FME 451 – Material Science and Engineering IV

Tutorial

Fracture Mechanics

1. What is the magnitude of the maximum stress that exists at the tip of an
internal crack having a radius of curvature of 2.5 × 10-4 mm and a crack
length of 2.5 × 10-2 mm when a tensile stress of 170 MPa is applied?
Solution

This problem asks that we compute the magnitude of the maximum stress
that exists at the tip of an internal crack.

2. Estimate the theoretical fracture strength of a brittle material if it is known

that fracture occurs by the propagation of an elliptically shaped surface crack
of length 0.25 mm and having a tip radius of curvature of 1.2 × 10-3 mm when
a stress of 1200 MPa is applied. (Ans 𝜎𝑚 = 35𝐺𝑃𝑎)
3. If the specific surface energy for soda-lime glass is 0.30 J/m2, and the
modulus of elasticity of the soda-lime glass is 69GPa. Compute the critical
stress required for the propagation of a surface crack of length 0.05 mm.
Solution
4. A polystyrene component must not fail when a tensile stress of 1.25 MPa is
applied. Determine the maximum allowable surface crack length if the surface
energy of polystyrene is 0.50 J/m2. Assume a modulus of elasticity of 3.0
GPa. (Ans: 0.61 mm)
5. Suppose that a wing component on an aircraft is fabricated from an
aluminum alloy that has a plane strain fracture toughness of 40 𝑀𝑃𝑎√𝑚. It
has been determined that fracture results at a stress of 365 MPa when the
maximum internal crack length is 2.5 mm. For this same component and
alloy, compute the stress level at which fracture will occur for a critical
internal crack length of 4.0 mm.
Solution
It first becomes necessary to solve for the parameter Y for the conditions under
which fracture occurred.

6. A structural component in the form of a wide plate is to be fabricated from

a steel alloy that has a plane strain fracture toughness of 77.0 𝑀𝑃𝑎√𝑚 and
a yield strength of 1400 MPa. The flaw size resolution limit of the flaw
detection apparatus is 4.0 mm. If the design stress is one half of the yield
strength and the value of Y is 1.0, determine whether or not a critical flaw
for this plate is subject to detection.
Solution
We first need to compute the value of ac
 Therefore, the critical flaw is not subject to detection since this value of ac
(3.9 mm) is less than the 4.0 mm resolution limit.

7. A specimen of a 4340 steel alloy having a plane strain fracture toughness

of 45 𝑀𝑃𝑎√𝑚 is exposed to a stress of 1000 MPa. Will this specimen
experience fracture if it is known that the largest surface crack is 0.75 mm
long? Why or why not? Assume that the parameter Y has a value of 1.0.
(𝐴𝑛𝑠: 𝜎𝑐 = 927 𝑀𝑃𝑎. Fracture will most likely occur because this specimen
will tolerate a stress of 927 MPa before fracture, which is less than the
applied stress of 1000 MPa)

Fatigue

1. A fatigue test was conducted in which the mean stress was 50 MPa and the
stress amplitude was 225 MPa.
(a) Compute the maximum and minimum stress levels. (σ𝑚𝑎x = 275 MPa, σmin =
−175 MPa)
(b) Compute the stress ratio. (𝑅 = −0.64)
(c) Compute the magnitude of the stress range (σ𝑟 = 450 MPa)
2. Cylindrical 1045 steel bar is subjected to repeated compression-tension
stress cycling along its axis. If the load amplitude is 22,000 N, compute the
 minimum allowable bar diameter to ensure that fatigue failure will not
occur. Assume a factor of safety of 2.0. (𝐴𝑛𝑠: 𝑑0 = 13.4 𝑚𝑚)

Figure 1

3. An 8.0 mm diameter cylindrical rod fabricated from a red brass alloy (Figure
1) is subjected to reversed tension-compression load cycling along its axis. If
the maximum tensile and compressive loads are +7500 N and -7500 N,
respectively, determine its fatigue life. Assume that the stress plotted in the
figure above is stress amplitude.
Solution
4. A 12.5 mm diameter cylindrical rod fabricated from a 2014-T6 alloy (Figure
1) is subjected to a repeated tension-compression load cycling along its axis.
Compute the maximum and minimum loads that will be applied to yield a
fatigue life of 1.0 × 107 cycles. Assume that the stress plotted on the vertical
axis is stress amplitude, and data were taken for a mean stress of 50 MPa.
(Ans: 𝐹𝑚𝑎x = 25,800𝑁, 𝐹𝑚in = −13,500𝑁)
5. Explain five factors that may lead to scatter in fatigue life data.
Solution
Five factors that lead to scatter in fatigue life data are (1) specimen fabrication
and surface preparation, (2) metallurgical variables, (3) specimen alignment
in the test apparatus, (4) variation in mean stress, and (5) variation in test
cycle frequency.
6. The cold-drawn AISI 1040 steel bar shown in the figure is subjected to a
completely reversed axial load fluctuating between 28 kN in compression to
28 kN in tension. Estimate the fatigue factor of safety based on achieving
infinite life, and the yielding factor of safety. If infinite life is not predicted,
estimate the number of cycles to failure.

Solution
Since infinite life is not predicted, estimate a life from the S-N diagram. First,
find an equivalent completely reversed stress.

8. Repeat Prob. 6–25 for each of the following loading conditions:

(a) 0 kN to 28 kN (𝑛𝑦 = 3.32 , 𝑛𝑓 = 0.95 , 𝑁 = 586000)
 (b)12 kN to 28 kN (𝑛𝑦 = 3.32 , 𝑛𝑓 = 1.20)
(c) –28 kN to 12 kN (𝑛𝑦 = 3.32 , 𝑛𝑓 = 0.90 , 𝑁 = 446000)

Creep

1. The following creep data were taken on an aluminum alloy at 400°C and a
constant stress of 25 MPa. Plot the data as strain versus time, then determine
the steady-state or minimum creep rate. Note: The initial and instantaneous
strain is not included.

Solution
The creep data plotted generate:
 The steady-state creep rate (∆ε/∆t) is the slope of the linear region (i.e., the
straight line that has been superimposed on the curve) as

2. A specimen 750 mm long of an S-590 alloy (Figure 2) is to be exposed to a

tensile stress of 80 MPa at 815°C. Determine its elongation after 5000 h.
Assume that the total of both instantaneous and primary creep elongations
is 1.5 mm.
 Figure 2

Solution
From the 815°C line in Figure 2, the steady state creep rate 𝜀𝑠̇ is about 5.5 ×
10-6 h-1 at 80 MPa. The steady state creep strain, 𝜀𝑠̇ , therefore, is just the
product of 𝜀𝑠̇ and time as

𝜀𝑠 = 𝜀𝑠̇ × (𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒)

solving for the steady state elongation, ∆ls, leads to

Finally, the total elongation is just the sum of this ∆ls and the total of both
instantaneous and primary creep elongations [i.e., 1.5 mm]. Therefore, the
total elongation is 20.6 mm + 1.5 mm = 22.1 mm.

3. For a cylindrical S-590 alloy specimen (Figure 2) originally 10 mm in diameter

and 500 mm long, what tensile load is necessary to produce a total elongation
 of 145 mm after 2,000 h at 730°C? Assume that the sum of instantaneous
and primary creep elongations is 8.6 mm. (Ans F = 15,700 N)
4. If a component fabricated from an S-590 alloy (Figure 3) is to be exposed to a
tensile stress of 300 MPa at 650°C, estimate its rupture lifetime.(Ans:600h)

Figure 3

5. A cylindrical component constructed from an S-590 alloy (Figure 3) has a

diameter of 12 mm. Determine the maximum load that may be applied for
it to survive 500 h at 925°C (Ans: F = 5655 N)
6. From the equation 𝜀𝑠̇ = 𝐾1 𝜎 𝑛 , if the logarithm of 𝜀𝑠̇ is plotted versus the
logarithm of σ, then a straight line should result, the slope of which is the
stress exponent n. Using Figure 2, determine the value of n for the S-590
alloy at 925°C, and for the initial (i.e., lower-temperature) straight line
segments at each of 650°C, 730°C, and 815°C.(𝐴𝑛𝑠: 650°𝐶→ 𝑛 =
11.2, 730°𝐶→ 𝑛 = 8.7, 𝑎𝑛𝑑 815°𝐶→ 𝑛 = 7.8).
7. (a) Estimate the activation energy for creep (i.e., Qc) for the S-590 alloy
having the steady-state creep behavior shown in Figure 2. Use data taken
at a stress level of 300 MPa and temperatures of 650°C and 730°C .
Assume that the stress exponent n is independent of temperature. (b)
Estimate 𝜀𝑠̇ at 600°C and 300 MPa.
Solution
 𝑄𝑐
= 𝐾2̇ exp (− )
𝑅𝑇
Taking natural logarithms of the above expression
𝑄𝑐
ln 𝜀𝑠̇ = ln 𝐾2̇ −
𝑅𝑇
For the case in which we have creep data at two temperatures (denoted as
T1 and T2) and their corresponding steady-state creep rates (𝜀𝑠1̇ and 𝜀𝑠2̇ ), it
is possible to set up two simultaneous equations of the form as above, with
two unknowns, namely 𝐾2̇ and Qc. Solving for 𝑄𝑐 yields
𝑅(ln 𝜀𝑠1̇ − ln 𝜀𝑠2̇ )
𝑄𝑐 =
1 1
[ − ]
𝑇1 𝑇2
Let us choose T1 as 650°C and T2 as 730°C; then from Figure 2, at σ = 300
MPa, 𝜀𝑠1̇ = 8.9 × 10-5 h-1 and 𝜀𝑠2̇ = 1.3 × 10-2 h-1. Substitution of these values
into the above equation leads to

(b) We are now asked to estimate 𝜀𝑠̇ at 600°C (873 K) and 300 MPa. It is
first necessary to determine the value of 𝐾2̇ , which is accomplished using
the first expression above, the value of Qc, and one value each of 𝜀𝑠̇ and T
(say 𝜀𝑠1̇ and T1). Thus
𝑄𝑐
𝐾2̇ = 𝜀𝑠1̇ exp ( )
𝑅𝑇1

Now it is possible to calculate 𝜀𝑠1̇ at 600°C and 300 MPa as follows:

𝑄𝑐
𝜀𝑠̇ = 𝐾2̇ exp (− )
𝑅𝑇
9. Consider an S-590 alloy component (Figure 4) that is subjected to a stress
of 200 MPa. At what temperature will the rupture lifetime be 500 h? (Ans:
718°C).

Figure 4

Applications

1. A turbine blade in a jet engine is found to be the cause of an airplane

crash. Expert witnesses disagree on whether the turbine blade failed
because a large bird was ingested into the engine, because the engine
overheated and creep failure occurred, or because of stress-corrosion
cracking due to the presence of sulphides in the engine. What features of
the turbine blade, fracture surface, and microstructure would you look for
in an attempt to settle this dispute?
Solution
 • Ingestion of a foreign object such as a bird is likely to cause failure by
impact -- severe deformation of the turbine blade, with a possible
chevron pattern and cleavage planes on the fracture surface, might be
observed.
• If failure is due to creep caused by over-heating, deformation of the blade
again might be expected. However, in this case, examination of the
microstructure near the fracture surface may show the presence of voids
produced by the creep mechanism.
• Failure by stress-corrosion cracking may lead to relatively little overall
deformation of the blade. Examination of the microstructure near the
fracture surface may reveal additional cracks that did not propagate far
enough to cause failure. Examination of these cracks with a scanning
electron microscope, using the X-ray features, would show the presence
of byproducts of the corrosion process, in this case perhaps complex
sulfides, suggesting that stress-corrosion was involved.\

2. The titanium tubes in a heat exchanger operating at 500°C are found to

crack and leak after several months of use. Suggest possible causes for
the failure and describe the features of the heat exchanger and its
microstructure that you would look for in order to confirm the actual
cause.
Solution
• Because the titanium tubes are operating at a high temperature and
possibly in a corrosive environment, the first two failure mechanisms to
look for in this case might be creep or stress-rupture fracture or stress
corrosion fracture. Furthermore, the operating temperature of 500°C is
close to the temperature at which the protective titanium oxide film breaks
down, leading to oxidation or embrittlement of the alloy.
• A metallographic examination will help to reveal the cause for the the
failure. If creep or stress-rupture is the cause, the microstructure may
 include voids caused by grain boundary sliding or void coalescence; there
may also be extensive plastic deformation of the tubes due to creep. If
stress corrosion is the cause, we might expect to find multiple cracks filled
with a corrosion byproduct.

3. Two thick steel plates are joined by an arc welding process as part of an
assembly for a missile-carrying transport vehicle. After the vehicle is
placed in service, the assembly fails. Inspection of the failure indicates that
the crack propagated through the heat affected area of the weld, right next
to the actual fusion zone. Suggest possible causes of the failure, including
the role of the welding process and the microstructure that the welding
process may have produced in the heat affected zone. What
recommendations might you have to avoid such failures in the future?
Solution
• When a steel is welded, the metal next to the fusion zone heats above the
A3 temperature and changes to austenite. Austenite grain growth may
occur. When the weld cools, the coarse-grained austenite may then
transform to martensite, making the heat affected zone very brittle.
Furthermore, if hydrogen is able to enter the heat affected zone, hydrogen
embrittlement and cracking can occur in the heat affected zone. When the
weld is overstressed, the weldment will fail in a brittle manner.
• Factors that might contribute to such a failure include (1) using a high
hardenability steel, so that martensite easily forms, (2) achieving high
cooling rates in the weld, encouraging the formation of martensite, and (3)
using welding processes that produce high cooling rates or introduce
hydrogen into the weld that might contribute to embrittlement.
• Recommendations for minimizing the problem include using low alloy, low
carbon steels (such as HSLA steels), preheating the base metal prior to
welding to reduce the cooling rates, postheating the weld to temper any
martensite that might form and also to reduce residual stresses that might
 encourage cracking, using ductile filler metals to minimize residual
stresses (the stresses can be reduced by plastic deformation of the fusion
zone), and using welding processes that produce low hydrogen contents
(such as electron beam welding or inert-gas welding processes).

4. A complex-shaped clamp made of a copper alloy is made by a cold-forming

process. The clamp is used to fasten a heavy electrical transformer to a
pole outdoors. Shortly after installation, cracks are found at a location
where the clamp had been bent into a U-shape during forming. What are
possible fracture mechanisms for this device? What features in the
material or on the fracture surface would you look for to determine the
cause of the crack?
Solution
• The most likely cause for this failure is stress corrosion; the clamp was
locally cold worked during forming, with the curve of the U-shape receiving
the largest cold work and thus containing the highest residual stresses. It
would act as the anode in a corrosion cell. The clamp is also used to hold
a heavy transformer, which adds additional stress to the fixture. Finally,
the clamp is used outside, possibly in a corrosive environment. Due to the
stress cell, stress corrosion cracking may have occurred, eventually
causing the clamp to fail. Examination of the metal near the fracture may
reveal secondary cracks, likely filled with a corrosion byproduct,
supporting our theory of stress corrosion cracking.