PARUL UNIVERSITY - FACULTY OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY Department of Ap 3rd Semester B. Tech (CSE, IT) Discrete Mathematics (303191202) UNIT-4 Algebraic Structures & Morphisms Introduction: In mathematics and abstract algebra, group theory studies the algebraic structures known as groups. The concept of a group is central to abstract algebra: other well-known algebraic structures, such as rings, fields, and vector spaces, can all be seen as groups endowed with additional operations and axioms. Groups recur throughout mathematics, and the methods of group theory have influenced many parts of algebra, Linear algebraic groups and Lie groups are two branches of group theory that have experienced advances and have become subject areas in their own right Prerequisites: ‘© Basic familiarity with the concept of sets, functions ‘© Reasonable comfort with the use of symbols to denote sets, elements and operations. * Anability to manipulate algebraic expressions based on fixed rules. © Anability to carry out logical reasoning in the mind and on paper, and follow reasoning carried ‘out by others. Application: Group theory, the ultimate theory for symmetry. is a powerful tool that has a direct impact on research in robotics, computer vision, computer graphics and medical image analysis. In theoretical computer science: * Minimizing space usage of algorithms Mulmuley’s approach to P vs.NP * Quantum algorithms Babai’s algorithm for Graph Isomorphism © Cryptography: Fully homomorphie encryption, © Derandomization obfuscation, In puzzles and games: © “15 Puzzle” ‘© Rubik’s cube ‘+ Tangles In Physics: + Predicting the existence of elementary particles before they are discovered In Chemistry «The structure and behaviour of molecules and crystals depends on their different symmetries, Overview: Rings; Integral domain & fields Boolean algebra and Boolean ring Identity of Boolean algebra Duality Representation of Boolean function Disjunctive and Conjunctive Normal form Semigroup; Monoid; Group Congruence relation Free & cyclic monoid & group Permutation groups Subgroups; Normal subgroup tage: 40% ‘Teaching Hours: 18SEMIGROUP; MONOID; GROUP Binary operation: Let A be a set. A function f:A x A — A is called a binary operator on the set A. Algebraic structure: An algebraic structure is an ordered tuple: (S,91,22, ..,en) where S is a set which has one or more binary operations ¢,,¢2, ..,°, defined on all the elements of $ x S An algebraic structure with one (binary) operation is thus an ordered pair which can be denoted by (Sj) of (T,#), and so on. Definitions: Let G be a set and » be an operation on G. Consider the followit on G with the operation +. Closure property Forany a,b€G,a+beG is closed under the operation ‘Associativity For any a,b,c € G,a* (bec [i.e is associative on G ] Identity Element There exists an element ¢ in G such that a= e =e +a =a forevery a €6. ¢ is called the identity element of G under the operation + (iv) [Inverse element Let e be the identity element of G under the operation * For any @ € G, there exists an element b in G such that a+b =b*a=e. b is called the inverse element of a under the operation +. It is denoted by oa a (X) [Commutative property:| For any a,b € G,a+b=bea. (G») issaid to bea Semigroup _ ifit satisfies the properties (é), (i). (G+) is said to bea Monoid if it satisfies the properties (¢), (if), (itt). (G+) is said to bea Group if it satisfies the properties (0), (éi), (iit), (iv). (G+) is said to be an Abelian group if it satisfies the properties (i), (dé), (iit), (iv), (v). A group is said to be a finite group if it has finite number of elements. The cardinality of the set is known as the order of that group. Ifa group is not finite, itis said to be an infinite group. 1aProblem.1. Prove that Z, the set of integers is an abelian group under the operation of the usual addition of integers, [Summer_2023-24] Solution: (@__ [Closure property. | Clearly, addition of two integers is an integer. i.e. Forany a,b €Z,a+beZ Hence, Z is closed under the operation + i)_[Associativity For any a,b,c €Z, a+ (b+0) =(atb) +e Hence, + is associative on Z We know that 0 € Z such that a + 0 = 0 +a =a forevery a € Z. Hence, 0 is called the identity element of Z under the operation + For any a € Z, there exists an element —a in Z such that a+(-a) =(-a)+a=0. Therefore, every element a in Z. has an inverse element ~a in Z. For any integers a,b €Z,a+b=b+a Since, all the five properties are satisfied, Z is an abelian group under +. Problem.2. Check ifthe set of all real_m x n matrices is an abelian group under the usual addition of matrices. Solution: Let Myyen be the set of all real m x n matrices and let + denote the usual addition of matrices Closure property: Clearly, addition of m x n matrices is an m Xn matrix ie. For any A,B € Minxn, A+ BE Minn: Hence, Myx is closed under the operation + “Associativity: For any m x n matrix A = [aj;], B = [bij], C = [cis] in Minn A+ G+) = [ay + (by +04)] =[@itby)+a) [rap bycy eR] (A+B)+C Hence, + is associative on M, Identity Element Let Omxn © Mynxen be an m X n matrix with all entries to be 0. Then for any A = [aij] in Mn. jay) + [0] = [ay +0 Inverse element For any A= [aij] € Mmm, consider the m x n matrix —A = [=ajj] Then A + (—A) = [aj + (—aij)] = [0] = Onn and (—A) + A = Oman ‘Therefore, every element A = [a;)] in Mmxn has an inverse element —A = Commutative property: | For any m x n matrices A = [aj], B = [bij] © Mmxn» A+B =[ay + dj] [by + ay] ay, by. cy € R] =B+A Hence, Mynx is an abelian group under the operation of matrix addition. 1aProblem.3. Cheek i Solution: Consider the set N U {0} of all non-negative integers the set of all non-negative integers is an abelian group under usual addition of integers. (@ | Closure property Clearly, addition of two non-negative integers is a non-negative integer ice. For any a,b €NU{0},a +b € NU {0} Hence, NU {0} is closed under the operation + @ For any a,b,c €NU {0}, a+ (b +c) =(atb) +e Hence, + is associative on NU {0} Gd [Mdentity Element We know that a + 0 = 0+ a =a forevery a € NU {0}. Hence, 0 is called the identity element of NU {0} under the operation + (iv) JInverse element For 1 € NU {0}, 1 is the only integer that gives 1 + (—1) = (-1)+1=0 Hence, this property is not satisfied (v) [Commutative property: | For any non-negative integers a,b € NU {0}.a+b=b+a. But -1 € NU {0}. Thus, there is an element in NU {0} which does not have an inverse element in NU {0} under +. Since, all the five properties are not satisfied, NU {0} is not an abelian group under + But, since properties (i), (if), (ii) and (v) are satisfied it is an abelian monoid. Problem.4. Cheek if the set of all natural numbers is an abelian group under usual addition of integers. Solution: Consider the set N of all natural numbers. (G) ii) Closure property: Hence, N is closed under the operation + ‘Associativity, Hence, + is associative on N. Clearly, addition of two natural numbers is a natural number. i.e. Forany a,b €N,a+bEN. For any a,b,c €N.a+(b +0) = ‘at b)+e. (iii) [Identity Element O is the only integer such that a+ 0 =0 +a =a foreverya €N But 0 € N. Hence, N has no identity element under the operation + (iv) |Inverse element For 1 € N, —1 is the only integer that gives 1 + (—1) = (-1) +1 But —1 € N. Thus, there is an element in N which does not have an inverse element in N under +. Hence. this property is not satisfied v) [Commutative property: | For any a,b €Na+b=b+a Since, properties (iii) &(iv) are not satisfied, N is not an abelian group under + But, since properties (i), (ii) and (v) are satisfied it is an abelian semigroup, Note that it is neither a monoid nor a group. 1aProblem.: Check if the set of integers Z is an abelian semigroup under the operation of the usual subtr integers. Also check for the identity element and the commutative property Solution: (| Closure property: Clearly, subtraction of two integers is an integer. i.e. For any a,b €Z,a—b eZ. Hence, Z is closed under the subtraction - (ii) [Associativity For 1,2,3 €Z 1- (2-3) =1-(-1) = 2and (1-2) -3 = (-1) -3 ie. for some a,b,c € Z,a — (b —c) # (a—b) —c. Hence, this property is not satisfied Since, property (ii) is not satisfied, Z is not a semigroup. Identity Element: We know that for any e € Z,a—e # e — a =a forevery non-zero a € Z, i.e. there exists no e € Z such that a-e =e - a =a, foralla EZ Hence, 2 has no identity element of under the operation subtraction. ‘Commutative property: For any non-zero integers a,b €Z,a—b#b—a. Hence, this property is not satisfied. Problem.6. Check if the set of integers Z is an abelian group under the operation of the usual multiplication Solution: @ | Closure property: Clearly, multiplication of two integers is an integer. ie. For any a,b € Z,a-b €Z. Hence, Z is closed under the operation ‘Associativity For any a,b,c € Z; a-(b-¢) = (a-b) Hence, - is associative on Z. Identity Element: We know that 1 € Z such that a- 1 = 1-a =a for every a € Z. Hence, 1 is called the identity element of Z under the operation (iv) | Inverse element: For 0 € Z, there exists no integer b in Z such that 0-b = b-0. Therefore, 0 € Z does not have an inverse element in Z ‘Thus, there is an element in Z which does not have an inverse element under + Hence, this property is not satisfied Commutat FO] For any integers a,b € Z,a-b Since, property (iv) is not satisfied, Z is not an abelian group under multiplication. But, it is an abelian monoid under multiplication. Exercise 1. Check if the set of all real numbers is commutative group under usual addition. Check if the set of all real numbers is commutative group under usual multiplication. 3. Check if the set of all non-zero real numbers is commutative group under usual addition. 4. Check if the set of all real numbers is commutative group under usual subtra 5. Check if division is a binary operation on the set of all real numbers. 6. Prove that the set of all non-zero real numbers is not a semigroup under usual divisi Do the other properties hold to make it an abelian group?1. If* is defined on Z such that a*b = a+b+2 ,Prove that (Z, * ) is an abelian Group. [Summer_2018-19] Definition: If for an element a in an algebraic structure(G,+), a element in (6,*), then a is said to be the idempotent For exampl ‘Show that the following are idempotent elements under the given operations, (i) @ for union and intersection of two sets (ii) 0 for + onZ (iii) 1 for multiplication on R. Soluti (@ Since © U © = 6, 0 is idempotent under union. Since 0 1.0 = O, @ is idempotent under intersection. (ii) Since 0 + 0 =, 0 is idempotent under + on Z. (iii) Since 1-1 = 1, 1 is idempotent under multiplication on R. Problem.1. In each of the following cases, prove that Z under the operation + is not an abelian group. [Winter_2022-23, Winter_2019-20] (ajaxb 7 (b)a*b =20 (c)a*b=2a-b (d)axb=|a+b] Solutio (aarb=F over Z (b) a* b = 20 over Z For any a € Z there is no element e in Z such thata*e =e*a=a Hence, closure property is not satisfied. Hence, identity element does not exist. It does not form a group. It does not form a group. Fora =1,b=2,a*b= ()a*b=2a—b overZ Fora =1,b 1+(2+3) = 1 (2(2)—3)=1+1=2(1)-1=1 (a+b) *c = (1+2) +3 = (21) -2) +3 =0+3=2(0) -3=- Thus, a+ (b *c) # (a*b)+*c Hence, associative property is not satisfied. It does not form a group (d)a+b=|a+bl overZ Fora = -1,b=—2,¢ ax (bc) = (-1) + (-2*-3) = (-1) « (-2-3)) = (-1) #5 =|-145]=4 (a+b) *¢ = (-1+~2) + (-3) = (I-1- 21) + (-3) = 3 * (-3) = [3 + (3) =0 Thus, a+ (b*c) #(a*b)*e Hence, associative property is not satisfied It does not form a group 1aProblem. Identify the identity element in Z under the operation + given as a+b = a+b —2,forany a,b €Z. Also identify the inverse element of any member a € Z_[Winter_2022-23] Solution: a*b=at+b—2=b+a—2=bea,foranya,b EZ. Identity Element: Let e be such that a*e=a=exa Now,a¥e=a=> a+e—2=a=e =2 which belongs to Z. Hence, e = 2 is the identity element in Z under the given operation Inverse element: Let a € Zand b be such that a =bea a*b=e=a+b-2=2= b=4~a which belongs toZ Hence, 4 — a is the inverse of any element a in Z under the given operation. Problem.3 If f: Z x Z—+ Z where Z is the set of integers and f (x, y)=x* y=x+y—xy, ‘Show that the binary operation * is commutative and associative. Find the identity element and inverse of each element. [Summer_2023-24] Solution. ‘© Commutative property : Letx,y €Z xeysxty-xysytx-yayen © Associative property: Letx,y,2€Z (ee y)tz- eye @ty-ay)tz-(t+y- yz xty-aytz—x2- yz t xyz x+y tz—yz-xy- az t xyz =xt(ytz-y2)- xy +2 - yz) x+(y+z-xy*2) x+(ys2) @ryez ‘© Identity element Suppose ¢ € Z is an identity element, then by definition axe=a=a+e-ae=a=9(1~a)=0 Either e=0 or 1-a=0 But 1 ~ a 40 because a is arbitrary element Therefore e = 0 is the identity element. Inverse clement: Let a € Z be any arbitrary element, and let b € Z be the inverse of a. Then by definition,a * b= b*a=e a+b=e=>at+b-ab=0 a+b(1-a)=0 uous But>-€ Z, fora=02 But, for a # 0,2, a7" does not exist under * 1aProblema If+ isa binary operation on Z* of positive integers, defined by a + b = lem(a,b) 1, Show that + is commutative and associative 2. Which element of Z* are idempotent 3. Find the identity element of 2* w.r.t + 4, Which elements of Z* have inverse? Solution 1, Commutative property : a * b = lem(a,b) = lem(b,a) = b+a ie * is commutative Associative property: a+ (b+ c)= a + Iem(b,c) lem(a, lem(b, c)) lem(a,b, c) = Icm(Icm(a,b),c) lem(a,b) * ¢ (a=b)ec Hence, + is associative 2. For any clement ae Z+,a+a 3. For any element a€Z+,a¥1 Hence, 1 is the identity element. 4. Ibis Lie. (@,b)=1 But lem(a,b) = 1ifandonly if a = b = 1 Hence, only 1 € Z* has an inverse. No other element has an inverse in 2* under the given operation. Hence, every element is idempotent Problem. Show that the binary operation on the set of natural numbers given by a@¥ b= associative is not commutative but is Solution For commutative property: For associative property: Consider two natural numbers Land 2 Let a, b, ¢ be any natural numbers. Then Then 1 +2=1and2+1= a+ (b+c)=a+b=aand (a+b)+c=arc=a Thus, 1+2#2+1 Hence, a+ (b+c)=(a*b) +c Hence, * is not commutative. Therefore, = is associative Problem.6, The identity element in Z under the operation « given as a* b [Summer_2023-24] a+b—4,forany a,b €Z.is__ Problem.7. Which of the flowing set is not an abelian semi-group under given operations? [Summer_2023-24] (@Q-}) ZH @Z-) AAR) 1.R is not a Group under usual multiplication * because [Winter_2022-23] (a) * is not associative on R (b)ldentity element does not exists in R with respect to » (c) Inversion property is not satisfied (d) Ris not closed under » 1a2. Ifa group satisfies the Closure , Associative and identity property then it is known as [Winter_2022-23] (a) Abelian Group (b) Symmetric group (c) Semigroup (4) Monoid Exercise: 1) Verify whether the usual multiplication on the set $= {—1, 1} is a binary operation. 2) Determine whether the operation « on the set of natural numbers given a * b = = isabinary operation, [Winter_20121-22] 3) Show that the binary operation + defined on R by a + b = max (a,b) is associative 4) Show that the binary operation * defined on the set of rational numbers Q defined as a + b both commutative and associative 5) Examine whether matrix multiplication on the set M = {| operation, ‘Theorem: Uniqueness of identity element in an algebraic structure (,*). Statement: [fan algebraic structure (G,*) has an identity element then itis unique. Proof: Let e; and ey be two identity elements of (G,*). 1 isan identity element, therefore for every a € Ga» e; =a =e, *a— Since e, € G, using (i), e2 + € = €2 =e + € e, is an identity element, therefore for every a € G,a*e, =a=e,*a Since e, € G, using (iii), e, * ep =e; =e) +e From (ii) and (iv), e, = e; +e) = e Hence, proved. ‘Theorem: Uniqueness of inverse element in a group (G,*). Statement: If (G,*) is a group then every a € G has a unique inverse. Proof: Let (G,*) be a group with identity element e. Let a € G be any element of G Let b,c € G be inverse elements of a. Then by definition, arb andavc=c+a=e. Now,b = bre [+ eis identity element] =b+(ac) [+ cis inverse of a] =(bea)xc [+ associative property holds] =exc [+ cis inverse of a} =e [+ eis identity element] Hence, proved. 1aeorem: Left cancellation law for Groups. Statement : Let (G,*) be a group and a,b,c be elements of G. If ab = ac then b = Proof : Since (G,*) is a group a~ exists in G. Let e be the identity element of G. ac = a"*(ab) = (a*a)b “4(ac) [Multiplying both sides by a~*] (ata)c [Associative property] [definition of inverse element] [definition of identity element] Henee, proved. Theorem: Right cancellation law for Groups. Statement : Let (G,*) be a group and a, b,c be elements of G. If ba = ca then b = Proof : Since (G,») is a group a~? exists in G. Let e be the identity element of G. ba = ca = (ba)a~' = (ca)a~!__ [Multiplying both sides by a~*) c(aa~!) [Associative property] [definition of inverse element] [definition of identity element] Theorem: If G isa group, a € Gand b€Gthen (i)(a~*)"* = aand ‘)(ab)-* Proof: (@ Clearly, for any € G , by definition aa~! = ata = e. Hence, (a~ (ii) (@b)(b*a™) = abba" = ae)a* = aa* =e Similarly, (b~ta~*)(ab) = b“*(a~*a)b = b“*(e)b = b-*b = Hence, (ab)~* = b™*a™*. peerrcer or]Congruence relation ‘When an integerA is divided by an integer B, it gives an equation that looks like A=Q(B)+R Ais the dividend B is the divisor Q is the quotient Ris the remainder Focusing on the remainder only, and using the modulo operator (abbreviated as mod), it can be written as A = R (mod B) Definition: Let a, b, m be integers. If a — b is divisible by m then a and b are said to be congruent modulo m”. Itis written as a = b(mod m). For example, 16 — 4 = 12 is divisible by 3 therefore we write 16 = 4(mod 3). 227 ~ 2 is divisible by 3 therefore we write 227 = 2(mod 3) 227 — 2 is not divisible by 4 therefore we write 227 # 2(mod 4) Note: a = b(mod m) © a ~ bis divisible by m = m divides (a b) © a—b=km, for some integer k a-b eo isan integer Problem.1. Prove that the relation “congruence modulo m’” is an equivalence relation. Solution. We say that aRb if a = b(mod m) for some fixed integer m. (Reflexive a—a = Oisdivisible by m, because 0 = O-m. Hence, a = a (mod m), i.e.aRa So congruence modulo m is reflexive ii) Transitive For any integers a,b,c, let aRb, BRe ‘b(mod m) and b = e(mod m) 4. m divides a — b and m divides b — ¢ i.e.a — b = kmand b —c = Im, for some integers k,l Now, a—c = (a—b) +(b—c) =km+lm=(k+1)m. zm divides a — c. Hence, a = c(mod m) Thus, aRb, bRe = aR. Hence, congruence modulo m_is transitive. Gi) Symmetric For any integers a,b, a= (mod m) = m divides (a — b) = a—b = km, for some integer k = b—a = (—k)m, for some integer —k = m divides (b — a) = b = a(mod m) Hence, congruence modulo m is symmetric. Hence, proved. peerrcer or]Properties of the relation “congruence modulo m” : © Ifa = (mod m)and c = d(mod m) then the following are true for any integers I, k and n 'b + d)(mod m) (bd) (mod m) ka = kb(mod m) Quotient Structure Consider an algebraic structure (6,+) with an equivalence relation say R. Two elements a, b are said to be equivalent to each other if (a, b) € R. A collection of all equivalent elements is called Equivalence class. Thus, elements a and b belong. to the same equivalence class if and only if @ and b are equivalent. ‘Thus, the equivalence class of an element a in G is the set {x € G |xRa} Every element of G will be a member of some unique equivalence class. Thus, the set of all equivalence classes gives a partition of G This partition is known as quotient structure of G. It is denoted by G/R. Definition: Let (G,*) be an algebraic structure and R be an equivalence relation on it, The set of all equivalence classes of G given by R is known as the quotient structure of G For example, consider the group of integers (Z, +) with the relation “congruence modulo 4” Let @ denote the equivalence class of the integer a. Then @ = {x € Zx = a (mod4)} = (xx — a = 4k, for some integer k} = (x =a + 4k|k € Z} Which gives, 0 = {x = 0+ 4k|k € Z} = } T= {x= 14 4klk € 2} } 2= {x= 24 4k|k EZ} oJ 3 = {x =3 + 4k|k € Z} = {...,-5, -1,3,7,11,....}. ‘Thus, {0, 1, 2,3} is a partition of (2, +) by the relation “congruence modulo 4” Hence, itis the quotient structure of (2, +) given by the relation “congruence modulo 4” Itis generally denoted 2, ie.Z, = (0,1,2,3} In general, Z, = (0, 1,2, 1) is the quotient structure of (Z, +) given by the relation “congruence modulo n”, where each @ € Zp represents the equivalence class of a € Z. Note: Let (G,*) be an algebraic structure and R be an equivalence relation on it, For any two equivalence classes [a], [6], [a] « [b] = {x € Z| x is equivalent to (a + b)} = [a+b] Note: © Consider a binary operation +, on Zy known as “+ modulo n” defined as G+,b = {x € Z| x is equivalent to (a + b)}=a+b =k, for someQ 2) is not a commutative group. Note: S;, is a finite group of order nt. Definition: An element o € Sy is called a cycle of order r if there exist symbols (numbers) x,,X2, 2p sueh that (1) = X20 (Xp) = X 3 O(p—1) = Xp (Hr) = % and o(x) = x for all symbols other than Hakan Hr. This cycle is denoted by (2,2, 3, = %-). It is a cycle of length r. Further the order of a eycle of length r is r 123 4 5 a ae $) in Ss can be represented as a cycle of length 3 as (2 4 5). le 23 4 5) er For example, ( Further, (2.4 5)? = ') which shows that the order of (2 4 5) is 3 1aDefinition A transposition is a permutation that swaps two elements and leaves everything else fixed i.e. A cycle of length 2 is called a transposition Note: Every permutation € 5, can be expressed as a product of disjoint cycles 123 4 5\_ Bey fe Gee) 2) OG) For example, ( Problem.1 Write the following in permutation form @2 3 4 6)inS, (i) (23 5)(4 7)ins, Problem.2 Find the inverse of the cycle (4 6 2 7 3) Solution (4 6 2 7 3)7=(3 7 2 6 4) Problem.3 Find the inverse of the cycle (1 2 5 3 4) [Summer_2023-24] Problem.4. Solve the equation for x: (1 4 2)?x=(2 3 4)? Solution. (4 2?=(1 2 4)and@ 3 4)'=( 3 2) 14 2Px=(2 3 4 t= G2 4)x=(4@ 3 2) = 2 414 2 4)x=(1 2 414 3 2) = x=(1 2 4)'@ 3 2) = x=(4 2 1@ 3 2) = x=(1 4 3) Problem.5 mG b25 dG 38 he 8) Find to and ot [Summer 2023-24] Que 1.) What is the Order of the Group 54 [Summer_2018-19] Que 2.) Consider the following elements of ss [Summer_2018-19, Winter_2017-18] GO GEES -G 431 2) -G2is4 i) Find aBdy ,ay6B, abyd ii) Findy7* iii.) Find the Order of iv.) Solve hr equation 6x = B v.) What is the order of 5 peerrcer or]Note: Every permutation is a product of transpositions Forexample (1 2 3 .. m)=(1 n)..(1 3) 2) Note: Expression of a permutation as a product of transpositions is not unique. Forexample, (2.7 4 5)=(2 5)(2 4) 7) And(2.7 4 5)=(2 5)(2 4)2 73 6G 6) Definition: A permutation is even if it can be written as a product of an even number of transpositions, a permutation is odd if it ean be written as a product of an odd number of transpositions. Note: * Acycle of length m is odd if n is even, and it is even if n is odd. + The set A,, of all even permutations forms a group under function composition, Hence, it is a subgroup of S;, Problem. Check if the following permutations are even or odd. 2. 2 2 2 ee ere, £ 7 OFaesaD Solution: Oe Lh lr lr LC Since, it is a product of 4 transpositions, it is an even permutation. 2 3 4G 6 7) = @® 653483 )2027 0-4 Oa Na 2 Since, it is a product of 3 transpositions, it is an odd permutation. Problem.2 1234 5) (1234 5 1425 377°°°\2 351 4 i.)commutative ii.) even or odd. [Winter_2019-20] Let r= ( ') . Then check whether t and o are 1aSubgroup Substructure: Let (5,+) be an algebraic structure and let S, © S such that (S,,*) is also an algebraic structure. Then 5, is called a substructure of S. Subgroup: Let (G,*) be a group with the identity element e and H & G. His called a subgroup of G if (i) for every a,b € H,ab € H (je EH (iii) for every a € H its inverse a~* in G also belongs to H. Notes: © HES G denotes that H is a subgroup of G © Anon-empty subset H ofa group G is a subgroup if and only if ab € H for every a,b € H. © Anon-empty subset H of a group (G,*) is a subgroup if and only if If (H,*) is also a group © Forany group G, G is.a subgroup of G. Any other subgroup is called a proper subgroup of G © H Definition: A group G is called a cyclic group, if for some a € G, G = (a). In this case, a is called the generator of G Note: ‘© Acyclic group can have more than one generators. For example, Z Problem.1. Prove that G = {1,— Solution. Clearly, 1 = Similarly, 1 (-i)}. Hence, g = (—i) Exercis Prove that G = 1,2,4,8,16, . } isa eyelie group with Usual Multiplication and generator 4 © Prove that Z,, with addition modulo n is eyclie. Theorem If G is a cyclic group then G is abelian, Proof Let G = (a) and let x,y € G ‘Then x =a”, y = a” for some integers m,n Now, xy = aa" = a" = g"*™ = a"q™ = yx Henee, G is abelian Note: * Any subgroup of a eyelie group is eyelie Defini If G isa group with the identity element e. Let a € G Len n be the smallest positive integer such that a” = e, Then n is called the order a. If no such n exists then order of a is defined to be infinite. It is denoted by o(a) 1aProblem. Find the order of i in C* under the multiplication, [Winter_2022-23] Solution: 1s the identity element. Further, i? =i # 1, i? i.e. 4 is the smallest positive integer such that i* 1418=-i#Lita1 1. Hence, o(i) Problem.2 If G={-1,1} order of (-1) is _ [Winter_2022-23] Problem.3 If G = {a,a?, a3, a*,a5,a® = e} is a Group under Multiplication, then Find the order of the all the element of G. [Summer_2018-19, Winter_2017-18, Winter_2021-22| Exercis 1. Find the order of 3 in Zs and Z¢, 2. S, is cyclic ? Justify your ans peerrcer or]GROUP HOMOMORPHISM & GROI ISOMORPHISM Group Homomorphism: Let (G,) and (G',-) be two groups, A function f: G > G’ is said to be a group homomorphism if F(a*b) = f(a) - f(b), for every a,b € G Group Isomorphism: Let (G,*) and (G',) be two groups. A bijective homomorphism f: G — G' is said to be a group isomorphism Note: © If f:G > G’ is an onto group homomorphism and if G is abelian then G’ is also abelian, i.e. An onto homorphism maps an abelian group to an abelian group, ‘+ If f:G > G’ isan onto group homomorphism and if G is eyclic then G is also cyclic. i.e. An onto homorphism maps a cyclic group to a cyclic group. © If f:G > G’ isa group homomorphism then (i) f (e) = e’ and (ii)f(a~*) = (F(a) * i.e. A group homomorphism maps identity to identity and inverse of an image is image of the inverse. © If f:G = G’ isa group homomorphism then the set ker(f) = {a € G|f(a) = e'} is a normal subgroup of G. It is known as kernel of f. Problem.1. Prove that G’ = {1,1} forms a group under the multiplication Also prove that f:Z — G' defined as f(a) = 1 if a is even, otherwise f(a) = —1L,is a group homomorphism. Solution: Clearly, multiplication is closed and associative on G’. Further 1 is the identity element. And both elements are self-inverse. Hence, G’ = {1, —1} forms a group under the multiplication. Let m,n be any integers such that mn > 0. If both mand n are even then m + 1 is also even. Further, f(m) = f(n) = 1 and f(m +n) = 1 = f(m)f(n) Ifboth m and n are odd then m + 7 is even Further, f(m) = f(n) = —1and f(m +n) = 1 = (-1)(-1) = f(m)/(n) If one of them (say m) is odd and other (say 7) is even then m + n is odd Further, fm) = 1, f(n) = land f(m +n) = -1 = (-1)() = fom) Thus, in any case, f(m + n) = f(m)f(n), Hence, f is a group homomorphism. Problem.2. Let R* be the group of positive real numbers under multiplication. Let f:1R > R* be defined as F(a) = 2%, for all a € R. Then prove that f isa group homomorphism Solution Forany ,b € R f(a +b) = 2%*» = 22" = f(a)f(b). Hence, proved. 1aRings Definition: A ring (R, +;-) is a non-empty set R with two binary operations denoted by + and - subject to the following conditions: (i) (R, +) is an abelian group. (i) (R,) isa semi-group. (i) a-(b+e)=a-b+a-cand(a+b)-c=a-c+b-c ie. + is distributive over + Defini f A ring (R, +,-) is said to be a ring with unit element (identity) if there exists an element e € Rsuch thate-a=a-e =a foreverya ER is said to be a commutative if a b = ba for every a,b € R Note: * Inaring (R, +) the identity element under + is known as a zero element, Similarly, unit element is the identity element under the second operation. Problem.1. Prove that R = 22 is a ring under usual addition and multiplication. Problem.2. Prove that R = R is a ring under usual addition and multiplication, Problem.3. Prove that R = {t 5) |.a,,¢,d are real numbers} with usual matrix addition is ‘an abelian group. Let the matrix multiplication be distributive over addition to make it a ring. Find the unit element of this ring. Is it a commutative ring? [Winter_2019-20] Integral domain Definition: Let R bearing and a,b € R, both being non-zero, Then a is called a zero divisor if € R9.ab = 0. Definition: A commutative ring which has no zero divisor is called an integral domain Problem.1. Prove that the ring of 2 X 2 real matrices is not an integral domain. Solution: We know that i is the zero element of the ring, 9 ol 1a0 07 ( 0 0 lo 0 Jana o A are zero divisors in the ring. Hence, it is not an integral domain. Consider, [} Gfand [3 Often [GI <7 0 0. Hence, Problem.2. Check if R = 22 is an integral domain under usual addition and multiplication. Problem.3. Prove that = Ris an integral domain under usual addition and multiplication Problem.4. Prove that R = Zs is an integral domain under addition and multiplication modulo 5 Problem.5. Check if R = 2, is an integral domain under addition and multiplication modulo 5. Problem.6. A commutative ring which has no zero divisor is called __ [Winter_2019-20] Field Definition: A commutative ring R with unit element 1 # 0 in which every non-zero element has an inverse with respect to multiplication is called a field. Definiti A ing R with unit element 1 # 0 in which every non-zero element has an inverse with respect to multiplication is called a skew-field, Note: By definition, every field is a skew-field Problem.1. Prove that ring of real numbers is a field Problem.2. Prove that ring of rational numbers is a field Problem.3. Prove that Zs is a field. 1aBoolean algebra and Boolean ring Boolean algebra provides the operations and the rules for working with the set {0, 1} Electronic and optical switches can be studied using this set and the rules of Boolean algebra. Operations in Boolean algebr: Operation Notation Definition (Result) 1andi=0 ‘Complementation a a 14+1=1 14+0=1 Boolean sum + or OR Rien Ben 1-1=1 1-0 Boolean product or AND Gea 00 Note: ‘© When there is no danger of confusion, the symbol + can be deleted, just as in writing algebraic products. ‘© Unless parentheses are used, the rules of precedence for Boolean operators are first all complements are computed, followed by all Boolean products, followed by all Boolean sums, ‘© The complement, Boolean sum, and Boolean product correspond to the logical operators, —.V. and A, respectively, where 0 corresponds to F (false) and 1 corresponds toT (true) ‘© Equalities in Boolean algebra can be directly translated into equivalences of compound propositions. Conversely, equivalences of compound propositions can be translated into ‘equalities in Boolean algebra Problem.1, Find the value of the following, @1-04+ 04D (i) 1+0-047-0 Problem.2. Translate the following into a logical equivalence. @1-0+@FD (i) 1+0-047-0 Problem.3. Translate the logical equivalence (T A T) VF = T into an identity in Boolean algebra Solution; 1-14+0=1 Boolean expression and Boolean function Let B= {0, 1}. Then B® = {(2xy,X2,.-.%n)%) € B for 1 < i < n} isthe set ofall possible n— tuples of Os and 1s The variable x is called a Boolean variable if it assumes values only from B, that is, if its only possible values are 0 and 1 A function from B" to B is called a Boolean function of degree Boolean functions can be represented using expressions made up from variables and Boolean operations. If E, and B, are Boolean expressions, then E;, (Ey), and (E + Ez) are Boolean expressions, Each Boolean expression represents a Boolean function ‘The values of this function are obtained by substituting 0 and 1 for the variables in the expression peerrcer or]Problem.1. Find the values of the Boolean function represented by F (x,y,z) = xy + 2 Solution. The values of this function are displayed in the following table x{y|z|y F(xy,2) = xy +z elele}H}ofe} aly lH] o}e} ole} ole Ble] HlolAfel ale] s. Bl olHlolHfo} ale Boolean functions F and G of n variables are equal if and only if F(2,X2,-...%n G (2, Xp), Xp) Whenever x,, X2,...,Xybelong to B. Two different Boolean expressions that represent the same function are called equivalent For instance, the Boolean expressions xy, xy + 0, and xy + 1 are equivalent The complement of the Boolean function F is the function F, where F (,,X25-001%n) = FX Xn) Let F and G be Boolean functions of degree n. The Boolean sum F + G and the Boolean product FG are defined by (FFG) Oy, X py Xn) (FG) (1X2 0+-%n) FX, Fx %, Xn) + GX, X21-0Xn)y Xn)G (Xa Xap n) How many different Boolean functions of degree m are there? rom the product rule for counting, it follows that there are 2" different n — tuples of 0s and 1. Because a Boolean funetion is an assignment of 0 or 1 to each of these 2” different n — tuples, the product rule shows that there are 2?"different Boolean functions of degree n. 1aIdentity of Boolean algebra ‘There are many identities in Boolean algebra. The most important of these are displayed the following table. These identities are particularly useful in simplifying the design of circuits. Each of the identities in table below can be proved using a table Law of the double complement Idempotent laws Identity Laws x+1= Domination laws x-0=0 xtysytx ‘Commutative laws ay x X+QVF+D=4y)+z | Associative laws x(92) = @y)z x+yz=(et+yr+2) Distributive laws x(y +2) =3y +32 = De Morgan's laws ay xtay=x Absorption laws x(e+y) =" x4+¥=1 Unit property xF=0 ‘Zero property Problem.1.Prove that x(y + 2) = xy + xz x|y|zlytz|xiyv+z)| xy xz xy txz tfifil[ a 1 1 1 1 ae late coe ea 1 1 0 1 ae )08 et ed 1 0 1 1 1/08/20.) 0 0 0 0 0 Oey 0 0 0 0 ofifo| 1 0 0 0 0 Oe 0r eet 0 0 0 0 o;ofo] o 0 0 0 0 Since, both the expressions have same values they are same(equivalent), Exercise: © Prove the associative law for Boolean sum. 1aDuality The dual of Boolean expression is obtained by interchanging Boolean Sums and Boolean Products, and interchanging Os and 1s. For example, the dual of x - (y + 0) is x + (1) and the dual of x- 1+ (7 +2) is (x +0) - (+z) Disjunctive and Conjunctive Normal Form Definition. A literal is a Boolean variable or its complement. A minterm of the Boolean variables X;,2,...,%y is a Boolean product Ys V2...Jq Where Ye = x, OF ¥, Hence, a minterm is a Boolean product of n literals, with one literal for each variable, A minterm is the standard product. Not A minterm has the value 1 for one and only one combination of values of its variables. More precisely, the minterm y;y2...Yq, is 1 ifand only if each y; is 1, and this occurs if and only if xj = 1 when y; = x; and x; = 0 when y= % Problem.1. Find a minterm that equals 1 if x; = 3 = 0 and x» = x4 = x5 = 1, and equals 0 otherwise. Solution. The minterm ;x5%5x4%s has the correct set of values Disjunctive Normal Form By taking Boolean sums of distinct minterms we can build up a Boolean expression with a specified set of values. In particular, a Boolean sum of minterms has the value 1 when exactly one of the ‘minterms in the sum has the value | It has the value 0 for all other combinations of values of the variables Consequently, given a Boolean function, a Boolean sum of minterms can be formed that has the value I when this Boolean function has the value 1, and has the value 0 when the function has the value 0. ‘The minterms in this Boolean sum correspond to those combinations of values for which the function has the value 1 Definition. ‘The sum of minterms that represents the function is called the sum-of-products expansion or the disjunctive normal form of the Boolean function. Problem. 1. Find the sum-of-products expansion for the function F(x,y,z) = (x + y)Z using the Boolean identities. Solution. FQy,z) = (x + yz xE+yZ Distributive law xlz+ lyz Identity law xO + WZ + (x + ¥)yz Unit property XYZ + xyz + xyz + XYZ Distributive law XYZ + xyz + RZ Idempotent lawProblem.2. Find the sum-of-products expansion for the function F(x,y,z) = (x + y)2 using the table of values. Solution. Consider the following table of values of the function F(x,y,z) = (x + y)z. x|y|z|xty| 2 [@tyye eee 0 0 ante On| 1 1 1|0 1 1 oO oO 1\48 oO i 1 7 0 1 1 t 0 0 Ona e0a|eat 1 1 o;o 1 0 oO oO o;o oO 0 1 0 ‘The sum-of products expansion of F is the Boolean sum of three minterms corresponding to the three rows of this table that give the value 1 for the function. This gives F(x,y,2) = xyZ + xyz + xyz Conjunetive Normal Form It is also possible to find a Boolean expression that represents a Boolean function by taking a Boolean product of Boolean sums, The resulting expansion is called the conjunctive normal form or product-of-sums expansion of the function. These expansions can be found from sum-of- products expansions by taking duals, Problem.1. Find the product-of-sums expansion for the funetion F(x,y,z) = (x + y)Z using the table of values. [Winter 2019-20] Solution. Consider the following table of values of the function F(x,y,z) = (x + y)z. x|y|z|xty z |@t+y)z 1{ifi] 1 0 0 tt ont 1 1 toes 0 0 T[o[fo] 1 1 1 ofifi[ a 0 0 On eie-Oaa 1 1 Opel tio 0 0 ofofo| o 1 0 ‘The sum-of products expansion of F is the Boolean sum of three minterms corresponding to the three rows of this table that give the value | for the function, This gives the sum-of-product expression as F(x,y,2) = xyZ + xyz + xyz Taking the dual of this, F(x,y,z) =(xt+y+Z2+pt+DEty+2) Which is the required product-of-sums expansion, 1aBoolean ring Let B = {0,1}. Define x® y = (x A +y) V (4x A y) for the ring sum of x and y, and use xy = x + y for their product. Prove that (B, @,-) forms a ring. Solution: Consider the table for the ring sum on B = {0,1} e : a Which shows that the ring sum satisfies both the closure property and associative property, Further 0 is the zero element. And both the elements are self 2 o Z inverse Hence, B is a group under ring sum. 1 1 0 Further, Boolean product satisfies closure property. Further x - (y®z) = (x - y)@(x- z) can be verified by the following table as product of both the sides are same in each case x] y | 2 | y@z| x (vz) | (x+y) | @-z) | & y)O@-2) Oe 207 | 08)|20 0 0 0 0 On 0) eae et 0 0 0 0 Ee 0 0 0 0 Oe) et | 13] 20: 0 0 0 0 1{[o/o]o 0 0 0 0 Tee 1 0 1 1 telat 0 1 1 0 a at || 0: 0 1 1 0 ‘Thus, it forms a ring 1a