2𝑛 + 3) = 3(2𝑛 + 3) + 2 = 6𝑛 + 11

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