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AS 5100.8:2017

Bridge design

of existing bridges
AP-G51.8-17

Part 8: Rehabilitation and strengthening

AS 5100.8:2017
 This Australian Standard® was prepared by Committee BD-090, Bridge Design. It was
approved on behalf of the Council of Standards Australia on 15 March 2017.
This Standard was published on 31 March 2017.

The following are represented on Committee BD-090:

 Australian Industry Group

 Australian Steel Institute
 Austroads
 Bureau of Steel Manufacturers of Australia
 Cement and Concrete Association of New Zealand
 Cement Concrete & Aggregates Australia—Cement
 Concrete Institute of Australia
 Consult Australia
 Engineers Australia
 New Zealand Heavy Engineering Research Association
 Rail Industry Safety and Standards Board
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 Steel Construction New Zealand

 Steel Reinforcement Institute of Australia
 Sydney Trains

This Standard was issued in draft form for comment as DR AS 5100.8:2016.

Standards Australia wishes to acknowledge the participation of the expert individuals that
contributed to the development of this Standard through their representation on the
Committee and through the public comment period.

Keeping Standards up-to-date

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systems. To maintain their currency, all Standards are periodically reviewed, and new editions
are published. Between editions, amendments may be issued.

Standards may also be withdrawn. It is important that readers assure themselves they are
using a current Standard, which should include any amendments that may have been
published since the Standard was published.

Detailed information about Australian Standards, drafts, amendments and new projects can
be found by visiting www.standards.org.au

Standards Australia welcomes suggestions for improvements, and encourages readers to

notify us immediately of any apparent inaccuracies or ambiguities. Contact us via email at
[email protected], or write to Standards Australia, GPO Box 476, Sydney, NSW 2001.
 AS 5100.8:2017

Australian Standard®

Bridge design
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Part 8: Rehabilitation and strengthening

of existing bridges

First published as AS 5100.8:2017.

COPYRIGHT
© Standards Australia Limited
All rights are reserved. No part of this work may be reproduced or copied in any form or by
any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, without the written
permission of the publisher, unless otherwise permitted under the Copyright Act 1968.
Published by SAI Global Limited under licence from Standards Australia Limited, GPO Box
476, Sydney, NSW 2001, Australia
ISBN 978 1 76035 721 4
 AS 5100.8:2017 2

PREFACE
This Standard was prepared by the Standards Australia Committee BD-090, Bridge Design,
in response to numerous requests from industry, designers and representatives in the field of
Bridge Design, especially those in the area of rehabilitation and strengthening of existing
bridges.
This Standard is also designated as Austroads publication AP-G51.8-17.
The requirements of the AS(AS/NZS) 5100 series are based on the principles of structural
mechanics and knowledge of material properties, for both the conceptual and detailed
design, to achieve acceptable probabilities that the bridge or associated structure being
designed will not become unfit for use during its design life.
The objectives of the AS(AS/NZS) 5100 series are to provide nationally acceptable
requirements for—
(a) the design of road, rail, pedestrian and cyclist-path bridges;
(b) the specific application of concrete, steel, timber and composite construction, which
embody principles that may be applied to other materials in association with relevant
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Standards; and
The objective of this Part (AS 5100.8) is to provide requirements for the assessment of the
load capacity, and for the strengthening and rehabilitation of existing bridges.
In line with Standards Australia policy, the words ‘shall’ and ‘may’ are used consistently
throughout this Standard to indicate respectively, a mandatory provision and an acceptable
or permissible alternative.
Statements expressed in mandatory terms in Notes to tables are deemed to be requirements
of this Standard.
The terms ‘normative’ and ‘informative’ have been used in this Standard to define the
application of the appendix to which they apply. A ‘normative’ appendix is an integral part
of a Standard, whereas an ‘informative’ appendix is only for information and guidance.
 3 AS 5100.8:2017

CONTENTS

Page

SECTION 1 SCOPE AND GENERAL

1.1 SCOPE ......................................................................................................................... 5
1.2 NORMATIVE REFERENCES .................................................................................... 6
1.3 DEFINITIONS............................................................................................................. 8
1.4 NOTATION ............................................................................................................... 12
1.5 DURABILITY CONSIDERATIONS ........................................................................ 13
1.6 SERVICE ENVIRONMENTS FOR BRIDGE STRUCTURES ................................. 13
1.7 MATTERS FOR RESOLUTION BEFORE DESIGN COMMENCES ...................... 14
1.8 APPROPRIATE SUPERVISION .............................................................................. 14

SECTION 2 DESIGN REQUIREMENTS AND PROCEDURES

2.1 GENERAL ................................................................................................................ 15
2.2 ASSESSMENT OF EXISTING STRUCTURAL CAPACITY .................................. 15
2.3 DESIGN .................................................................................................................... 15
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SECTION 3 CONCRETE STRUCTURES

3.1 GENERAL ................................................................................................................. 17
3.2 CONDITION ASSESSMENT ................................................................................... 17
3.3 ASSESSMENT FOR CATHODIC PROTECTION (CP) ........................................... 22
3.4 ASSESSMENT OF FIRE-AFFECTED CONCRETE ................................................ 23
3.5 METHODS OF REPAIR AND REHABILITATION OF CONCRETE
STRUCTURES .......................................................................................................... 25
3.6 STRENGTHENING OF CONCRETE STRUCTURES ............................................. 34

SECTION 4 STEEL STRUCTURES

4.1 GENERAL ................................................................................................................. 37
4.2 CONDITION ASSESSMENT ................................................................................... 37
4.3 ASSESSMENT FOR CATHODIC PROTECTION (CP) ........................................... 42
4.4 INSPECTION AND ASSESSMENT OF FIRE-AFFECTED STEEL ........................ 42
4.5 METHODS OF REPAIR, AND REHABILITATION OF STEEL STRUCTURES ... 43
4.6 STRENGTHENING OF STEEL STRUCTURES ...................................................... 45

SECTION 5 TIMBER STRUCTURES

5.1 GENERAL ................................................................................................................. 47
5.2 CONDITION ASSESSMENT ................................................................................... 47
5.3 TYPES OF REPAIRS AND STRENGTHENING WORKS ...................................... 51

SECTION 6 MASONRY STRUCTURES

6.1 GENERAL ................................................................................................................. 53
6.2 CONDITION ASSESSMENT ................................................................................... 53
6.3 ASSESSMENT OF FIRE-AFFECTED MASONRY ................................................. 55
6.4 METHODS OF REPAIR, PROTECTION AND STRENGTHENING OF
MASONRY STRUCTURES...................................................................................... 56
6.5 STRENGTHENING OF MASONRY STRUCTURES .............................................. 60
 AS 5100.8:2017 4

SECTION 7 BEARINGS
7.1 GENERAL ................................................................................................................. 62
7.2 INSPECTION AND CONDITION ASSESSMENT .................................................. 62
7.3 REPAIR OPTIONS.................................................................................................... 62
7.4 REPAIR DESIGN ...................................................................................................... 63
7.5 REPAIR DESIGN OUTPUT ..................................................................................... 63
7.6 BEARING REPAIR WORK ...................................................................................... 64

SECTION 8 DECK JOINTS

8.1 GENERAL ................................................................................................................. 66
8.2 INSPECTION AND CONDITION ASSESSMENT .................................................. 66
8.3 REPAIR OPTIONS.................................................................................................... 66
8.4 REPAIR DESIGN ...................................................................................................... 67
8.5 REPAIR DESIGN OUTPUT ..................................................................................... 68
8.6 DECK JOINT REPAIR WORK ................................................................................. 69

SECTION 9 BARRIERS
9.1 GENERAL ................................................................................................................. 70
9.2 REPAIR DESIGN ...................................................................................................... 70
9.3 INSPECTION AND CONDITION ASSESSMENT .................................................. 70
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9.4 REPAIR OPTIONS.................................................................................................... 71

9.5 FULL BARRIER REPLACEMENT OR MAJOR UPGRADE .................................. 71

SECTION 10 CULVERTS
10.1 GENERAL ................................................................................................................. 72
10.2 CONDITION ASSESSMENT CRITERIA................................................................. 72
10.3 REPAIR, REHABILITATION AND STRENGTHENING OF STRUCTURES ........ 75
10.4 DESIGN REQUIREMENTS...................................................................................... 76
10.5 TESTING................................................................................................................... 76

SECTION 11 WORK, HEALTH AND SAFETY AND QUALITY REQUIREMENTS

11.1 GENERAL ................................................................................................................. 77
11.2 HANDLING PRECAUTIONS................................................................................... 77
11.3 FIRST AID ................................................................................................................ 77
11.4 CLEANING UP ......................................................................................................... 77
11.5 QUALITY REQUIREMENTS................................................................................... 77

APPENDICES
A FIBRE REINFORCED POLYMER (FRP) STRENGTHENING ............................... 78
B CATHODIC PROTECTION OF REINFORCED CONCRETE STRUCTURES ..... 110
C EXISTING TRAFFIC BARRIER ASSESSMENT .................................................. 115
D DESIGN OF TIMBER ELEMENTS IN BRIDGES ................................................. 117
E BRIDGE SPECIFIC ASSESSMENT LIVE LOADING (BSALL) ........................... 130
F TIMBER STRUCTURES—TYPES OF REPAIRS AND STRENGTHENING
WORKS ................................................................................................................... 131

BIBLIOGRAPHY ................................................................................................................... 134

 5 AS 5100.8:2017

STANDARDS AUSTRALIA

Australian Standard
Bridge design

Part 8: Rehabilitation and strengthening of existing bridges

SECTI ON 1 SCOPE AND GENERAL

1.1 SCOPE
This Standard sets out minimum requirements and procedures to—
(a) repair or rehabilitate a structure in order to restore it to its original or intended level
of service;
(b) extend the remaining service life of the structure;
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(c) strengthen a structure (because of structural deterioration) to restore its original

capacity;
(d) strengthen a structure to increase its capacity for live load (such as in response to a
proposed increase in vehicle loads), barrier loading, collision loading, earthquake
loading and other loading;
(e) change the function of a structure (such as a road bridge to a pedestrian/cyclist
bridge);
(f) widen an existing structure; or
(g) any combination of the above.
Structures covered in this Part of the AS(AS/NZS) 5100 series include existing bridges
(both superstructure and sub-structure) approach slabs, wing walls and buried culverts.
NOTES:
1 Rehabilitation or strengthening may not be feasible for those structures that—
(a) have substandard horizontal and vertical clearances;
(b) have a poor alignment both on the structure and on the approaches;
(c) have extensive deterioration of the substructure, including active scour undermining,
pronounced seismic vulnerability, and/or questionable foundations;
(d) have numerous deficiencies throughout the superstructure and/or substructure;
(e) have deficient in situ strength; or
(f) have structural systems that are non-redundant or incorporate poor details that require
increased maintenance and inspection.
2 All the requirements of this Standard may not be applicable to emergency response situations.

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 AS 5100.8:2017 6

1.2 NORMATIVE REFERENCES

The following are the normative documents referenced in this Standard:
NOTE: Documents referenced for informative purposes are listed in the Bibliography.
AS
1012 Methods of testing concrete
1012.8.3 Method 8.3: Methods of making and curing concrete—Mortar and grout
specimens
1012.9 Method 9: Compressive strength tests—Concrete, mortar and grout
specimens
1012.14 Method 14: Method for securing and testing cores from hardened concrete
for compressive strength
1012.20.1 Method 20.1: Determination of chloride and sulfate in hardened concrete and
aggregates—Nitric acid extraction method
1012.20.2 Method 20.2: Determination of water-soluble chloride in aggregates and
hardened concrete
1012.21 Method 21: Determination of water absorption and apparent volume of
permeable voids in hardened concrete
1012.24 Method 24: Determination of the tensile bond strength of concrete—Repairs
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and strengthening systems

1065 Non-destructive testing—Ultrasonic testing of carbon and low alloy steel
forgings
1171 Non-destructive testing—Magnetic particle testing of ferromagnetic products,
components and structures
1214 Hot–dip galvanized coatings on threaded fasteners (ISO metric coarse thread
series)
1391 Metallic materials—Tensile testing at ambient temperature
1544 Methods for impact tests on metals
1544.2 Part 2: Charpy V-notch
1597 Precast reinforced concrete box culverts
1597.2 Part 2: Large culverts (exceeding 1200 mm span and up to and including
4200 mm span and 4200 mm height)
1627 Metal finishing—Preparation and pretreatment of surfaces
1627.4 Part 4: Abrasive blast cleaning of steel
1710 Non-destructive testing—Ultrasonic testing of carbon and low alloy steel plate
and universal sections—Test methods and quality classification
1816 Metallic materials—Brinell hardness test
1816.1 Method 1: Test method (ISO 6506-1:2005, MOD)
1817 Metallic materials—Vickers hardness test
1817.1 Method 1: Test method (ISO 6507-1:1997, MOD)
2028 Methods for the measurement of the depth of hardening in flame and induction
hardened steel products
2062 Non-destructive testing—Penetrant testing of products and components
2177 Non-destructive testing—Radiography of welded butt joints in metal
2205 Methods for destructive testing of welds in metal
2205.5.1 Method 5.1: Macro metallographic test for cross-section examination
2207 Non-destructive testing—Ultrasonic testing of fusion welded joints in carbon
and low alloy steel

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 7 AS 5100.8:2017

AS
2331 Methods of test for metallic and related coatings
2331.1.4 Method 1.4: Local thickness tests—Magnetic induction and eddy current
methods
2350 Methods of testing portland, blended and masonry cements
2350.13 Part 13: Determination of drying shrinkage of cement mortars
2452 Non-destructive testing—Determination of thickness
2452.3 Part 3: Use of ultrasonic testing
2574 Non-destructive testing—Ultrasonic testing of steel castings and classification
of quality
2832 Cathodic protection of metals
2832.2 Part 2: Compact buried structures
2832.3 Part 3: Fixed immersed structures
2832.5 Part 5: Steel in concrete structures
3507 Non-destructive testing
3507.2 Part 2: Radiographic determination of quality of ferrous castings
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3799 Liquid membrane-forming curing compounds for concrete

3894 Site testing of protective coatings
3894.3 Method 3: Determination of dry film thickness
3894.9 Method 9: Determination of adhesion
3978 Non-destructive testing—Visual inspection of metal products and components
4361 Guide to lead paint management
4361.1 Part 1: Industrial applications
4544 Non-destructive testing—Eddy current testing for the detection of surface
flaws—Ferromagnetic and non-ferromagnetic metallic products
5100 Bridge design
5100.1 Part 1: Scope and general principles
5100.2 Part 2: Design loads
5100.3 Part 3: Foundations and soil supporting structures
5100.4 Part 4: Bearings and deck joints
5100.5 Part 5: Concrete
5100.7 Part 7: Bridge assessment
5100.9 Part 9: Timber bridges
SA TS
101 Design of post-installed and cast-in fastenings for use in concrete
AS/NZS
1050 Methods for the analysis of iron and steel (series)
1252 High-strength steel fastener assemblies for structural engineering—Bolts, nuts
and washers (series)
2041 Buried corrugated metal structures
2041.1 Part 1: Design methods
1554 Structural steel welding
1554.1 Part 1: Welding of steel structures
1554.3 Part 3: Welding of reinforcing steel
1554.4 Part 4: Welding of high strength quenched and tempered steel
1554.5 Part 5: Welding of steel structures subject to high levels of fatigue loading

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 AS 5100.8:2017 8

AS/NZS
2566 Buried flexible pipelines
3678 Structural steel—Hot-rolled plates, floorplates and slabs
3679 Structural steel (series)
3725 Design for installation of buried concrete pipes
4058 Precast concrete pipes (pressure and non-pressure)
5100 Bridge design
5100.6 Part 6: Steel and composite construction
ASTM
A247 Standard Test Method for Evaluating the Microstructure of Graphite in Iron
Castings
A956 Standard Test Method for Leeb Hardness Testing of Steel Products
C295 Standard Guide for Petrographic Examination of Aggregates for Concrete
C597 Standard Test Method for Pulse Velocity Through Concrete
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C805 Standard Test Method for Rebound Number of Hardened Concrete

C1383 Standard Test Method for Measuring the P-Wave Speed and the Thickness of
Concrete Plates Using the Impact-Echo Method
D4788 Standard Test Method for Detecting Delaminations in Bridge Decks Using
Infrared Thermography
E407 Standard Practice for Microetching Metals and Alloys
E1139 Standard Practice for Continuous Monitoring of Acoustic Emission from Metal
Pressure Boundaries
BS
6319 Testing of resin and polymer/cement compositions for use in construction
6319-2 Part 2: Method for measurement of compressive strength
6319-3 Part 3: Methods for measurement of modulus of elasticity in flexure and
flexural strength
6319-7 Part 7: Method for measurement of tensile strength

1.3 DEFINITIONS
For the purposes of this Standard, the definitions in AS 5100.1 and those below apply.
1.3.1 Aerial weight
The weight of active fibre used for strengthening, not including fibres used to hold the
active fibre together, measured in grams per square metre (g/m2 ).
1.3.2 Alkali aggregate reaction
Disruptive chemical reaction within the concrete matrix between the alkali hydroxides
(sodium and potassium) and susceptible aggregates (characterized by unstable silica
minerals) in the presence of moisture, which produces an expansive alkali silica gel which
subsequently exerts excessive tensile stresses that results in cracking of the concrete
structure.
1.3.3 Anode
A metal that is placed in or in contact with an electrolyte and connected to the steel
reinforcement to apply cathodic protection (CP) to a reinforced concrete structure.

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 9 AS 5100.8:2017

1.3.4 Bridge specific assessment live loading (BSALL)

A specific live load developed by probability methodology for a particular bridge using a
combination of traffic surveys, forecast traffic patterns, weigh in motion data, weighbridge
static surveys and a related database of vehicle dimensions and axle weights.
1.3.5 Cathodic protection (CP)
The prevention or reduction of corrosion of steel in concrete by the distribution of sufficient
current to the metal (i.e. steel reinforcement and tendons), to make it the cathode in a
galvanic or electrolytic cell.
1.3.6 Cathodic protection, galvanic (sacrificial)
Protection system consisting of a metal less noble or lower in the galvanic series (different
electropotentials), which when connected to steel produces a galvanic cell and corrodes in
place of the steel to protect the structure.
1.3.7 Cathodic protection, impressed current
Direct current supplied by an external power source to protect cathodically a structure.
1.3.8 Condition assessment
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The process of reviewing records, investigating and evaluating the need for maintenance,
repair, rehabilitation or strengthening of a structure by undertaking a condition survey to
determine the cause, extent and degree of any distress, deterioration or deficiency, and
which may include load capacity calculations.
1.3.9 Condition survey
The process of establishing the physical condition of a structure by utilizing a combination
of diagnostic techniques, including visual inspection, non-destructive testing, sampling and
laboratory testing.
1.3.10 Corrosion of steel reinforcement
Deterioration of steel reinforcement in concrete when the passivity (pH of about 12) around
the steel, which protects it, is lost or breaks down, or when the concrete is cracked or
delaminated sufficiently to allow easier access of water and oxygen.
1.3.11 Corrosion of structural steel
The deterioration of steel by chemical or electro-chemical reaction resulting from, but not
limited to, exposure to air, moisture, sea spray, industrial fumes and other chemicals and
contaminants in the environment in which it is placed.
1.3.12 Crack
A complete or partial separation of concrete into two or more parts with or without a readily
visible opening produced by breaking or fracturing.
1.3.13 Culvert
A concrete, corrugated steel, corrugated aluminium and/or other material drainage and/or
underpass structure with clear spans (or design diameters) extending from 1800 mm and up
to 6000 mm.
1.3.14 Delamination
Separation, splitting, debonding or cracking within a concrete component along a plane
generally parallel to a surface, as in the separation or delamination at the reinforcing steel
caused by corrosion, or debonding of the fibre-reinforced polymer (FRP) which is usually
detected by tapping with a hammer producing a hollow sound or by non-destructive testing.

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 AS 5100.8:2017 10

1.3.15 Design life of repair/strengthening

The period of time for which a repair or strengthening system is required to perform its
required function based on the design and specified parameters, assuming continued
exposure to given in-service conditions.
1.3.16 Deterioration
Manifestation of defects or failure of a component or associated material (cracking,
delamination, spalling, staining, etc.), due to influencing factors of an internal and/or
external origin.
NOTE: Factors of an internal origin may be linked to the various constituents and chemical
reactions in which they participate (e.g. alkali aggregate reaction, corrosion), whereas factors of
an external origin may be controlled by the in-service conditions, the technology and physical
properties of the material, construction practices and potential structural effects.
1.3.17 Ductility
The ability of a structure or structural element to undergo large deformation prior to
collapse.
1.3.18 Effective thickness
The effective thickness for design of fibre-reinforced polymer (FRP) strengthening
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calculated by dividing the fibre aerial weight by the fibre density, in the direction of the
action being resisted.
1.3.19 Electrolyte
The liquid component in a composite material, such as soil or concrete, in which electric
current may flow by ionic charge transfer.
1.3.20 Energizing
The process of the initial application of power to an impressed current cathodic protection
system.
1.3.21 Fibre fabric
A material formed from fibres orientated in the required direction in a woven or non-woven
form and made available in blankets of various widths, weights, thicknesses, and lengths.
1.3.22 Fibre laminate
Fibre-reinforced polymer composite comprising two or more layers of fibres, bound
together in a resin matrix and produced in the form of a sheet or plate of required widths,
thicknesses and lengths.
1.3.23 Fibre reinforced polymer (FRP)
Composite material comprised of a resin matrix such as epoxy or other adhesive materials
reinforced with high strength fibres such as carbon, aramid or glass, moulded and hardened
to form the required shape including fibre fabric and laminates, which can act in composite
to enhance the capacity of concrete structures.
1.3.24 Maintenance
The ongoing upkeep of a structure undertaken during its service life, comprising routine,
repetitive and preventative tasks and repair actions, aimed at delaying damage or
deterioration and retaining the structure in a state in which it can perform its required
functions under acceptable conditions of serviceability and safety.
1.3.25 Masonry
The building of structures from individual units laid in and bound together by mortar.
NOTES:
1 The common materials of masonry for engineering construction are clay brick and stone.
2 Masonry does not include concrete brick and blockwork.

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 11 AS 5100.8:2017

1.3.26 Near surface mounted FRP

FRP that is installed into slots that have been prepared in the cover region of the concrete.
1.3.27 Post-tensioning
Method of prestressing in which internal or external prestressing tendons or bars are
tensioned after the concrete has hardened.
1.3.28 Post-tensioning, external
Post-tensioned application in which tensile forces in bars or tendons are maintained through
anchorages at each end, external to the hardened concrete.
1.3.29 Protective coating systems
Protective coatings, waterproofing membranes and similar systems that may be included in
the repair process to extend the service life of the repairs and slow down further
deterioration in the structure.
NOTE: Protective coating systems may offer different degrees of protection to the repair and the
overall structure and should be selected on their merit to satisfy specific serviceability
requirements, assuming continued exposure to given in-service conditions.
1.3.30 Reference electrode
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A monitoring sensor (i.e. Ag/AgCl, Mn/MnO2 , Cu/CuSO4 ) which is permanently fixed

(embedded) within an electrolyte, such as concrete, and close to the steel reinforcement,
and used to measure the electrical potential of that portion of the steel reinforcement.
1.3.31 Rehabilitation
The process of restoring a structure (or part thereof) to its original or required level of
service by undertaking repairs or modifications that are remedial in nature, and which are
less frequent than maintenance activity (see also Clause 1.3.24).
1.3.32 Repair
The process of restoring a damaged or deteriorated structure or structural component to a
serviceable and operating condition by replacing or rectifying faulty materials, components,
or elements.
1.3.33 Resin
A resin system based on epoxy materials, comprising a thermosetting polymer that is the
reaction of an epoxy resin and an amino hardener.
NOTE: A resin system may be in the form of primer, adhesive, saturating resin and putty filler
and used as components of the relevant FRP system (see Paragraph A2.3, Appendix A).
1.3.34 Seasoned timber
Timber in which the average moisture content is nominally between 10% and 15%.
1.3.35 Service condition
The combination of environmental exposure and various load effects that a structure or
material may be subjected to during its design life.
1.3.36 Service life of repair/strengthening
The period of time for which a repair or strengthening system is expected to remain in a
useful and serviceable state, prior to the onset of distress or deterioration, assuming
continued exposure to given in-service conditions.

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 AS 5100.8:2017 12

1.3.37 Service life of existing structure

The remaining useful life of a structure during which it is expected to remain in a
serviceable and operational state, based on the current rate of deterioration or distress,
assuming continued exposure to given in-service conditions without repairs.
1.3.38 Strengthening
The process of increasing the capacity of a structure or structural components in terms of
increased flexural, shear or axial strength or ductility or restoring the capacity of weakened
elements of structure to their original design capacity, using either active or passive
strengthening systems or both.
1.3.39 Strengthening, active
Systems that engage the structure or structural component in composite action immediately
upon installation, through the introduction of an external force, such as the application of
anchored reinforcing or post-tensioning systems and the construction of deck overlays,
section enlargement and the like.
1.3.40 Strengthening, passive
Systems that engage the structure or a structural component in composite action only when
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additional loads, beyond those existing at the time of installation, are applied to the
structure, including steel plate or fibre-reinforced polymer (FRP) composite systems
bonded to structural members.
1.3.41 Surface bonded FRP
FRP that is directly bonded to the outside surface of the concrete.
1.3.42 Transformer/rectifier (T/R)
An electrical power unit that transforms and rectifies a.c. line voltages to the required lower
d.c. output voltages; also referred to as a ‘d.c. power supply’.
1.3.43 Unseasoned timber
Timber shall be considered to be unseasoned where the least dimension of the member
exceeds 100 mm.
1.3.44 Zone
A discrete part of a reinforced concrete structure and/or CP system characterized by
different environmental exposure conditions (i.e. submerged, tidal, splash, atmospheric
zones) within its overall in-service environment.

1.4 NOTATION
The symbols used in this Standard are listed below.
Unless contrary intention appears, the following applies:
(a) The symbols used in this Standard shall have the meanings ascribed to them below,
with respect to the structure, or member, or condition to which a clause is applied.
(b) Where non-dimensional ratios are involved, both the numerator and denominator are
expressed in identical units.
(c) The dimensional units for length, force and stress in all expressions or equations are
to be taken as millimetres (mm), newtons (N) and megapascals (MPa) respectively.
An asterisk (*) placed after a symbol as a superscript (e.g. M*) denotes a design action
effect due to the design load.

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 13 AS 5100.8:2017

Symbol Definition
bf fibre width
bw beam width or plate spacing for continuous slab
CE environmental reduction factor
Ecj mean value of the modulus of elasticity of concrete at the appropriate age
Efd elastic modulus of fibre
f ct characteristic tensile strength of concrete; or

0.4 f c

lt FRP bond length

lt,max maximum anchorage length
Ta force that will be developed in the FRP at the point of termination
Tk force in the FRP in the anchorage zone
Tk,max maximum ultimate bond force
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tf total FRP thickness of all layers

Muo design bending capacity of an FRP strengthened beam

1.5 DURABILITY CONSIDERATIONS

Repairs, rehabilitation and strengthening shall be designed and constructed to achieve a
high level of durability and to be able to withstand the expected wear and deterioration
throughout their intended service life, whilst achieving the required serviceability and
strength limit state condition.
The design and construction of repairs, rehabilitation and strengthening shall adhere to the
required techniques, practices and Standards, and shall consider surface exposure and
environment, adequate detailing and accessibility for future inspection and maintenance,
material properties and the quality of the works.
The design life of repairs, rehabilitation and strengthening shall be based on a lifecycle
approach, and shall take into account repeat applications over the lifecycle, future
maintenance and repeat access requirements and take into account the residual life of the
existing structure.

1.6 SERVICE ENVIRONMENTS FOR BRIDGE STRUCTURES

Bridges and other associated structures can reside in a variety of service environments,
characterized by various degrees of severity of exposure specified in the AS(AS/NZS) 5100
series.
When assessing the condition or managing the repair, rehabilitation or strengthening of a
structure consideration shall be given to the various mechanisms and forms of deterioration
that may be associated with the prevailing in-service environments, including localized
microclimate conditions.
Microclimate conditions shall be examined on a case-by-case basis, including, for example,
localized water run-down beneath scuppers or blocked drains, and local collection patterns
due to the geometry of structural members and prevailing wind speed and direction.

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 AS 5100.8:2017 14

1.7 MATTERS FOR RESOLUTION BEFORE DESIGN COMMENCES

The matters for resolution listed below shall be confirmed as accepted by the relevant
authority or owner of a bridge or associated structure before commencing the design
process:
1 Life expectancy of the particular rehabilitation or strengthening method and materials
(see Clause 2.1).
2 Design live loading including the use of BSALL (see Clauses 2.3.1, 2.3.2 and
Paragraph E1, Appendix E).
3 Procedure to measure distribution of carbonation depths using aqueous
phenolphthalein solution (see Clause 3.2.5).
4 Suitability of a structure for CP system installation (see Clause 3.3).
5 Depth and extent of concrete removal for repair (see Clause 3.5.3.4.2).
6 Use of encapsulation paints (see Clause 4.5.1).
7 Use of non-metallic materials for bolted anchorages of deck joints
[see Clause 8.4.1(i)].
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8 The need to upgrade or replace traffic barriers (see Clause 9.5).

9 Design standard and return intervals for the modification of an existing culvert
(see Clause 10.2.3).
10 Pull off test results where mean bond strengths are less than 1.5 MPa
(see Paragraph A4.3.4).
11 Assessment of material performance data and design values for fibre fabric, laminates
and adhesive resins (see Paragraph A4.3.5.1, Appendix A).
12 Alternative design methods for assessment of the capacity of an FRP strengthened
beam.
13 Power source for the operation and maintenance of CP systems (see Paragraph B11,
Appendix B).

1.8 APPROPRIATE SUPERVISION

The assessment, design and installation of the work items described in this Standard shall
be undertaken under the supervision of a professional engineer with appropriate knowledge
and experience in the specific field of application. Suitably competent and qualified
personnel shall undertake specialist testing and inspection functions and the installation of
specialist materials and construction processes.

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 15 AS 5100.8:2017

SECTI ON 2 DESIGN REQUIREMENTS AND

PROC EDUR ES

2.1 GENERAL
During the planning and design stages of bridge rehabilitation or strengthening, special
consideration shall be given to, but not limited to, the following:
(a) Life expectancy of the particular rehabilitation or strengthening method and materials
and their ability to achieve the life of the structure as required by the relevant
authority.
(b) Access.
(c) Aesthetics.
(d) Functionality.
(e) Constructability.
(f) Structural considerations.
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(g) The difference between ‘as built’ and ‘as designed’ information, including
modifications made after initial construction.
(h) Drainage.
(i) Scour protection.
(j) Waterway improvements.
(k) Life cycle costs, including the proposed rehabilitation or strengthening.
(l) The geometry and condition of bridge approaches.
NOTE: The bridge approaches include the adjoining roadway/railway.
(m) Heritage and historical aspects.
(n) Liaison with other agencies and stakeholders, including utility authorities,
conservation authorities, councils and private property owners.
(o) The presence of utilities.
(p) Provision for further rehabilitation at a later date.
(q) Traffic conditions, including road, rail, pedestrian, cyclist or waterway traffic.
(r) Waterproofing.
(s) Vibration.

2.2 ASSESSMENT OF EXISTING STRUCTURAL CAPACITY

The assessment of existing structural capacity shall be in accordance with AS 5100.7.

2.3 DESIGN
2.3.1 General
The existing bridge will have been designed to the Code or Standard current at the time.
The design for refurbishment, rehabilitation or strengthening for the bridge shall be
undertaken to the loads and provisions of the AS(AS/NZS) 5100 series.
NOTE: For timber bridges, including loading, reference should be made to Appendix D.

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 AS 5100.8:2017 16

The relevant authority may direct that a lesser design live loading be adopted where all of
the following conditions apply:
(a) The bridge has been originally designed to a road traffic or rail traffic loading less
than that specified in AS 5100.2.
(b) The current loading provisions of AS 5100.2 are not functionally required after
allowing for future vehicle mass increases in the short to medium term.
(c) It is not reasonably practicable or economically viable, based on the results of a life
cycle cost analysis, to strengthen the bridge to current AS 5100.2 road traffic or rail
traffic loading.
All other design loads, including earthquake loads and longitudinal traffic loads, shall
comply with AS 5100.2 unless otherwise determined by the relevant authority.
Particular attention shall be given to changes in the operation of the bridge that may have
occurred since its original design and construction.
Design for rehabilitation or refurbishment of the structure shall not reduce the stability or
load capacity of any element of the structure.
2.3.2 Bridge specific assessment live loading (BSALL)
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When a bridge is found to be inadequate with respect to the design live loading, an
alternative BSALL may be derived individually for that bridge, with the agreement of the
relevant authority.
NOTES:
1 Where bridge specific assessment live loading (BSALL) is proposed to be adopted, reference
should be made to Appendix E.
2 For short span bridges (loaded length less than 50 m), it is generally not considered cost
effective to develop a BSALL; however, there may be particular situations, for example,
when heavy vehicles cannot reach the structure because of width restrictions or tight bends,
where it may be appropriate to accept a lower assessment loading for short span bridges on
minor roads, when agreed with the relevant authority. As extensive traffic surveys and
computer analyses are necessary for such load derivation, the relevant authority may agree to
such a procedure only when there is a reasonable possibility of achieving the load capacity.
Such cases may arise where the design live loading assessment fails by a small margin and
the bridge is located on a road with a small percentage of heavy vehicles.

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 17 AS 5100.8:2017

SECTI ON 3 CONCRETE STRUCTURES

3.1 GENERAL
This Section sets out procedures for the condition assessment of existing concrete structures
and their repair, rehabilitation and/or strengthening.

3.2 CONDITION ASSESSMENT

3.2.1 General
Assessment of the condition of a structure may be initiated by a schedule assessment as
required by the applicable asset management system, by visual evidence of distress or
deterioration, or by a requirement for the structure to carry increased live loads or other
loads.
The assessment of a structure, including its material condition, its structural integrity and
whether and how to repair it, shall be performed by a professional engineer.
An initial inspection shall be conducted to confirm the existence of deterioration and
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defects in concrete, identify any immediate safety problems due to the deterioration, and
determine the need for a more detailed site inspection that may be required. If a detailed
inspection is required to be undertaken, it shall incorporate a diagnostic survey of both
chemical and physical tests to establish the location, cause, extent and degree of
deterioration already apparent.
The available information shall be confirmed and supplemented by a program of inspection,
diagnostic site survey and testing. The elements of the program shall be selected from those
listed in Clauses 3.2.3 to 3.2.15 with due consideration of the type of structure, its local
environment, form of distress and/or deterioration and likely repair or rehabilitation
approach.
The assessment of the structure shall include—
(a) the nature, extent, location, severity and causes of damage and/or deterioration, and
the ability of the structure to perform its function;
(b) the likely remaining service life of the structure; and
(c) work required to make the structure safe before and throughout any rehabilitation or
strengthening, and for the required service life.
When a rehabilitation or strengthening option is proposed for a structure, investigations
shall consider as appropriate, but may not be limited to, those items stated in Clause 3.2, in
order to—
(i) confirm suitability the rehabilitation or strengthening;
(ii) determine the extent of the rehabilitation and/or strengthening; and
(iii) provide design input.
NOTES:
1 In addition to these investigations, short or medium term small-scale trials may be performed
to assess the effectiveness of proposed repair or protective methods or to determine the likely
current demands for cathodic protection system design purposes.

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 AS 5100.8:2017 18

2 The type of diagnostic techniques used to assess the condition of a structure may vary,
depending on the service environment a structure is exposed to and the likely rehabilitation or
strengthening method. For example in the case of a structure exposed to a marine or saline
environment where cathodic protection may be a potential rehabilitation measure, the
condition assessment may include visual inspection, chloride and carbonation testing,
concrete cover, alkali aggregate reactivity, reinforcement continuity, half-cell potential
mapping and concrete electrical resistivity. On the other hand, if a structure is exposed to a
non-marine environment, chloride testing may not be required unless available records
support the undertaking of such testing.
3.2.2 Existing information
Available drawings, specifications, records, including photographic records, and notes shall
be reviewed to assess the location, quantity, type (e.g. uncoated or coated, prestressed) and
continuity of the reinforcement, and the constituents and quality of the concrete.
This information shall also be used to assist in understanding the design assumptions,
intended behaviour of the structure, areas of critical load effects and the load events that
create these critical load effects.
3.2.3 Visual inspection
Where the structure is accessible, visual survey data shall be collected to assess the type,
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causes and extent of defects, and the data shall include any features of the structure and its
surrounding environment, which could influence the effectiveness of rehabilitation or
strengthening. For areas that have been previously repaired, the repair methods and the
materials used shall be investigated.
The cause of any deterioration shall be determined. Where any signs of structural distress
are evident, an assessment of both the loadbearing capacity of the structure, and the need
for temporary or permanent strengthening, shall be carried out by suitably qualified
personnel.
All areas of the structure that may require repair shall be checked for delamination of the
concrete cover as stated in Clause 3.2.9. Defects such as cracks, honeycombing or poor
construction joints which could permit significant water penetration, and which could in
turn impair the effectiveness of the repair or protection, shall be recorded.
Where prestressed or post-tensioned concrete components are the subject of the visual
inspection, such inspection shall be performed by competent personnel.
3.2.4 Chloride analysis
The chloride content of the concrete sample shall be determined in accordance with
AS 1012.20.2.
NOTE: When selecting the core or drill diameter, the maximum aggregate size should be taken
into account. Sampling rates and sampling locations should be varied depending on the manner in
which the chloride was introduced into the concrete, internally in the mix or externally during
service. Chloride and cement content may be determined by the methods described in relevant
Standards; however, it should be noted that the accuracy of results obtained may only be of the
order of 20% or even more.
3.2.5 Carbonation
Distribution of carbonation depths shall be measured on freshly fractured concrete surfaces
by spraying with aqueous phenolphthalein solution or other method in accordance with a
procedure approved by the relevant authority.
NOTES:
1 Sampling points should be included at areas with minimum concrete cover to reinforcing steel
as determined by cover meter testing and at areas where the concrete appears porous or
honeycombed.
2 Available test methods include, but are not limited to, Main Roads Western Australia Test
Method WA 620.1—2012.

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 19 AS 5100.8:2017

3.2.6 Potential mapping

Representative areas of both damaged and apparently undamaged concrete shall be
surveyed for reinforcement corrosion, using portable reference electrodes complying with
the requirements of AS 2832.5. Readings shall be taken on an orthogonal grid at a
maximum spacing of 300 mm.
Continuity of the reinforcement within any potential mapping survey area is essential.
Before starting the potential mapping, electrical continuity shall be checked in accordance
with AS 2832.5.
Readings taken in any areas that have been identified as delaminated shall be treated with
caution, because delaminations can produce readings that are inconsistent with the level of
corrosion of the reinforcement.
3.2.7 Concrete electrical resistivity
Electrical resistivity surveys shall be carried out on representative areas of concrete to
provide information on the ability of the concrete to act as an electrolyte and carry
electrical currents necessary to induce corrosion and to also provide information for design
purposes where a cathodic protection system may need to be considered.
NOTES:
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1 Core samples may also be obtained from the structure to evaluate volumetric concrete
resistivity.
2 The resistivity of concrete is related to the moisture content, variability in chloride
concentrations, other contaminants or electrolytes and the quality of the concrete itself.
Measurements are very sensitive to seasonal variations, prevailing weather conditions and the
time of the year.
3 For determining concrete electrical resistivity, refer to ASTM G57.
3.2.8 Concrete cover
Concrete cover and reinforcement size and position measurements shall be carried out in
order to indicate whether insufficient cover contributed to corrosion to enable an estimation
of time for carbonation and chloride penetration to the level of steel reinforcement. Such
measurements shall also be carried out in order to assess comparative current flow through
areas of high and low cover, and to identify dense regions of reinforcement that may require
high current density, where the application of cathodic protection may be considered as a
preferred rehabilitation option.
3.2.9 Delamination
A delamination (drummy) survey shall be undertaken by tapping the concrete surface with
the rounded face of a ballpeen hammer (to distinguish between solid and hollow sound) for
detection of incipient spalls and delaminations over steel reinforcement.
NOTE: Delaminations should be detected promptly because they indicate that serious rusting has
taken place and represent areas of unsound concrete, which may lead to more severe deterioration
of the structure.
3.2.10 Crack widths
Cracks in concrete shall be assessed to evaluate their influence on the loadbearing capacity,
serviceability and durability of the structure. The assessment shall establish the cause(s) of
the cracks, crack width, the moisture condition of the crack and whether a crack is active or
inactive.

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 AS 5100.8:2017 20

3.2.11 Concrete core samples

Concrete cores ranging from 75 mm to 100 mm in diameter shall be cut from the in situ
concrete structure and used in standardized laboratory tests to assess the quality and to
quantify the main physical and chemical characteristics of concrete. These tests shall
include, as appropriate—
(a) visual assessment of integrity;
(b) compressive strength to AS 1012.14;
(c) volume of permeable voids (VPV) to AS 1012.21, sorptivity testing or other type of
standardized permeability test;
(d) depth of carbonation (see Clause 3.2.5);
(e) chloride and sulfate ion content to AS 1012.20.1 and AS 1012.20.2
(see Clause 3.2.4);
(f) cement content and type;
(g) water/cementitious material (W/C) ratio;
(h) concrete density;
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(i) petrographic examination of hardened concrete; and

(j) aggregate type and content.
Where relevant to the design, the in situ tensile strength shall also be determined to ensure
that the concrete has the capacity to allow strengthening to be undertaken.
All cored holes shall be repaired in accordance with Clause 3.5.
NOTES:
1 A concrete cover meter should be used to identify accurately the location of steel
reinforcement within the concrete such that no steel reinforcement is included within the
concrete core sample and no structural damage is done to the structure.
2 The tensile strength of in situ concrete may be determined in accordance with AS 1012.24.
3.2.12 Corrosion rate measurement
Corrosion rate measurements may be undertaken using the linear polarization resistance
technique to determine directly the corrosion current density and the corrosion rate of the
steel reinforcement in a concrete structure.
3.2.13 Alkali aggregate reaction (AAR) assessment
If the concrete of the structure under assessment contains aggregates that may be sensitive
to alkalis or has experienced damage potentially due to alkali aggregate reaction, the risk of
alkali aggregate reaction shall be investigated.
Concrete core samples (minimum dimensions of 75 mm diameter by 200 mm long) shall be
extracted from the in situ concrete components for subsequent AAR examination by a
petrographic and SEM/EDX analysis, as follows:
(a) For petrographic examination, the concrete near the core ends shall be prepared and
assessed under a microscope to identify the types of minerals present and any suspect
mineral phases in accordance with ASTM C295.
(b) For SEM/EDX analysis, the concrete of the core ends shall be analysed under a
scanning electronic microscope (SEM) equipped with energy dispersive x-ray (EDX)
detector to examine the morphology of the concrete micro-structure and chemical
composition of the concrete.

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 21 AS 5100.8:2017

NOTES:
1 Guidelines on minimizing the risk of damage to concrete structures due to alkali aggregate
reactions are given in HB 79.
2 The AAR assessment should determine the existing and predicted level of AAR expansion to
enable determination of the timing and type of remedial options. Where cathodic protection is
to be applied, it should be demonstrated to have no influence on AAR.
3.2.14 Non-destructive testing
3.2.14.1 General
Non-destructive testing shall be carried out by competent and experienced personnel. Non-
destructive testing shall be in accordance with Clauses 3.2.14.2 to 3.2.14.8.
3.2.14.2 Cover meter
The cover meter may be used to determine the location and orientation of reinforcing steel,
measure the depth of concrete cover and estimate the size of the reinforcing bar. The cover
meter shall be supported with a current calibration certificate and shall be capable of
detecting the presence of reinforcement and indicating the depth from the concrete surface
to the nearest point of the reinforcement with an accuracy of 1.0 mm at a depth of 25 mm.
3.2.14.3 Rebound hammer
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The rebound (Schmidt) hammer may be used to locate areas of poor quality concrete and
variability in the concrete strength throughout the structure, with an average of a minimum
of 10 impacts at a location as specified in ASTM C805, to give an indication of the relative
compressive strength of the concrete at that test location.
3.2.14.4 Ground-penetrating radar (GPR)
GPR may be used to provide information on reinforcement location, size and arrangement,
other buried steelwork, concrete cover and member thickness, prestressing strands, cable
ducts, zones of varying moisture content, and to provide an assessment of delaminations
and areas of honeycombing, cracking and voids within the concrete.
3.2.14.5 Ultrasonic pulse velocity (UPV)
The UPV technique may be used to provide a relative assessment of the in situ concrete
compressive strength, to provide a comparative assessment of quality and assist the
detection of voids, delaminations, and under-compacted and honeycombed areas in
concrete. UPV shall be undertaken in accordance with test method ASTM C597. Concrete
core calibration may be used to improve effectiveness of in situ strength assessment.
3.2.14.6 Impact echo
The impact echo technique may be used to determine the thickness of members (particularly
when only one face is accessible), and the presence of delaminations, large cracking, voids
and honeycombing in concrete. Impact echo shall be undertaken in accordance with
ASTM C1383.
3.2.14.7 Infrared thermography
The infrared thermography technique may be used to provide an assessment of flaws in
concrete (particularly delaminations in bridge decks) and to provide an indication of the
location of reinforcing bars, cables, cable ducts and interior cracking. Infrared
thermography shall be undertaken in accordance with ASTM D4788.
3.2.14.8 Radiographic methods
The radiographic technique may be used to detect interior flaws such as voids in post
tensioning ducts and locating cables and cable ducts, reinforcing bars, cover thickness and
density of concrete.

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 AS 5100.8:2017 22

3.2.15 Other methods

Other appropriate methods may be used as part of the diagnostic survey and testing regime,
such as—
(a) a precise survey of the deflected shape of the structure;
(b) load testing of part or all of the structure;
(c) measurement of stress change using strain gauges;
(d) measurement of the dynamic response of the structure;
(e) breakout areas to correlate against non-destructive test results; and
(f) trials of repair or protective measures.

3.3 ASSESSMENT FOR CATHODIC PROTECTION (CP)

In addition to the requirements of Clause 3.2 and where required by the relevant authority,
the structure shall be assessed to determine the suitability and extent of a CP system. The
cathodic protection of reinforced concrete structures shall be undertaken in accordance with
Appendix B.
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The diagnostic assessment shall take account of the components of the structure and of the
existing and anticipated cathodic protection exposure zones, and shall include the
following:
(a) Visual inspection of all defects (such as cracks, honeycombing or poor construction
joints) including a comprehensive photographic record.
(b) Delamination survey of the concrete cover.
(c) Chloride determination at incremental depths.
(d) Carbonation depth measurement.
(e) Concrete cover measurement.
(f) Alkali aggregate reaction (AAR) assessment, including any long-term residual effects
of AAR.
(g) Steel reinforcement survey for—
(i) continuity between elements of the structure within each zone of the CP system;
(ii) continuity of reinforcement within elements of the structure; and
(iii) continuity of metallic items, other than reinforcement, to the reinforcement
itself; and
(iv) presence of prestress.
(h) Potential mapping.
(i) Determination of concrete electrical resistivity.
(j) Corrosion rate measurement.
(k) Determination of compressive strength of concrete.
(l) Determination of volume of permeable voids (VPV) or sorptivity of concrete.
The location and frequency of sampling and testing shall be as required.

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 23 AS 5100.8:2017

3.4 ASSESSMENT OF FIRE-AFFECTED CONCRETE

3.4.1 General
Fire-affected concrete shall be assessed by initial inspection and, where required,
supplemented with additional testing to establish the full extent of damage and the residual
quality of the in situ concrete.
NOTE: Some materials such as epoxy formulations may not perform well under fire conditions.
These materials may have been used to patch the structure, repair cracks, bedding material and in
joints between precast elements.
The initial inspection shall estimate the range of fire temperature and the temperature
effects of fire damage on concrete by assessing the damage on surrounding material and by
comparison with non-fire-affected concrete, in order to determine the extent of fire damage.
NOTES:
1 The initial inspection is generally based on visual observations, although hammer tapping and
rebound hammer may be utilized. This may be further supplemented with extraction of
concrete cores for subsequent testing for compressive strength, petrographic examination, use
of computer software to estimate fire temperatures more accurately and undertaking of
structural analysis.
2 A fire may cause the structure to expand due to uniform heat gain and deflect due to a heat
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gain gradient through the structural section. These strains may cause distress in the structure
at locations distant from the direct effects of the fire.
3.4.2 Temperature effects and changes in concrete damaged by fire
When assessing fire-affected concrete, consideration shall be given to changes including
colour changes of concrete associated with variations in concrete temperature as follows:
(a) Up to 120°C—No significant change in the properties or colour of concrete.
NOTE: With respect to over-drying of concrete up to 120°C, temperature has negligible effect
and causes no damage to the pore system or microstructure of concrete. There is also no
change in colour and drying results in only the loss of free moisture within the concrete
microstructure.
(b) From 120°C–250°C—Characterized by localized cracking and dehydration of the
cementitious paste with complete loss of free moisture and a reduction in paste
volume.
(c) 250°C–600°C—Significant cracking of both the cementitious paste and aggregates
due to expansion. At approximately 300°C the colour of concrete changes to pink. At
400°C decomposition of calcium hydroxide occurs.
(d) Above 600°C—Complete dehydration of the cementitious paste with considerable
shrinkage cracking, honeycombing and generally concrete becoming friable, very
porous, can easily be broken down, and colour changes to grey.
(e) Above 900°C—The colour of concrete changes to buff.
(f) Above 1200°C—The various components of concrete start to melt.
(g) Above 1400°C—Concrete melts completely.
3.4.3 Visual inspection
Visual inspection of fire-affected concrete shall determine the following:
(a) Any observed colour changes (see Clause 3.4.2) and the temperature levels to which
the concrete may have been subjected.
(b) The presence of soot blackening and smoke deposits on concrete components, which
may be a direct by-product of an intense fire.
NOTE: Light grey areas are usually associated with exposure to high temperatures.

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 AS 5100.8:2017 24

(c) The location, extent and severity of fire damage, and if the fire-affected portion of
concrete has suffered explosive spalling resulting in total delamination of the cover
concrete, blown off in layers of shallow depth or has resulted in an exposed coarse
aggregate surface shall be established.
(d) The likely intensity and proximity of the fire to the damaged concrete and, if possible,
the actual source or type of combustible or flammable material that may have fuelled
the fire.
(e) The effects if any of subsequent extinguishing of the fire, including possible thermal
impact and pressure caused by water contacting the hot microstructure of the
concrete.
(f) The location and extent of exposure of steel reinforcement (including ligatures) and
prestressing tendons.
(g) The physical condition of the steel reinforcement, including any evidence of buckled
or deflected steel reinforcement or unravelled prestressing tendons.
(h) If prestressing tendons are irreversibly damaged or whether any disruption has taken
place, which may adversely affect the bond at the interface between the exposed
prestressing tendons and the fire-affected concrete.
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(i) Any evidence of cracking or any other defects, fire-related or otherwise.

3.4.4 Concrete coring
Where required, concrete cores shall be extracted from both fire-affected areas and from
sound concrete further away from the damage to—
(a) enable compressive strength testing and relative comparison between fire-affected
and non-affected areas;
(b) allow petrographic examination of the fire-affected concrete;
(c) establish visually the depth of fire-affected concrete with respect to both steel
reinforcement and prestressing tendons; and
(d) enable a visual inspection of any internal surfaces of voided superstructure
components using suitable lighting through the cored holes.
All cored holes shall be repaired in accordance with Clause 3.5.
3.4.5 Strength assessment
Where required, strength assessment shall be based on concrete core compressive strength
testing (including conversion to equivalent cylinder strength based on corrected core
strength). Rebound hammer tests shall be undertaken in accordance with Clause 3.2.14.3.
NOTE: Physical appraisal using a hand-held hammer during the inspection of the fire-affected
concrete structure may also be applicable.
The estimated compressive strengths at the various locations shall be utilized for structural
analysis purposes.
3.4.6 Petrographic examination
Where required, petrographic examination shall be used to delineate the extent of the
damaged area and identify any significant micro-cracking developed in the cementitious
paste, which may also extend to the coarse aggregate pieces in the fire-affected zone and
beyond into adjoining sound concrete (and any material that may exist within these cracks).
NOTE: Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM) may also be used to identify both the material that
may fill these cracks and the cause of these cracks.

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 25 AS 5100.8:2017

3.4.7 Structural analysis

Structural analysis shall be undertaken as appropriate to establish the residual capacity in
satisfying the prevailing loading conditions in terms of the concrete strength and condition
of the steel reinforcement in the fire-affected zone.
3.4.8 Hammer testing
Hand-held hammer testing, on both fire-affected concrete and sound concrete, shall be
undertaken to obtain an indication of the relative quality compared to undamaged concrete.

3.5 METHODS OF REPAIR AND REHABILITATION OF CONCRETE

STRUCTURES
3.5.1 General
The extent (if any) and method of repair and rehabilitation to the structure shall be
determined based on—
(a) the functional requirements for the structure;
(b) the required remaining life of the structure;
(c) the outcomes from the structural assessment as described in Clauses 3.3 and 3.4;
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(d) safety, risk and cost benefit assessments; and

(e) the asset management strategy for the structure.
Consideration shall be given to the possible detrimental impacts of the proposed repair or
rehabilitation such as the creating of corrosion cells adjacent to newly repaired concrete,
loss of section strength from concrete breakout or the impact on stakeholders due to bridge
closures to undertake the repair work.
NOTE: Guidance for concrete repairs is given in HB 84.
3.5.2 Repair of cracks
3.5.2.1 General
Cracked concrete shall be assessed and the influence of cracks on the loadbearing capacity,
serviceability and durability of a concrete structure shall be evaluated prior to undertaking
crack repairs.
A crack repair method shall be selected, prior to any repair works taking place, based on an
assessment of the cause(s) of the crack, crack width and length, the moisture condition of
the crack and whether a crack is active or inactive. The crack repair methodology shall
include details of the crack filling material properties, surface preparation methods and
method of application, crack location, and local environmental conditions.
3.5.2.2 Crack repair methods
3.5.2.2.1 General
The repair of concrete cracks shall be undertaken by one of the following methods, as
required, unless otherwise approved by the relevant authority:
(a) Pressure injection Crack filling under pressure using a selected polymer resin (such
as epoxy or polyurethane) or cementitious grout to restore structural soundness and
impenetrability of concrete. The procedure shall be either—
(i) low pressure injection, using proprietary injection kits, based on firm and
sustained hand pressure until no further resin can be accepted in the crack; or
(ii) multi-component injection, based on proof of ratio and pressure tests relating to
the discharge pressure and ratio of adhesive components.

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 AS 5100.8:2017 26

(b) Routing and sealing Enlarging the crack along its exposed face and filling with a
suitable joint sealant.
(c) Gravity feed Filling and sealing of horizontally positioned cracks using low
viscosity resins by pouring and spreading onto surface or placing into purposely
formed reservoirs.
(d) Coating over cracks Application of coatings with a crack-bridging capability or
impregnation ability (such as silanes) for cracks of width of 0.3 mm or less. The
method shall be used only for cracks that are compatible with the functional
requirements of the structure but are not associated with earth-retaining or
water-retaining concrete components.
(e) Flexible sealing Use of suitable flexible sealants to seal cracks in the same manner
as flexible joint.
(f) Crack stitching Anchoring of U-shaped metal legs in predrilled holes on both sides
of cracks to restore the tensile strength of the crack affected concrete.
3.5.2.2.2 Materials properties
The properties of the crack-filling material and the characteristics of the equipment to be
used shall be considered when assessing crack repair methods. The crack-filling material
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shall possess the following properties:

(a) Resin injection:
(i) Viscosity at 20°C—Maximum 300 centipoise (cP).
NOTE: 1 cP = 1 mPa.s.
(ii) Compressive strength in accordance with BS 6319-2, minimum at 7 days—
60 MPa.
(iii) Tensile strength in accordance with BS 6319-7, minimum at 7 days—25 MPa.
(iv) Flexural strength in accordance with BS 6319-3, minimum at 7 days—50 MPa.
(v) Adhesive strength at the crack edges minimum at 7 days—2.5 MPa or failure in
concrete, whichever occurs first.
(b) Routing or sealing, nipple placement, gravity feed or stitching:
(i) Compressive strength in accordance with BS 6319-2, minimum at 7 days—
60 MPa.
(ii) Tensile strength in accordance with BS 6319-7, minimum at 7 days—25 MPa.
(iii) Flexural strength in accordance with BS 6319-3, minimum at 7 days—30 MPa.
(c) Flexible sealing for live or active cracks. The flexible sealant shall be capable of
providing for a minimum expected movement of 25%. Materials shall not be used
when the ambient temperature is below 5°C (or is 5°C on a falling thermometer) or is
above 35°C.
The crack-filling material shall be compatible with all materials with which it is intended to
come into contact.
3.5.2.2.3 Surface preparation
Cracks and the concrete substrate located a minimum of 50 mm either side of cracks on all
areas of application shall be clean and free from loose materials.
All traces of dirt, laitance, paint, oil, grease and efflorescence shall be removed. Impurities
that inhibit wetting and adhesion or penetration by the crack-filling material shall be
removed.

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 27 AS 5100.8:2017

The surface and cracks shall be allowed to dry thoroughly or shall be dried out by
accelerated means prior to the application of materials.
NOTE: The above requirements do not apply to repair materials that can tolerate dampness.
3.5.2.2.4 Verification of depth of penetration of crack-filling material
For injected cracks, 75 mm diameter concrete cores shall be extracted from the crack repair
works to verify the depth of penetration of the crack filling material. The core samples shall
be extracted at predetermined locations to verify that the crack-filling material has
penetrated to the full depth of the crack.
A cover meter shall be used to locate the existing steel reinforcement. The cored holes shall
be cleaned and repaired with a suitable shrinkage compensating cementitious repair
material applied in accordance with the manufacturer’s recommended method of use. The
exposed surface of the repaired hole shall be similar in texture and colour to the
surrounding concrete.
NOTE: For larger areas, non-destructive methods such as ultrasonic pulse velocity or impact echo
or spectral analysis of surface waves (SASW) may also be used to verify penetration of material.
3.5.3 Repair of concrete
3.5.3.1 General
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All operations comprising repair shall be performed in accordance with the requirements of
the relevant authority, as appropriate.
Concrete repairs may take many forms from large element replacement to relatively small
patch repairs. Large repairs or element replacement repairs shall comprise standard concrete
construction methods with due allowance for restraint adjacent to the construction joint,
difference in material properties between the new and existing concrete and the visual
impact of the repair.
NOTE: Guidance on concrete repair and protection is given in HB 84 and EN 1504 series of
Standards.
3.5.3.2 Types and selection of patch repair methods
The types of patch repair of concrete structures using cementitious repair materials shall
include—
(a) corrosion-deteriorated concrete repair;
(b) non-corrosion-deteriorated concrete repair; and
(c) filling of blowholes and surface imperfections.
The procedure for the repair of concrete shall include, where necessary—
(i) breaking back to sound and dense concrete to receive repair material;
(ii) preparation of exposed steel reinforcement and concrete substrate;
(iii) application of an appropriate steel primer and substrate bonding coat; and
(iv) rebuilding to the original surface profile and finish.
A cementitious patch repair method shall be selected based on—
(A) an assessment of the cause(s) and extent of the spalled, deteriorated, damaged or
defective concrete;
(B) the location of the patch repair on the concrete structure or member; and
(C) the proposed repair material properties, likely patch behaviour and the effect on load
capacity and structural safety, serviceability and durability.

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 AS 5100.8:2017 28

A cementitious patch repair of concrete shall be undertaken in accordance with a patch

repair method that includes procedures for surface preparation, method of application,
curing and surface finish, in order to ensure the longevity of the repair solution.
NOTE: The application of decorative, anti-carbonation or anti-graffiti coatings as part of a
concrete repair may be considered.
3.5.3.3 Material properties
3.5.3.3.1 General
Materials used for reinstatement of concrete shall be single- or multi- component
polymer-modified cementitious low shrinkage repair mortars, or shall be part of a complete
polymer-modified cementitious repair system. Whole bags of material shall be used. Test
certificates, material data sheets and health and safety data sheets shall be available for all
materials.
3.5.3.3.2 Repair material
The proposed repair material shall—
(a) be capable of being hand applied in vertical and overhead sections with no slumping;
(b) achieve strength conforming to the requirements in Table 3.5.3.3.2;
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(c) achieve a drying shrinkage compatible with the parent material tested in accordance
with AS 2350.13;
(d) possess an acid soluble chloride-ion content expressed as the percentage of the total
mass of cementitious material of not greater than 0.05%;
(e) be resistant to alkaline solutions; and
(f) be compatible with the properties of the parent material.
NOTES:
1 Repair mortars typically have a wet density in the order of 1600 kg/m3 to 2100 kg/m3 and a
water/powder ratio of 0.13-0.17, where powder may include the binder, filler and aggregate.
For vertical and overhead applications, a wet density in the order of 1700 kg/m3 is adopted.
2 The coefficient of thermal expansion of the repair material should be compatible with
concrete substrate.
3 The repair mortar should have sufficient hydraulic abrasion resistance where subject to
running water.
4 The strength properties of the repair material should generally not exceed the strength
properties of the parent material by more than 20%, unless appropriate consideration is given
to potential incompatibility of materials.
Steel reinforcement primer and concrete substrate-bonding coat shall be compatible with
the repair mortar and be part of the same range of proprietary repair system.

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 29 AS 5100.8:2017

TABLE 3.5.3.3.2
REPAIR MATERIAL MINIMUM STRENGTH REQUIREMENTS
Repair material minimum strength, MPa
In situ strength of structural element
At 1 day At 7 days At 28 days
Compressive strength
15 MPa to 30 MPa 5 19 23
Greater than 30 MPa to 50 MPa 10 25 35
Greater than 50 MPa 15 40 60
Flexural strength
15 MPa to 30 MPa — — 4
Greater than 30 MPa to 50 MPa — — 6
Greater than 50 MPa — — 10
Tensile strength
15 MPa to 30 MPa — — 1.8
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Greater than 30 MPa to 50 MPa — — 2.8

Greater than 50 MPa — — 3.8
Bond or pull-off strength to concrete substrate
All concrete structure strengths — 0.75 —
NOTE: The tensile strength of in situ concrete may be determined using test method
AS 1012.24.

3.5.3.3.3 Fairing coat

Cementitious repair material required to fill blowholes and imperfections on concrete
structures shall be—
(a) a single component polymer-modified material;
(b) capable of application at 0–3 mm thick and fill blowholes and imperfections flush
with the finished concrete surface; and
(c) capable of application over a large area without being subject to shrinkage cracking.
3.5.3.4 Concrete removal
3.5.3.4.1 Corrosion deteriorated concrete repair
All delaminated and honeycombed concrete shall be broken out to achieve a clean,
physically sound concrete surface. The perimeter of each repair shall be cut to a nominal
depth of 15 mm to avoid feathered edges around repair patches. Where honeycombing or
otherwise physically unsound concrete extends deeper than the main reinforcement,
breaking out shall be terminated not less than 20 mm behind the deepest main bar to ensure
good mechanical bonding of reinforcement to the replacement concrete. Concrete shall be
removed along the length of visibly corroding steel reinforcement until at least 50 mm of
sound metal is exposed at each end of the rusted section.
NOTE: Removal of physically sound concrete from areas deeper than 20 mm behind the main
reinforcement may be required to facilitate replacement of corroded reinforcing steel, to improve
the mechanical coupling of the concrete to the reinforcing steel or other appropriate reasons.
3.5.3.4.2 Non-corrosion deteriorated or defective concrete repair
The depth of removal of concrete for non-corrosion deteriorated or defective concrete repair
and the amount of exposure of steel reinforcement prior to commencement of application of
repair material shall be as required by the relevant authority.

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 AS 5100.8:2017 30

3.5.3.5 Reinforcement preparation and substrate bonding coat

All corrosion products shall be removed from the exposed steel reinforcement. Steel
reinforcement shall be cleaned to a bright metal to achieve a surface preparation equivalent
to AS 1627.4.
All exposed steel reinforcement shall be coated immediately following preparation and
cleaning with a primer that forms part of the proprietary repair system to provide immediate
protection against corrosion. The steel primer shall be thoroughly applied to the exposed
steel reinforcement.
A substrate-bonding coat that also forms part of the proprietary repair system shall be
worked into the concrete substrate to enhance the bond at the repair interface.
3.5.3.6 Concrete reinstatement
The concrete to be repaired shall—
(a) have an exposed aggregate finish; and
(b) be non-friable and dust free.
Abrasive blasting, high-pressure water jet blasting or similar methods shall be used to
prepare the concrete for reinstatement.
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Percussive methods shall be used where there are environmental concerns with other
methods.
Concrete shall be reinstated using proprietary cementitious materials that comply with
Table 3.5.3.3.2.
Prior to application of cementitious repair materials, the concrete substrate shall be
prepared by thoroughly soaking with potable water. The surface of the concrete substrate
shall be saturated surface dry immediately prior to reinstatement.
Where the existing concrete cover to steel reinforcement is less than the design
requirements, the concrete repair shall be profiled to ensure that adequate cover of
polymer-modified repair material is provided.
3.5.3.7 Curing and protection
The concrete repair material shall be cured and protected from drying out and against the
harmful effects of water movement and weather, throughout the curing period.
Curing methods may include water curing, wet hessian, polyethylene sheeting that is
adequately sealed, formwork left in place, curing compound or a combination of these.
NOTE: Typically curing and protection is required for a minimum of 7 days after placement.
Curing compounds shall comply with AS 3799 and shall be removed prior to the application
of any protective or decorative coatings.
For concrete patch repairs greater than 500 mm  500 mm in size and for all concrete
repairs to chloride-affected concrete structures or members, where curing compounds are
used, they shall be covered with heavy duty polyethylene sheeting fastened and sealed at
the edges.
3.5.3.8 Quality control testing
3.5.3.8.1 Compressive strength of cementitious repair material
The mixed cementitious repair material shall be sampled at the required frequency and
tested at 7 days and 28 days to confirm compliance with the minimum compressive strength
requirements specified in Table 3.5.3.3.2. Test cubes shall be made and cured in accordance
with AS 1012.8.3 and tested in accordance with AS 1012.9.

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 31 AS 5100.8:2017

3.5.3.8.2 Bond strength (pull-off) testing

Partially cored direct pull-off tests of the fully cured in situ repair material shall be
conducted at the required frequency to verify the tensile bond strength between the in situ
repair material and the existing concrete substrate, 7 days after the completion of
application.
The mean bond strength at 7 days shall be not less than 0.75 MPa, with no individual result
less than 0.65 MPa. The mode of failure of the pull-off test shall be with tensile failure
within the existing concrete substrate.
3.5.3.8.3 Testing for drummy areas
A visual inspection of all concrete repair areas shall be conducted immediately prior to the
application of any decorative/anti-carbonation coating over the repair area for
delaminations and any defects recorded.
A test for drummy areas shall be conducted using the rounded face of a ballpeen hammer
(to distinguish between solid and hollow sound) for detection of delaminations.
3.5.4 Protective coatings
3.5.4.1 General
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Protective coatings shall comply with specified requirements.

NOTE: Protective coatings may include film forming type (i.e. acrylic or water based acrylic,
epoxy, polyurethane and polymer-modified cementitious) and pore-lining penetrants (i.e. silane,
silane/siloxane and siloxane).
3.5.4.2 Surface preparation
The surface preparation shall be undertaken as required to achieve the appropriate adhesion,
coating penetration into the concrete and aesthetic requirements. Concrete shall be clean
and reasonably dry for the coating to adhere properly and be resistant to peeling or
blistering.
Previously painted surfaces shall be clean and sound and all traces of peeling or loose paint
shall be removed.
3.5.4.3 Environmental conditions
Protective coatings shall only be applied when the environmental conditions are within the
following limits:
(a) Air temperature between 10°C–35°C.
(b) Relative humidity <85%.
(c) Dew point at least 3°C above concrete surface temperature.
3.5.4.4 Surface moisture condition
Where materials to be used require a dry surface, the substrate areas to be treated shall be
surface dry before application commences, unless coatings can be applied under wet
conditions for special applications. Artificial drying of surfaces shall not be carried out and
concrete surfaces may need to be protected to ensure that they are surface dry before
applying a film coating or impregnation.
3.5.4.5 Moisture content of concrete
The moisture content of concrete shall be less than 10% to prevent water back-pressure on
the coating.
NOTE: Moisture content may be measured by one of several proprietary calibrated moisture
meters.

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 AS 5100.8:2017 32

3.5.4.6 Application
Film coatings or impregnations shall be applied by brush, spray or roller as a series of
continuous operations in accordance with the material manufacturer’s specified techniques.
The manufacturer’s stated method of application, time limitations of materials and inter-
coating time intervals shall be strictly adhered to. The coatings should be applied so as to
produce a smooth, even coating free of lumps, ripples, sags, runs, air holes and other
defects.
3.5.4.7 Timings for application
The timings for application of coatings on concrete surfaces shall be as follows:
(a) Newly constructed cast in situ concrete/passively cured precast concrete Not earlier
than 28 days after the concrete has been placed and provided the concrete is in a
surface-dry condition.
NOTE: Passive curing includes use of water, wet hessian, polyethylene plastic or formwork in
place or a combination of these.
(b) Steam or radiant heat cured concrete Not earlier than 14 days after concrete has
been placed.
(c) Repaired concrete Not earlier than 14 days after completion of the repairs. Where
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normal concrete is used for the repair, not earlier than 28 days.
3.5.4.8 Quality control testing
The following quality control testing shall be undertaken:
(a) Testing prior to application of materials:
(i) Testing the surface moisture condition of the concrete substrate to satisfy
requirements as specified.
(ii) Testing the moisture content of the concrete to satisfy requirements as
specified.
(b) Testing after application of materials:
(i) Testing the bond strength to demonstrate conformance with the minimum
adhesion strength as specified.
(ii) Measurement of the wet and dry film thickness or the amount of penetration of
the coatings into the concrete to the minimum requirements.
The location and frequency of testing of the coating system or the pore-lining penetrant
shall be considered on completion of the application of the final coat in accordance with
requirements as specified.
3.5.5 Structures affected by cracking caused by alkali aggregate reactivity (AAR)
AAR affected structures shall be inspected on a regular basis by competent and experienced
personnel. Monitoring of cracks shall be undertaken using suitable measuring devices. An
assessment shall be made of the existing and predicted level of AAR expansion to enable
determination of the timing and type of remedial options.
NOTE: Remedial measures to prevent moisture ingress may include—
(a) the injection of cracks with flexible epoxy or elastomeric chemical grouts;
(b) the application of flexible epoxy, elastomeric acrylic or cementitious coatings;
(c) silane impregnations where appropriate;
(d) concrete encasement or propping and strutting in severe cases where required; or
(e) combination of the above.

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 33 AS 5100.8:2017

3.5.6 Repair of fire-affected concrete

A detailed repair of fire-affected concrete shall be developed following investigation and
assessment of visual and temperature effects of the fire damage on concrete, consideration
of any effects on physical properties, temperature effects on reinforcing steel and
prestressing strands and the temperature effects on the concrete/steel interface.
All fire-affected and weakened concrete shall be removed right behind the steel
reinforcement and prestressing tendons and repaired with flowable or hand/trowel-applied
polymer-modified cementitious materials or spray-applied gunite cementitious repair
materials in accordance with the requirements of Clause 3.6.3.
Repair of fire-affected concrete shall include—
(a) breaking back to sound and dense concrete and exposing as much of the steel
reinforcement as possible;
(b) preparation of steel reinforcement and concrete substrate;
(c) application of an appropriate steel primer and substrate bonding coat; and
(d) rebuilding to the original surface profile.
When removing fire-affected concrete behind normal steel reinforcement to provide a good
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mechanical key, consideration shall be given to not exposing prestressing tendons any
further if they are not physically damaged or unravelled to ensure continuation of the
residual prestressing effectiveness.
3.5.7 Installation of cathodic protection (CP) of reinforced concrete structures
Cathodic protection (CP) of steel in atmospherically exposed, buried and submerged
concrete in existing structures shall be designed, installed and monitored in accordance with
the requirements of AS 2832.5 and Appendix B. This shall apply to both impressed current
and sacrificial cathodic protection systems for structures that include normal reinforcement
and prestressed reinforcement embedded in the concrete.
To confirm suitability, the extent of the CP system shall be determined, design input for the
system shall be provided, and a diagnostic investigation shall be undertaken as stated in
Clause 3.3, which shall be representative of the various structural components of the
structure and the various CP exposure zones.
The detailed design and design calculations, technical specification for installation,
installation procedures, commissioning, review of compliance to protection criteria,
ongoing monitoring and operation of the cathodic protection system shall be undertaken by
experienced and competent personnel.
The CP system shall be designed and installed such that it delivers sufficient current to
polarize satisfactorily the reinforcement of the whole of the reinforced concrete components
being protected for all zones including within the submerged, tidal, splash and atmospheric
zones. Satisfactory polarization shall be demonstrated by achieving the protection criteria in
accordance with the requirements of AS 2832.5.
The CP system shall be designed and installed to operate at current densities limited to
values that do not—
(a) cause adverse effects to the steel/concrete bond in plain reinforced concrete
structures;
(b) cause excessive acidification within CP anode backfill;
(c) cause hydrogen embrittlement in prestressing steel; and
(d) increase the potential for alkali aggregate reactivity due to the increase in alkalinity at
the steel.
NOTE: Guidance on the principles of cathodic protection and its application to steel in concrete is
given in AS 2832.5.

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 AS 5100.8:2017 34

3.5.8 Waterproofing of concrete bridge decks

3.5.8.1 General
Where required, waterproofing of concrete bridge decks shall be undertaken to prevent
moisture ingress or contamination of the deck slab by other deleterious substances.
3.5.8.2 Membranes
Membranes may include synthetic preformed sheet and liquid applied membranes.
Preformed sheet membranes shall cover the entire deck between parapets, with careful
detailing to ensure continuity under kerbs, verges and central medians.
Sheet membranes shall be overlapped at the seams and sealed so that water or other
substances cannot penetrate. The sealing process shall be carried out by heat or cold solvent
welding consistent with type of membrane material used.
Spray-applied solvent-free waterproof membranes shall be single component materials
capable of achieving effective bond onto the concrete surface with increased resistance to
punctures. Surface preparation, environmental checks, surface moisture condition,
application, and quality control testing shall be in accordance with the requirements of
Clause 3.6.4.
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When a wearing course is applied over waterproofing membranes (including sheet

membranes), such membranes shall be capable of withstanding both the laying temperature
of bituminous materials (155°C to 180°C) and puncturing from aggregates when the
surfacing is rolled.
3.5.9 Sulfate attack repairs
An examination for possible sulfate attack shall be undertaken to determine the extent of
any damage. The affected component shall be isolated (if required) by containing and
propping, and the deteriorated concrete removed and replaced with fly ash, slag or silica
fume concrete in accordance with the requirements of Section 4 of AS 5100.5 or
polymer-modified cementitious materials for increased resistance to sulfate attack in
accordance with Clause 3.6.3.
The use of polymer-modified cementitious materials shall be reviewed for compatibility for
exposure to sulfates, as some of these materials may contain high levels of alkali or
aluminate to provide the expansion as part of their required performance.
Surface-applied barrier protective coatings such as epoxies may be applied in accordance
with Clause 3.5.4 to protect concrete surfaces or concrete repairs against sulfate attack.
Other physical protective barriers and membranes may also be used.

3.6 STRENGTHENING OF CONCRETE STRUCTURES

3.6.1 General
Strengthening of concrete structures shall be undertaken by using various materials and
techniques including fibre-reinforced polymer (FRP) composite strengthening, steel plating,
external/transverse post tensioning, reinforced concrete deck overlay and reinforced
concrete jacketing systems.
Strengthening of a structure shall be based on a structural analysis undertaken to determine
the level of overloading or under-design for the in-service load conditions, to ensure that
the strengthened structure meets the minimum requirements for serviceability, strength and
durability.
The structural analysis shall consider any load redistribution in the strengthened structure
for the in-service load conditions to prevent any overstressing of unstrengthened sections.

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 35 AS 5100.8:2017

3.6.2 Fibre-reinforced polymer (FRP) composite strengthening

3.6.2.1 General
FRP composite strengthening shall be undertaken in accordance with the requirements of
Appendix A and the following:
(a) The minimum tensile strength of the concrete to be strengthened shall be 1.5 MPa and
its minimum compressive strength not less than 17 MPa.
(b) FRP composite strengthening systems that are based on a combination of
fibre-reinforcing material and adhesive resins shall be designed and installed to
provide an adhesive bond onto the concrete surface, which allows for the satisfactory
transfer of stresses to and from the fibre materials.
(c) FRP composite strengthening work shall be undertaken by competent and experienced
personnel who are competent in the installation procedures developed by the
manufacturer of the particular FRP composite strengthening system.
(d) Surveillance and inspection during installation of the FRP composite strengthening
systems and inspection and monitoring of strengthened structures shall be undertaken
by competent and experienced personnel knowledgeable in both the material aspects
and the installation of FRP composite strengthening works.
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NOTE: Whilst long-term performance is still the subject of ongoing research, FRP systems have
been successfully used in structural applications for bridges, since the 1980s. As a result, a design
life of 30 years is considered a conservative estimate for FRP composite strengthening systems
provided regular inspection, monitoring and maintenance regimes are put in place.
3.6.2.2 Validation of FRP composite systems
The immediate performance of the FRP composite strengthening system may be monitored
by the installation of suitable instrumentation on the strengthened components at pre-
determined strategic locations.
Instrumentation shall consist of strain gauges or fibre-optic gauges embedded within the
FRP, bonded to the structure or FRP surface or on additional band of FRP for monitoring
and testing purposes.
NOTE: The instrumentation may be installed following completion of all strengthening and any
rehabilitation works on the strengthened components (i.e. including any repair of concrete, epoxy
injection of cracks and application of anti-carbonation protective coating).
3.6.2.3 Special inspection and testing
When a routine visual inspection has identified a problem, detailed inspection and testing
shall be undertaken by competent and experienced personnel with appropriate experience of
fibre composites to adequately assess and interpret the findings.
Delamination/drummy testing shall be undertaken by competent and experienced personnel
to identify voids and areas of debonding and establish the integrity of the FRP
strengthening.
NOTE: Thermal and acoustic non-destructive methods with proven reliability may be used.
Installation of instrumentation such as strain gauges or fibre-optic gauges embedded within
the FRP, bonded to the structure or FRP surface or on additional band of FRP for
monitoring and testing purposes shall be considered for FRP composite strengthening
works.
NOTE: Such devices can provide information as to the ongoing performance of the FRP system
as affected by bending and structural in-service live loads or abnormal loadings.

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 AS 5100.8:2017 36

3.6.3 Strengthening of concrete structures with steel plates

Strengthening of deteriorated or underperforming concrete structures or members with steel
plates or steel brackets shall be designed to the required thickness and configuration. Flat
steel plates shall be used in combination with epoxy adhesives and, where required, bolted
onto the concrete substrate to the minimum requirements. Temporary support systems shall
also be designed and installed where required.
NOTE: The steel plates or brackets may be coated for protection.
3.6.4 Other types of strengthening of concrete structures
Other forms of strengthening or increasing the structural loadbearing capacity of concrete
structures or individual components for flexure, shear, torsion and axial load may also be
designed and installed to minimum requirements, including—
(a) external/transverse post tensioning (steel rods or tendons), provided end anchorage
plates are adequately designed and seated securely;
(b) reinforced concrete deck overlay, which provides strengthening for additional live
loads and overall waterproofing of a structure;
(c) additional reinforced concrete/sprayed concrete strengthening of beams, columns,
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crossheads and walls;

(d) additional members such as beams, columns, cross-bracing and walls installed to
support damaged structural members;
(e) adding or replacing embedded steel reinforcement; and
NOTE: Beam enlargement may require steel reinforcement to be epoxied into the concrete or
a steel cage placed around it, followed by formwork and then conventional concrete or
suitable cementitious grout placed into the forms. In the case of columns, additional steel
cage may be built around the column followed by formwork and then conventional concrete
or suitable cementitious grout placed into the forms.
(f) adding ancillary items such as buffer bearings or tuned mass dampers.
Filling or injecting cracks and voids shall be undertaken in conjunction with all types of
strengthening where required.
The design of these strengthening systems shall be based on the requirements of the
AS(AS/NZS) 5100 series.
Where deteriorated concrete requires removal and repair, this shall be done in accordance
with the requirements of Clause 3.6.2 and Clause 3.6.3.
3.6.5 Post-installed fasteners
Where post-installed chemical and mechanical fasteners (anchors) are used for retrofit or
maintenance and repair, they shall meet the following requirements:
(a) The fastening design shall be in accordance with SA TS 101.
(b) The fastener shall meet the prequalification requirements of SA TS 101:2015
Appendix B. A fastener with a current European Technical Approval/Assessment
(ETA) awarded in accordance with ETAG 001 satisfies the requirements of
SA TS 101 Appendix B. For applications involving specific conditions such as
cracked concrete, repeated loading, sustained tensile loading or seismic loading,
products satisfying these conditions through relevant SA TS 101 Appendix B or ETA
Options shall be specified.
(c) The fastener installer shall be certified by the Australian Engineered Fasteners and
Anchors Council, or shall be able to provide evidence of competency acceptable to
the relevant authority.

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 37 AS 5100.8:2017

SECTI ON 4 STEEL STRUCTURES

4.1 GENERAL
This Section sets out procedures for the condition assessment of existing steel structures
and their repair, rehabilitation and/or strengthening.
The assessment of a metal structure or component shall include the identification of the
material as cast iron, wrought iron or steel. Strength parameters for cast iron and wrought
iron may be highly variable and some steel types may be non-weldable. Testing shall be
undertaken where required to determine appropriate strength parameters, chemical
composition and, where applicable, suitability for welding.
NOTE: For material characteristics of typical old iron and steel, see AS 5100.7.

4.2 CONDITION ASSESSMENT

4.2.1 General
Assessment of the condition of a structure may be initiated by a scheduled assessment as
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required by the applicable asset management system, visual evidence of distress or

deterioration, or by a requirement for the structure to carry increased live or other loads.
The assessment of a structure, including its material condition, its structural integrity and
whether and how to repair it, shall be performed by competent personnel.
An initial inspection shall be conducted to confirm the existence of deterioration and
defects in steel, identify any immediate safety problems due to the deterioration, and
determine the need for a more detailed site inspection that may be required. If a detailed
inspection is required to be undertaken, it shall establish the location, cause, extent and
degree of deterioration already apparent.
The assessment of the structure shall include—
(a) the nature, extent, location, severity and causes of damage and/or deterioration, and
the ability of the structure to perform its function;
(b) the likely remaining service life of the structure; and
(c) work required to make the structure safe before and throughout any rehabilitation or
strengthening, and for the required service life.
When a rehabilitation or strengthening option is proposed for a structure, investigations
shall consider as appropriate, but may not be limited to, those items stated in this Clause, in
order to—
(i) confirm suitability of the rehabilitation or strengthening;
(ii) determine the extent of the rehabilitation and/or strengthening; and
(iii) provide design input.
4.2.2 Existing information
Available drawings, specifications, records, including photographic records, and notes shall
be reviewed to assess the type and grade of the structural steel, and associated bolts, rivets
and welds.
4.2.3 Causes of deterioration
4.2.3.1 General
The causes of the original deficiency shall be determined, to establish whether the repairs
will be susceptible to the same problems.

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 AS 5100.8:2017 38

4.2.3.2 Corrosion
Corrosion is the most prevalent factor affecting steel structures. Corrosion is the
deterioration of steel by chemical or electro-chemical reaction resulting from exposure to
air, moisture, industrial fumes and other chemicals and contaminants in the environment in
which it is placed. Corrosion will only occur if the steel is not protected or if the protective
coating wears or breaks off. Corrosion of carbon steel is initially fine grained, but as the
process progresses it becomes flaky and delaminates, exposing a pitted surface. The process
thus continues with progressive loss of section.
Corrosion shall be prevented by any of the following systems:
(a) Durable protective barriers such as painting, encasing in concrete or galvanizing to
prevent oxygen and moisture reaching the steel.
(b) Inhibitive primers, which hold off attack on the steel substrate.
(c) Provision of sacrificial anodes.
(d) Provision of zinc-rich primers incorporated into a high quality protective coating
system or galvanizing.
(e) Provision of cathodic protection by use of an external current to suppress the anodic
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reaction.
4.2.3.3 Graphitization
Graphitization is a form of corrosion that may occur in submerged cast iron. Cast iron
contains carbon in the form of graphite in its molecular structure. Graphitization occurs
when the stable graphite crystals remain in place but the less stable iron is converted into
somewhat soluble iron oxide and is leached out. As a result, the cast iron retains its shape
and appearance but has no strength due to the loss of the iron. The corrosion process is
galvanic. Section loss generally occurs at a rate of 5 to 16 mm per 100 years.
4.2.3.4 Permanent deformations
Permanent deformation of steel members can take the form of bending, buckling, twisting
or elongation, or any combination of these. Permanent deformations may be caused by
overloading, vehicular collision, or inadequate or damaged intermediate lateral supports or
bracing.
Permanent bending deformation usually occurs in the direction of the applied loads and is
usually associated with flexural members.
Permanent buckling deformations normally occur in a direction perpendicular to the applied
load and are usually associated with compression members. Buckling may also produce
local permanent deformations of webs and flanges of beams, plate girders and box girders.
Permanent twisting deformations appear as a rotation of the member about its longitudinal
axis and are usually the result of eccentric transverse loads on the member.
Slippage at bolted connections can result in permanent deformation at the connection.
4.2.3.5 Cracking
Cracking comprises a linear fracture of the steel. Cracks in steel are mainly produced due to
fatigue loading and can, under certain conditions, lead to brittle fracture. Brittle fracture is a
crack completely through the component that usually occurs without prior warning or
plastic deformation.
Any crack shall be carefully recorded as to its specific location in the member. The length,
width (if possible) and orientation of crack shall also be recorded.

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 39 AS 5100.8:2017

The primary factors leading to fatigue cracking are:

(a) the number of applied stress cycles, which is a function of the nature of traffic or
wind;
(b) the magnitude of the stress range, which depends on the applied live load; and
(c) the fatigue strength in the connection detail.
Cracks caused by fatigue usually occur at points of tensile stress concentrations, such as
welded attachments or at termination points of welds.
Cracks may also be caused or exacerbated by overloading, vehicular collision or loss of
section resistance due to corrosion. In addition, stress concentrations due to the poor quality
of the fabricated details and the fracture toughness of materials used are contributing
factors. Material fracture toughness determines the size of the crack that can be tolerated
before fracture occurs.
Welded connections are more prone to cracking than bolted or riveted connections. Once
the cracking occurs in a welded connection, it can extend into other components due to a
continuous path provided at the welded connection, and possibly lead to a brittle fracture.
Bolted or riveted connections may also develop fatigue cracking, but a crack in one
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component will generally not pass through into the others. Bolted and riveted connections
are also susceptible to cracking or tearing resulting from prying action, and by a build-up of
corrosion forces between parts of the connection.
As cracks may be concealed by paint, rust, dirt or debris, the suspect surfaces shall be
cleaned prior to inspection.
Cracks that are perpendicular or inclined to the direction of force in the member could lead
to fracture of the member. Such cracks shall be addressed as a matter of urgency.
4.2.3.6 Loose connections
Loose connections can occur in bolted or riveted connections and may be caused by
corrosion of the connector plates or fasteners, excessive vibration, overstressing, cracking
or the failure of individual fasteners.
Loose connections may sometimes not be detectable by visual inspection. Cracking or
excessive corrosion of the connector plates or fasteners, or permanent deformation of the
connection or members framing into it, may be indications of a loose connection. Tapping
the connection with a hammer is one method of determining if the connection is loose.
4.2.4 Methods of assessment
4.2.4.1 General
The assessment of a structure, including its material condition, its structural integrity and
whether and how to repair it, shall be performed by competent and experienced personnel.
4.2.4.2 Visual inspection
Where a structure is accessible, visual survey data shall be collected to assess the type,
causes and extent of defects. This survey shall include features of the structure and its
surrounding which may influence the effectiveness of rehabilitation or strengthening. For
areas that have been previously repaired, the repair methods and the materials used shall be
investigated.
The cause of any deterioration shall be determined. Where any signs of structural distress
are evident, an assessment of both the loadbearing capacity of the structure, and the need
for temporary or permanent strengthening shall be carried out by a professional engineer.

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 AS 5100.8:2017 40

For steel bridges, visual inspection shall include the following:

(a) Observing members under load where possible and noting any excessive movement in
members or fastenings.
(b) Identification of any crack on the member surface (see Clause 4.2.3.4).
(c) Examination for water build-up, especially in areas where build-up could cause
corrosion.
(d) Examination for notches and associated cracking caused by impact from vehicles or
equipment.
(e) Examination of surface treatment, evidence of surface corrosion and, where
necessary, measurement of corrosion loss.
Visual inspection has been found to detect most defects in steel structures. Particular note
shall be taken of the following:
(i) Any distortion and misalignment of structures or individual members.
(ii) Paint condition, including measurement of residual paint thickness.
(iii) Water, dirt or other debris lying on steel surfaces that could lead to corrosion.
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Measurements of corroded steel shall be taken to determine the thickness of remaining

sound material for comparison with the original thickness. All loose rust and corrosion
product shall be removed at the point of measurement to allow an accurate reading. Vernier
callipers or a micrometer shall be used to obtain accurate measurements to at least an
accuracy of 0.25 mm. The number and location of measurements required will depend on
the defect under consideration. As a minimum, the remaining cross-sectional area of an
element (flange, web, stiffener) at the location of the greatest corrosion loss and at the
location of greatest stress shall be measured.
Visual inspection of steel components shall be in accordance with AS 3978.
4.2.4.3 Hammer test
Hammer testing (where members are tapped lightly with a hammer) may indicate loose
plates and fastenings, extent of corrosion, and effectiveness of corrosion protection. Care
shall be taken that hammering does not cause damage to the corrosion protection system.
4.2.4.4 Thickness testing of steel sections
The thickness of steel sections can often be measured directly across an edge or a
penetration, using rulers, vernier callipers or micrometers. In cases where access to both
surfaces is not available or possible, thickness of steel may be measured using an ultrasonic
thickness meter.
Thickness testing of steel sections using an ultrasonic instrument shall be undertaken in
accordance with AS 2452.3.
4.2.4.5 Coating condition testing
A dry film thickness gauge may be used to determine the thickness of a coating on steel.
The coating may be recently applied or showing signs of deterioration as a result of
exposure.
Film thickness testing of protective coating shall be undertaken in accordance to AS 3894.3.
Samples of paint shall be taken to determine the percentage of lead present in the full
thickness of the coating.
4.2.4.6 Radiographic testing
Non-destructive radiographic testing shall be undertaken in accordance with AS 2177 or
AS 3507.2, as appropriate to the item being tested.

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 41 AS 5100.8:2017

4.2.4.7 Ultrasonic testing

Non-destructive ultrasonic testing shall be undertaken in accordance with AS 1065,
AS 1710, AS 2207 or AS 2574, as appropriate to the item being tested.
4.2.4.8 Magnetic particle testing
Magnetic particle inspection (MPI) is a non-destructive testing (NDT) process for detecting
surface and slightly subsurface discontinuities in ferromagnetic materials such as steel. The
process puts a magnetic field into the member. Cracks are detectable due to the magnetic
particles clustering at the crack openings. This is particularly important in mapping fatigue
cracks where the end point must be found.
Non-destructive magnetic particle testing shall be undertaken in accordance with AS 1171.
4.2.4.9 Acoustic emission
The application of acoustic emission (AE) to non-destructive testing of materials, typically
takes place between 100 kHz and 1 MHz. Unlike conventional ultrasonic testing, AE tools
are designed for monitoring acoustic emissions produced within the material during partial
failure or stress, rather than actively transmitting waves, then collecting them after they
have travelled through the material. This process can be monitored locally.
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The acoustic emission test shall be undertaken in accordance with ASTM E1139.
4.2.4.10 Laboratory testing of steel samples
The laboratory testing of steel samples comprises chemical analysis, metallographic
examination and mechanical testing.
Chemical composition shall be determined in accordance with AS/NZS 1050 series of
Standards or other procedures that achieve the same, or better, degree of accuracy.
Microstructure testing shall be undertaken in accordance with ASTM E407 and
ASTM A247, and with AS 2205.5.1 for welds.
Tensile testing shall be undertaken in accordance with AS 1391. Impact testing shall be
undertaken in accordance with AS 1544.2, at an appropriate temperature.
Hardness testing shall be undertaken in accordance with AS 1816.1 for the Brinell hardness
test, or AS 1817.1 for the Vickers hardness test, as appropriate.
Rebound hardness (Leeb) testing shall be undertaken in accordance with ASTM A956.
4.2.4.11 Dye penetrant testing
Dye penetrant testing is used to locate surface cracking and defects in steel elements and
welds. A penetrant solution is applied to a clean and dry steel surface and allowed time to
move into surface cracks. Excess penetrant is then removed and a developer solution is
applied. The developer draws out the penetrant to reveal cracks under either ultraviolet or
white light depending on the dye being used. Dye penetrant does not identify deep defects
and discontinuities.
The dye penetrant test shall be undertaken in accordance with AS 2062.
4.2.4.12 Eddy current testing
Eddy current testing uses electromagnetic fields to detect discontinuities near the surface of
steel elements and welds.
The eddy current test shall be undertaken in accordance with AS 4544 and AS 2331.1.4.
4.2.4.13 Adhesion testing
Adhesion testing of protective coating shall be undertaken in accordance with AS 3894.9.

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 AS 5100.8:2017 42

4.2.4.14 Lead paint testing

Where the presence of lead is suspected, samples of the existing paint shall be taken to
determine the percentage of lead present in the full thickness of the coating.
4.2.4.15 Steel plate thickness testing
The thickness of steel sections may be measured directly across an edge or a penetration,
using rulers, vernier callipers or micrometers. In cases where access to both surfaces is not
available or possible, thickness of steel may be measured using an ultrasonic thickness
meter. Thickness testing of steel sections using an ultrasonic instrument shall be undertaken
in accordance with AS 2452.3.

4.3 ASSESSMENT FOR CATHODIC PROTECTION (CP)

In addition to the requirements of Clause 4.2 and where required by the relevant authority,
the structure shall be assessed to determine the suitability and extent of a CP system. The
diagnostic assessment shall take account of the components of the structure and, the
exposure.
Cathodic protection of buried or immersed steel structures shall be undertaken in
accordance with the requirements of AS 2832.2 and AS 2832.3.
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Applying cathodic protection to a buried or submerged steel structure is achieved by

applying an appropriate direct current flowing in opposition to the original corrosion
current, thus preventing the natural tendency of the metal to react with its environment. In
practice, the electrical potential of the metal at risk is used to judge whether adequate
protection is being achieved. To employ cathodic protection, a circuit is established by
connecting a suitable source of direct current to the structure to be protected.
Two types of cathodic protection systems are available, as follows:
(a) Galvanic anode systems, which employ metallic anodes that are consumed to provide
the source of direct current for protection of the structure. The driving voltage for the
protective current comes from the natural potential difference that exists between the
structure and a second metal (the galvanic anode).
(b) Impressed current systems, in which the driving voltage for the protective current
between the structure and the anode is supplied by an external direct current (d.c.)
power source (see Note 1).
NOTES:
1 Similar to cathodic protection for steel in concrete structures, anodes are placed at a finite
distance away from the buried or immersed steel structures. The soil or water in between the
anodes and steel acts as the electrolyte for the flow of current between the anodes and steel.
2 Cathodic protection cannot be applied to atmospherically exposed structural steel, as there
will not be any electrolyte between anodes and steel to allow for current flow.

4.4 INSPECTION AND ASSESSMENT OF FIRE-AFFECTED STEEL

4.4.1 General
When subjected to fire, steel and its associated connections may lose strength with
increasing temperature and, on cooling, can show a loss of both yield strength and tensile
strength. At high temperatures steel is also subject to significant elongation, which may also
lead to adverse impacts, especially if it is restrained (see Clause 4.4.2).

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 43 AS 5100.8:2017

Fire-affected structural steel shall be assessed by initial inspection and, where damage is
suspected, supplemented with hardness testing in situ and tensile testing of samples to
establish the full extent of damage and the residual quality of the material, including
connections. The initial inspection shall estimate the range of fire temperature and the
temperature effects of fire damage on steel by assessing the damage on surrounding
material and by comparison with non-fire-affected steel.
NOTE: Strength loss for steel is generally accepted to begin at around 300°C and increases
rapidly after 400°C is reached. By 550°C, steel retains only approximately 60% of its normal
ambient temperature yield strength, and approximately only 45% of its stiffness. For a
temperature rise above 600°C, steel is likely to suffer some deterioration in residual properties on
cooling.
High strength steel (e.g. greater than 350 MPa yield strength) will suffer greater pro rata
degradation on tensile strength than normal strength steel. This is due to the precipitation of
strengthening elements (typically vanadium and niobium) out of the matrix, creating a coarse
distribution.
Steel members that are restrained can undergo high stresses at temperatures lower than 300°C.
This can be exhibited in the form of distortion and buckling on cooling.
High strength bolts (grade 8.8) have a tensile strength reduction more marked than for 4.6 grade
bolts. The residual strength of high strength bolts falls to 60% and 80% after reaching
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temperatures of 600°C and 800°C, respectively.

4.4.2 Assessment
Steel members that have been subjected to, or suspected of being subjected to, high
temperatures as a result of fire shall be assessed for suitability for re-use as follows:
(a) The members shall have no distortion, as measured using survey, which could have
been caused by the fire.
(b) Testing on samples of the suspect material show no decrease in yield strength and
ultimate tensile strength.
NOTE: This may be supplemented using hardness testing.
Steel bolts that have been subjected to, or suspected of being subjected to high temperatures
as a result of fire shall be replaced.

4.5 METHODS OF REPAIR, AND REHABILITATION OF STEEL STRUCTURES

4.5.1 General
Repair and rehabilitation methods shall be selected based on the type, extent and rate of
deterioration or deficiency identified, the reasons for deterioration, the required life
expectancy of the structure and future maintenance requirements.
4.5.2 Paintwork
All steelwork on bridges is subject to the weather or other harmful environmental effects,
which will cause it to corrode. As corrosion increases, the section properties are diminished
and the serviceability of the members and the structure as a whole begins to be affected.
Painting of the steelwork is important to protect the steel from the corrosion process and
hence prolong the life of the components and the structure.
Deteriorated and exposed lead-based coatings of structural steel shall be assessed and
treated in accordance with AS 4361.1.
NOTE: For other methods of assessing and treating exposed and deteriorated paint coatings of
structural steel, refer to AS/NZS 2312.1.
As the paintwork deteriorates, small corrosion spots begin to show through the paint surface
and, if left unchecked, these will enlarge in size and quantity with time, depending on the
severity of the environment and also the localized in-service conditions to which the
member is exposed.

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 AS 5100.8:2017 44

Lead-based coatings generally have approximately 50% lead, and modern coatings
generally have less than 0.5% lead content. Any work involving a power tool, including
those that utilize abrasive blasting and a high pressure water jet, or machine sanding or
buffing, to remove any surface coating containing greater than 1% by dry weight of lead,
and the handling of waste from this process is regarded by regulation as a lead process,
generating lead dust, fumes or mist. Coatings containing more than 1% lead shall be
completely removed before commencing re-painting.
For coatings that contain less than 1% lead, where there is rust spotting up to 20% of the
surface area, it is usually still possible to recover the paintwork by high-pressure water
washing and spot painting of the rusted areas.
High-pressure water washing in the range of 20 000 to 34 000 kPa will usually remove any
loose or flaky paint leaving only well bonded original paint. Higher pressures may be used
on zinc primers and where topcoats are adherent. Use of higher pressures on lead-based
coatings is likely to cause pulverization of the lead coating and make containment of fines
difficult. Any corroded areas shall be power tool cleaned or spot abrasive blasted prior to
the water wash being applied.
Abrasive blasting is an effective means of removing all types of coating and delivering a
surface suitable for re-coating.
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All paint flakes and abrasive blasting medium shall be captured and disposed in accordance
with local environmental, health and safety regulations, especially where red lead paint is
present or early Dimet 1 paints were used as they had lead and asbestos as fillers in the
paint. Water with the paint flakes from the water jetting shall be collected and passed
through filters before it is re-used or disposed.
Where the paintwork is showing rust spotting greater than 20% of the surface area,
consideration shall be given to cleaning the steel back to bright metal by abrasive blast.
Such work shall be undertaken under full encapsulation of the steelwork. The encapsulation
shall collect all debris, including paint chips, the abrasive medium used in the blasting, and
control the dust generated from the blasting.
When working with lead or asbestos, full protective suits with breathing apparatus shall be
utilized, with vacuum pumps to collect the dust particles generated from the grit blasting.
Encapsulation treatments, where another topcoat or paint system is applied over an existing
partly deteriorated system shall not be used, unless approved by the relevant authority.
4.5.3 Replacing rivets
The steel girders on many early bridges were constructed using steel or wrought iron
sections or plates, which were connected to each other using hot driven-friction rivets. With
wear and plate or section movement, the rivets can fracture and fall out, requiring
replacement.
High strength bolts may be used to replace the rivets so that the elements remain well
connected.
As it is usually not readily practicable to prepare the faying surfaces, the new connection
shall be facilitated by reaming precision holes to suit the new bolts or rivets.
4.5.4 Replacing cracked plates and sections
Steel sections can be damaged or cracked by vehicle impact, unexpected movements of the
supports or by fatigue. Repair may require propping the beam to carry the load in the
component prior to removing the damaged section.
Care shall be taken to support the bridge and live loads to ensure that permanent deflections
do not occur.

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 45 AS 5100.8:2017

Where cracks in plates are identified and require repair, a hole shall be drilled through the
tail of the crack to terminate it and evenly distribute the stress to a larger area.
NOTE: The hole size should be at least 20 times the width of the crack, or not less than the plate
thickness, or 16 mm, whichever is the greater.

4.6 STRENGTHENING OF STEEL STRUCTURES

4.6.1 General
Strengthening steel structures generally comprises fitting stronger replacement steel
elements or supplementary elements by either welding or mechanically fastening. Due to
potential issues with weldability and fatigue life, connection using mechanical fastening is
preferred.
Steel sections and plates used for strengthening in repair shall be a minimum grade 250 to
AS/NZS 3678 and the AS/NZS 3679 series, unless connecting to a steel of higher grade,
when a higher grade can be considered.
High strength bolts, nuts and washers shall conform to AS/NZS 1252 (series) and shall be
galvanized in accordance with AS 1214.
Strengthening of a structure shall be based on a structural analysis, to ensure that the
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strengthened structure meets the minimum requirements for serviceability, strength and
durability.
The structural analysis shall consider any load redistribution in the strengthened structure
for the in-service load conditions to prevent any overstressing of unstrengthened sections.
4.6.2 Welding
Prior to the commencement of any welding procedure, it shall be determined whether or not
the steels are weldable by normal welding procedures. This shall comprise—
(a) inspection of existing design documentation and construction records; and
(b) removal of samples for metallographic and chemical analysis for carbon, manganese,
silicon, aluminium, sulfur and phosphate content.
Welding shall not be used to transfer load in combination with either bolted or riveted
connections.
For locations where welding is proposed, an engineering assessment of the existing
structure shall be undertaken to determine the effect on the fatigue life of the component,
and to ensure the appropriate connection method is selected. Welding shall be in accordance
with AS/NZS 1554.1, AS/NZS 1554.3, AS/NZS 1554.4 or AS/NZS 1554.5, as appropriate,
and with relevant authority requirements.
4.6.3 Welding steel plates to increase member capacity
Steel members may be strengthened by welding additional steel plates to the member. The
existing members shall be locally prepared by grit blasting or grinding to remove any
corrosion product or protective coating of the areas to be welded prior to the clamping of
the new steel plate to the member so that welding can proceed.
Upon completion of the welding and inspection for defects, the work shall be thoroughly
cleaned, primed and painted to match existing steel.
4.6.4 Repairing impact damage
4.6.4.1 General
Impact damage repair applies to steel bridge elements damaged by vehicle or other impact,
and includes major components such as girders or truss members and minor components
such as bracing members.

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 AS 5100.8:2017 46

In order to ensure that the repair method adopted is cost effective and restores the required
bridge capacity, the following sequence of actions shall be undertaken:
(a) Inspection of damage.
(b) Assessment of damage.
(c) Selection of repair method.
4.6.4.2 Inspection
An initial inspection shall be undertaken to ensure safety to the user and to avoid further
damage to the bridge. When damage is severe, competent and experienced personnel shall
make the initial inspection and determine whether to restrict traffic or close the bridge.
Preliminary strengthening shall be made immediately to prevent further damage.
NOTE: Preliminary strengthening may also be made to allow traffic on the bridge.
If a severely damaged member is fracture critical, immediate steps shall be taken to prevent
bridge collapse. When safety of the user is in question, the bridge shall be closed until it is
determined that traffic can be safely restored.
4.6.4.3 Assessment
During assessment of damage, a complete evaluation of strength shall be made. This
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analysis shall determine stress levels in the damaged member, and these stresses shall be
compared to the design stresses. This analysis shall allow for all damage effects such as
reduction of section, member distortion etc. Service load, overload, ultimate load, and
fatigue stresses shall be calculated as appropriate. Calculations shall consider the effect of
stress range and the fatigue category of the member. All preliminary calculations and
decisions made during the inspection phase shall be reviewed.
4.6.4.4 Repair
Methods of repair for impact damage may include bolted or welded cover plates, flame
straightening or member replacement, as appropriate.
Flame strengthening or cutting may be used, provided it is approved by the relevant
authority.
4.6.5 Post-tensioning steel composite bridges
Steel composite bridges may be strengthened by the use of strands or bars applied near the
bottom flange. If there are no restrictions on vertical clearance or aesthetic appearance, the
anchorages may be placed on the soffit of the flange or along the side of the flange.
NOTE: Attaching anchorages to the web may require coping of stiffeners or gusset plates.
Strands shall not be used for short lengths as the draw-in losses will be excessive.
Anchors shall be placed beyond the point where there is no overstress, and with sufficient
clearance for jacking equipment.
4.6.6 Shear connection
Shear connectors in the form of post-installed anchors may be used to stiffen and strengthen
a bridge. Design of shear connectors shall be in accordance with AS/NZS 5100.6.

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 47 AS 5100.8:2017

SECTI ON 5 TIMBER STRUCTURES

5.1 GENERAL
This Section outlines procedures for the condition assessment of existing timber girder
structures and their repair, rehabilitation and/or strengthening.
NOTE: Timber truss bridges require particular inspection and assessment procedures and
different rehabilitation and strengthening solutions often governed by heritage considerations.
The most common timber bridge structures in Australia are girder bridges.
The design of the rehabilitation or strengthening of timber bridges or timber components of
other bridges shall be carried out in accordance with Appendix D.

5.2 CONDITION ASSESSMENT

5.2.1 General
Assessment of the condition of a structure may be initiated by a scheduled assessment as
required by the applicable asset management system, visual evidence of distress or
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deterioration, or by a requirement for the structure to carry increased live or other loads.
An initial inspection shall be carried out to confirm the existence and location of
deterioration, identify any immediate safety problems due to the deterioration, and
determine the need for a more detailed site inspection that may be required.
Inspection shall be undertaken by competent and experienced personnel. Data on
dimensions, member sizes, geometry, timber species, material strengths, extent and location
of deterioration, distress, and permanent distortion shall be collected, to the extent that they
will affect the repair, rehabilitation or strengthening design.
5.2.2 Causes of deterioration
5.2.2.1 General
The cause of the original deficiency shall be determined to establish whether the repairs
will be susceptible to the same problems.
5.2.2.2 Structural overload
Structural failure of a timber member is normally the result of traffic or flood loads
exceeding the residual capacity of the member. The main structural actions that timber
bridge members resist are bending, shear and bearing:
(a) Bending A timber girder subject to bending may fail by ductile crushing of
compression fibres. Imperfections such as knots or sloping grain induce tension
perpendicular to the grain which may cause brittle fracture of the tension fibres.
(b) Shear Shear failure is typically characterized by a longitudinal split along the centre
of the member, effectively weakening it for bending as well.
(c) Bearing If sufficient timber has been removed from the corbels by internal decay,
the high vertical loads transferred through the ends of the girders may cause crushing
failure of the timber because loading is perpendicular to the grain.

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 AS 5100.8:2017 48

5.2.2.3 Splitting due to shrinkage

Moisture can exist in wood as water or water vapour in the cell cavities and as chemically
bound water within the cell walls. As green timber loses moisture to the surrounding
atmosphere, a point is reached when the cell cavities no longer contain moisture, but the
cell walls are still completely saturated with chemically bound water. This point is called
the ‘fibre saturation point’. Wood is dimensionally stable while its moisture content
remains above the fibre saturation point, which is typically around 30% for most timbers.
Bridges are normally constructed from green timber which gradually dries below its fibre
saturation point until it reaches equilibrium with the surrounding atmosphere. As it does so,
the wood shrinks but because it is anisotropic, the maximum shrinkage occurs parallel to
the annular rings, about half as much occurs perpendicular to the annular rings.
The relatively large cross-section timbers used in bridges lose their moisture through their
exterior surfaces so that the interior of the member remains above the fibre saturation point
while the outer layers fall below and attempt to shrink. This sets up tensile stresses
perpendicular to the grain and when these exceed the tensile strength of the wood, a check
or split develops, which deepens as the moisture content continues to drop. As timber dries
more rapidly through the ends of the member than through the sides, more serious splitting
occurs at the ends. Deep checks provide a convenient site for the start of fungal decay.
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Shrinkage also causes splitting where the timber is restrained by a bolted steel plate or other
type of fastening. This splitting can be avoided by allowing the timber to shrink freely by
using slotted holes. As timber shrinks, it tends to lose contact with steel washers or plates,
so the connection is no longer tight. Checking the tightness of nuts in bolted connections is
therefore a standard item of routine maintenance for timber bridges.
5.2.2.4 Insect attack (termites and marine borers)
Australia has a large number of different species of termites, which are widely distributed.
Most termite damage to timber bridges occurs through subterranean termites, which require
contact with the soil or some other constant source of moisture. Termites live in colonies or
nests that may be located below ground in the soil, or above ground in a tree stump,
hollowed out bridge member or an earth mound. Attack by subterranean termites originates
from the nest, but may spread well above ground level, either inside the wood or via
mud-walled tubes called galleries, which are constructed on the outside of bridge members.
These galleries are essential for termites, as they require an absence of light, a humid
atmosphere and a source of moisture to survive. Termite attack, once established, usually
degrades timber much more quickly than fungi, but termite attack in durable hardwoods
normally used in bridge construction is usually associated with some pre-existing fungal
decay. This decay accelerates as the termites extend their galleries through the structure,
moving fungal spores and moisture about with their bodies. Termites can be controlled
either by eradication of the nest (by direct chemical treatment or by separation of the colony
from its sustaining moisture) or by installation of chemical and physical barriers to prevent
termites from entering a bridge or attacking timber in contact with the ground.
Damage to underwater timber in the sea or tidal inlets is usually caused by marine borers,
and is more severe in tropical and sub-tropical waters than in colder waters. Borers are
controlled by reducing the oxygen content. The two main groups of animal involved are the
following:
(a) Molluscs (teredinindae) Molluscs destroy timber at all levels from the ground
surface level to high water level, but the greatest intensity of the attack is just below
water level. While only a few small holes may be visible on the surface of the pile, it
is possible that the interior of the pile may be completely eaten away.

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 49 AS 5100.8:2017

(b) Crustaceans Crustaceans attack the wood on its surface, making many narrower and
shorter tunnels than those made by the teredines. The timber is steadily eroded from
the outside. Attack is generally limited to the tidal zone in water containing at least
1% salinity, but they can survive at lower temperatures than the teredines.
5.2.2.5 Fungal attack (rot)
Both internal and external decay (commonly known as rot) of timbers used for bridges is
often caused by fungi. Fungal growths will not develop unless there is a source of infection
from which the plants can grow. Fungi procreate by producing vast numbers of microscopic
spores which may float through the air for long periods and may be blown for considerable
distances. These spores will not germinate and develop unless there is—
(a) an adequate supply of food (wood cells);
(b) an adequate supply of air or oxygen (immersion in water inhibits fungal growth);
(c) a suitable range of temperatures (highest risk between 20°C and 25°C); and
(d) a continuing supply of moisture (highest risk in unseasoned timber).
Once established, the decay fungi continue to grow at an accelerating rate as long as
favourable conditions prevail. Depriving the fungi of any one of these required conditions
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will effectively curtail the spread of decay. Moisture change can affect decay indirectly
because drying often leads to surface checks, which may expose untreated parts of timber or
create water traps. The most common rotting areas in timber bridges are internally in log
girders, corbels and piles (piping), and in sawn timbers with exposed ends and at interfaces.
5.2.2.6 Weathering
Weathering is the gradual deterioration of sawn or log timber due to its exposure to sun,
wind and rain. Weathering can be a serious problem especially to the exposed end grain of
untreated or unprotected wood, where severe rotting can occur around the connections. The
exposed ends of transverse deck planks are susceptible to this defect.
5.2.2.7 Fire
Wood itself does not burn. The effect of heat is firstly to decompose the wood (a process
known as pyrolysis) and it is some of the products of this decomposition that burn if
conditions are suitable. In theory, wood decomposes even at temperatures as low as 20°C
(at the rate of 1% per century). At 93°C, the wood will become charred in about 5 years.
Large section round timbers, as used in bridge construction, have good resistance to fire,
and, except during a severe bush fire, usually survive quite successfully.
5.2.3 Methods of assessment
5.2.3.1 General
The assessment of a structure, including its material condition, its structural integrity and
whether and how to repair it, shall be performed by competent and experienced personnel.
The assessment of the condition of the structure shall be carried out by the methods detailed
in Clauses 5.2.3.2 to 5.2.3.7.
5.2.3.2 Visual inspection
The general objectives of a visual inspection are the following:
(a) To determine the effectiveness of past maintenance activities.
(b) To note the changes in the state of previously reported problem areas.
(c) To identify any new problem areas affecting strength or serviceability, which will
require rehabilitation or strengthening.

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 AS 5100.8:2017 50

(d) To identify potential problems affecting strength or serviceability that could lead to
the need for future rehabilitation or strengthening.
Specific areas that shall be inspected for decay or insect attack are the following:
(i) Sapwood in all components.
(ii) Ground contact areas, such as piles and abutment components.
(iii) Areas where water may be trapped or does not dry out readily.
(iv) Interfaces between components.
(v) Holes at connections.
(vi) Ends of members, particularly girders and piles.
(vii) Under flashing or behind other protective coatings, particularly paint.
5.2.3.3 Inspection under transient loading
The general objectives of an inspection under transient loading are the following:
(a) To observe the behaviour of components and connections including the substructure
and the superstructure.
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(b) To observe overall deformations as well as local movements under wheel loads.
(c) To measure vertical deflections in girders, cross-girders and other flexural members.
(d) To discover any movements of piles and other substructure components.
5.2.3.4 Inspection with timber boring
The purpose of timber boring is to determine the residual amount of sound timber in a
member by extending the inspection to hidden areas so as to expose questionable areas,
particularly between components and buried portions of the structure to determine whether
there is internal deterioration. The extent and severity of any piping or rot within the
component is assessed by the inspector based on the resistance to drilling as ‘felt’, and is
supplemented by examination of wood shavings. This method relies on the experience and
judgement of the inspector and provides information only at the selected drill location. If
done to excess, the test holes can expose the member to more rapid decay and regular
drilling can result in significant strength reduction, even if no decay is found. Thus, the
frequency and extent of test drilling will require judicious control to minimize the risk of
weakening the members through excessive loss of section or accelerated deterioration.
Test boring of timber components shall satisfy the following general requirements:
(a) 12 mm to maximum 16 mm diameter bits shall be used, depending on the size of the
plugs being used.
(b) For horizontal or inclined members, the initial holes shall be drilled in the bottom
face of the members, where possible.
(c) Intersecting horizontal holes at the same location shall only be drilled where
deterioration is found during the initial boring (see Notes 1, 2 and 3).
(d) Care shall be taken not to drill completely through a component.
(e) All holes shall be treated with a diffusing preservative and plugged (see Notes 2
and 4).
NOTES:
1 Where horizontal holes are necessary they should be inclined slightly upwards.
2 Components should be drilled at each end of the member first.
3 Where deterioration is identified from the drilling, then additional drilling should be carried
out at 500 mm intervals along the member until a sound section is identified.

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 51 AS 5100.8:2017

4 If free moisture is found during boring, holes in the bottom faces should not be sealed to
allow the moisture to drain.
5 Measurements of sound and deteriorated material should be made to the nearest 10 mm, and
recorded with accurate locations and direction of each hole.
5.2.3.5 Nuclear densometer
A nuclear densometer can scan the length of the member and identify the locations of
deterioration. This is a significant advantage over drilling methods, which provide
information at a specific location only. Typical deterioration mechanisms in timber
members indicate that the deterioration is not generally evident from a visual inspection of
the member. Thus, the location of drilling investigations is typically determined based on
expected deterioration and critical locations identified by structural capacity assessments.
Accordingly, defective zones within the member may be missed entirely.
Additional testing shall be conducted to provide more detailed information on the
deterioration identified in the longitudinal scans or to verify the condition of areas that
appear suspect in the visual inspection. This additional testing may include the use of a
resistance drill (see Clause 5.2.3.6) or conventional drilling (see Clause 5.2.3.4).
5.2.3.6 Drill resistance testing
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Drill resistance testing is a quasi-non-destructive testing method, which measures the

resistance of the timber to the advancement of a small diameter drill bit. The drill is
advanced at a constant speed through the timber and the relative magnitude of the torque
required by the drill to keep the bit moving at a constant speed is measured.
5.2.3.7 Assessing material and section properties
In most instances, the design drawings for timber bridges specify the nominal section sizes,
but actual timber sizes are often significantly different from those shown on the drawings.
Actual component sizes may need to be measured for use in design.
Where material properties are not available, the primary components may be visually
graded on site in accordance with AS 2028.
The timber species may be determined either in the field or by laboratory inspection of
small samples.
5.2.3.8 Methods of analysis
The majority of traditional timber bridge designs utilize systems that do not provide a high
degree of composite action or continuity between components. Structural systems are
susceptible to the effects of repeated loads and the structural response changes with time.
In most cases, the behaviour of timber beam spans can be approximated as simply
supported. The effective length of a span is highly dependent upon the corbel arrangements,
including the length of corbel, the number and location of girder to corbel connections, and
bolt tightness. Due to the fact that all of these are variable, it is appropriate to model the
worst case, which assumes that there is no continuity afforded by the corbels, and no
negative bending moments. If a simplified method gives inadequate strength, a more refined
analysis (including an analysis of the connections) shall be conducted.

5.3 TYPES OF REPAIRS AND STRENGTHENING WORKS

Repair, protection and strengthening methods shall be selected based on the type, extent and
rate of deterioration or deficiency identified, the reasons for deterioration, the required life
expectancy of the structure and future maintenance requirements.
Work to timber bridges falls under three basic categories—
(a) the first is remedial or temporary repairs (including emergency repairs);
(b) the second is protection works; and

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 AS 5100.8:2017 52

(c) the third is major rehabilitation, strengthening or full component replacement.

All timber components shall be ordered by specifying the size, strength grade, seasoning
requirements (green, 12 months air-dried or kiln-dried) and durability class. If unseasoned
or air-dried timber is ordered, then a larger size shall be specified (add 5%) to cover
shrinkage of the timber as it seasons with time.
NOTE: Recommendations for remedial and temporary repairs, protection of timber members and
rehabilitation and component replacement are given in Appendix F.
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 53 AS 5100.8:2017

SECTI ON 6 MASONRY STRUCTURES

6.1 GENERAL
This Section sets out procedures for the condition assessment of existing masonry structures
and their repair, rehabilitation and/or strengthening.
Masonry has been used for construction of piers, abutments, arches, retaining walls, tunnel
linings, culverts and as a component of jack arch decks.

6.2 CONDITION ASSESSMENT

6.2.1 Introduction
Assessment of the condition of a structure may be initiated by visual evidence of distress or
deterioration, or by a requirement for the structure to carry increased live or other loads.
The assessment of a structure, including its material condition, its structural integrity and
whether and how to repair it, shall be performed by competent personnel.
An initial inspection shall be conducted to confirm the existence of deterioration and
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defects in masonry, identify any immediate safety problems due to the deterioration, and
determine the need for a more detailed site inspection. If a detailed inspection is required to
be undertaken, it shall incorporate a diagnostic survey of both chemical and physical tests
to establish the location, cause, extent and degree of deterioration already apparent.
The assessment of the structure shall include the following:
(a) The nature, extent, location, severity and causes of damage and/or deterioration, and
the ability of the structure to perform its function.
(b) The likely remaining service life of the structure.
(c) Works required to make the structure safe before and throughout any repair and
strengthening work, and for the required service life.
When a rehabilitation or strengthening option is proposed for a structure, investigations
shall consider as appropriate, but may not be limited to, those items stated in this Clause, in
order to—
(i) confirm suitability of the rehabilitation and/or strengthening;
(ii) determine the extent of the rehabilitation and/or strengthening; and
(iii) provide design input information.
NOTES:
1 In addition to these investigations, short or medium term small-scale trials may be performed
to assess the effectiveness of rehabilitation and/or strengthening methods.
2 The type of diagnostic techniques used to assess the condition of a structure may vary
depending on the service environment a structure is exposed to and the likely repair or
rehabilitation method.
6.2.2 Existing information
Available drawings, specifications, records, including photographic records, and notes shall
be reviewed to assess the form and dimensions of the structure and the properties of the
masonry.
The available information shall be confirmed and supplemented by a diagnostic site survey
and laboratory tests as specified in Clauses 6.2.3, 6.2.4, 6.2.5, 6.2.6 and 6.2.7.

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 AS 5100.8:2017 54

6.2.3 Visual inspection

Where the structure is accessible, visual survey data shall be collected to assess the type,
causes and extent of defects, and any features of the structure or its surrounding
environment, which could influence the effectiveness of rehabilitation or strengthening. For
areas that have been previously repaired, the repair methods and the materials used shall be
investigated.
The cause of any deterioration shall be determined. Where any signs of structural distress
are evident, an assessment of both the loadbearing capacity of the structure, and the need
for temporary or permanent strengthening, shall be carried out by suitably qualified
personnel.
All areas of the structure that may require repair shall be checked for defects such as
cracks, loss of mortar and settlement
NOTE: Cracks should be mapped with respect to location, orientation, extent and width.
6.2.4 Separation of masonry leaves
A survey shall be undertaken by tapping the masonry surface with a ballpeen hammer (to
distinguish between solid and hollow sound) for detection of leaf separation.
NOTE: Separations may indicate that loss of structural integrity has occurred which may lead to
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more severe deterioration of the structure, for example at arch rings.

6.2.5 Cracks
Cracks in masonry shall be assessed to evaluate their influence on the loadbearing capacity,
serviceability and durability of the structure. The assessment shall establish the cause(s) of
the cracks, width of cracks, moisture condition of cracks and whether a crack is active or
inactive.
NOTE: Establishing whether a crack is active or inactive is an important requirement, because in
repair work live cracks have to be treated as movement joints whereas dead cracks can be injected
(grouted) or covered over unless they are the result of corrosion of embedded steelwork.
6.2.6 Masonry core samples
Masonry cores may be cut from the in situ masonry structure to be used in standardized
laboratory tests to assess the quality and to quantify the main physical characteristics of the
masonry. Some of these tests include:
(a) Visual assessment of integrity.
(b) Compressive strength to determine quality, for strengthening and repair purposes.
(c) Density.
(d) Mortar type.
Where relevant to the design, the in situ compressive strength shall also be determined to
ensure that the masonry has the capacity to allow strengthening to be undertaken.
All core holes shall be repaired in accordance with Clause 3.5.
6.2.7 Non-destructive testing (NDT)
6.2.7.1 General
NDT field tests may be used for masonry structures. Care shall be taken as this form of
construction (i.e. discrete basic units with separating mortar layers) can negate their
usefulness.
6.2.7.2 Ground-penetrating radar (GPR)
Where required, GPR may be used to provide information on hidden details such as depth
of fill over arch decks.

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 55 AS 5100.8:2017

6.2.7.3 Ultrasonic pulse velocity (UPV)

Where required, the UPV technique may be used to provide a relative assessment of the in
situ compressive strength, and provide comparative assessment of quality and detection of
voids and delaminations in masonry. UPV testing may be undertaken in accordance with
ASTM C597 and the effectiveness of in situ strength assessment may be improved with
masonry core calibration.
6.2.7.4 Impact echo
Where required, the impact echo technique may be used to determine the thickness of
members (particularly when only one face is accessible), and the presence of delaminations,
large cracking, voids and honeycombing in concrete. Impact echo testing may be
undertaken in accordance with ASTM C1383.

6.3 ASSESSMENT OF FIRE-AFFECTED MASONRY

6.3.1 General
Fire-affected masonry shall be assessed with an initial inspection and, where required,
supplemented with additional testing to establish the full extent of damage and the residual
quality of the masonry. The initial inspection shall estimate the range of fire temperature
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and the temperature effects of fire damage on masonry by assessing the damage on
surrounding material and by comparing with non-fire-affected masonry, in order to
determine the extent of fire damage.
NOTE: The initial inspection is generally based on visual observations, although hammer tapping
may be utilized. This may be further supplemented with extraction of masonry cores for
subsequent testing for compressive strength, use of computer software to estimate fire
temperatures more accurately and undertaking of structural analysis.
6.3.2 Temperature effects and changes in masonry damaged by fire
When assessing fire-affected masonry, consideration shall be given to the following:
(a) Masonry can be affected by fire although severe damage is generally caused by
expansion of, or collapse of, other associated structural members.
(b) Changes in masonry properties with heating temperatures vary depending on masonry
type.
(c) At temperatures below 250°C, colour changes can occur without significant strength
loss.
(d) The strength of mortars can be severely affected by temperatures exceeding 600°C.
6.3.3 Visual inspection
Visual inspection of fire-affected masonry shall include the following:
(a) Considering any observed colour changes and if possible estimating the temperature
levels that the masonry may have been subjected to, including an estimate of
temperature through the thickness of the masonry.
(b) Considering the presence of soot blackening and smoke deposits on masonry
components, which may be a direct by-product of an intense fire.
(c) Considering the likely intensity and proximity of the fire to the damaged masonry
and, if possible the actual source or type of combustible or flammable material that
may fuel the fire.
(d) Considering the effects (if any) of subsequent extinguishing of the fire, including
possible thermal impact and pressure caused by water contacting the hot
microstructure of the masonry.
(e) Establishing any evidence of cracking or other defects, fire-related or otherwise.
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 AS 5100.8:2017 56

(f) Undertaking hand-held hammer testing both on fire-affected masonry and sound
masonry to obtain an initial indication of the relative quality compared to undamaged
masonry.
6.3.4 Masonry coring
Where required, masonry cores shall be extracted from both fire-affected areas and from
sound masonry further away from the damage to—
(a) enable compressive strength testing and relative comparison between fire-affected
and non-affected areas; and
(b) establish visually the depth of fire-affected masonry.
NOTE: Cores may vary in diameter from 75 mm and 100 mm.
All cores shall be repaired in accordance with Clause 3.5.
6.3.5 Strength assessment
Where required, strength assessment shall be based on masonry core compressive strength
testing.
NOTE: Physical appraisal using a hand-held hammer during the inspection of the fire-affected
structure may also be applicable.
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The estimated compressive strengths at the various locations shall be utilized for structural
analysis purposes.
6.3.6 Structural analysis
Structural analysis shall be undertaken, as appropriate, to establish the residual capacity in
satisfying the prevailing loading conditions in terms of masonry strength and condition in
the fire-affected zone.

6.4 METHODS OF REPAIR, PROTECTION AND STRENGTHENING OF

MASONRY STRUCTURES
6.4.1 General
Repair, rehabilitation and strengthening methods shall be selected based on the type, extent
and rate of deterioration or deficiency identified, the reasons for deterioration, the required
life expectancy of the structure and future maintenance requirements.
6.4.2 Repair of cracks
6.4.2.1 General
Cracked masonry shall be assessed and the influence of cracks on the loadbearing capacity,
serviceability and durability of a masonry structure evaluated prior to undertaking crack
repairs.
A crack repair method shall be selected prior to any repair works taking place, based on the
assessment of the cause(s) of the crack, crack width, the moisture condition of the crack and
whether a crack is active or inactive. The crack repair method shall include details of the
crack filling material properties, surface preparation methods and method of application,
crack location and local environmental conditions.
When the cracks are liable to further movement, it is not advisable to make a permanent
repair until the movement has stopped. The cracks may be left, but if there is a risk of rain
or debris penetrating into the crack, the crack may be sealed temporarily by caulking with a
mastic or flexible sealant.
Distinction should also be made between two types of cracks: cracks that run more or less
diagonally, following vertical and horizontal mortar joints and cracks that pass straight
down through a line of vertical joints and intervening masonry units and mortar beds.

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 57 AS 5100.8:2017

In the first case, cracks through joints can be repaired, if necessary, by repointing.
In the second case, it has to be considered if it is necessary to cut out and replace the
cracked units.
In both cases, the decision whether or not to repair cracks will depend mainly on two
considerations—
(a) if the cracks are unsightly; and
(b) if not repaired, whether they are likely to encourage rain penetration.
Fine cracks (up to about 1.5 mm wide) are not very conspicuous and can often be ignored.
However, if repairs are considered necessary to prevent rain penetration, they may be sealed
by low viscosity self-hardening epoxy compounds.
Wider cracks will generally require raking out and repointing of the joints and cutting out
the cracked units and replacing them.
6.4.2.2 Crack repair methods for moving cracks
Cracks that are subject to permanent movement (e.g. due to temperature movements and
live loads) should be treated as expansion joints. If they are not unsightly or if there is no
danger of water penetration through them, they may be left as they are, otherwise they
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should be sealed with a flexible sealant of width and depth to suit the expected range of
movement.
Common types of crack repair are the following:
(a) Non-permanent seal If the expected movements are insignificant or if the crack is
not to be sealed permanently the following procedure shall be implemented (this is
the most common type of repair for movement cracks in masonry):
(i) Clean the crack of loose dust and debris, oil, algae and other contaminants by
using a high-pressure water jet, compressed air (oil free) or vacuum suction.
Allow the surfaces of the crack to dry.
(ii) Prime the crack surfaces with a primer recommended by the sealant
manufacturer.
(iii) If the width of crack is more than 5 mm, insert a tight-fitting closed-cell
polyethylene foam backer rod into the crack. The backer rod shall be pushed in
to a depth such that the sealant applied will have a width to depth ratio of 2:1,
or minimum 5 mm depth of sealant. For cracks less than 5 mm wide, do not
insert a backer rod.
(iv) Seal the crack by caulking with a flexible sealant flush with the masonry face.
(b) Permanent seal If the expected movements are significant or if the crack is to be
sealed permanently, a recessed seal or a surface seal shall be provided as follows:
(i) Recessed seal The procedure shall be as follows:
(A) Cut a recess along the crack using a power chisel or crack cutter. The
dimensions of the recess shall comply with the requirements of the crack
movement and sealant material.
(B) Clean the recess of dust and debris by wire brushing followed by air-
blasting with oil free compressed air.
(C) Prime the surfaces of the recess with a primer specified by the sealant
manufacturer.
(D) Place a bond breaker strip at the bottom of recess.
(E) Fill the recess with flexible sealant as per the manufacturer's instructions.

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 AS 5100.8:2017 58

(ii) Surface seal Narrow cracks subject to significant movement where aesthetics
are not important may be sealed with a flexible surface seal. The procedure
shall be as follows:
(A) Clean the masonry surface adjacent to the crack of dirt, algae, and other
contaminants.
(B) Prime the masonry surface along the crack over a width of approximately
100 mm with a primer specified by the sealant manufacturer.
(C) Place a 20 mm wide bond breaker strip over the crack.
(D) Apply minimum 60 mm wide and 3 mm thick flexible joint sealant over
the bond breaker with a trowel.
6.4.2.3 Crack repair methods for stable cracks
Where no further movement is anticipated, stable cracks may be repaired with non-flexible
materials. If they are not unsightly and there is no danger of water penetration through
them, and structural capacity is not impaired, they may be left as they are.
Alternatively, the cracks shall be filled with a non-flexible material to restore structural
capacity.
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NOTE: Fine cracks are best repaired by epoxy resin injection as described in Clause 3.5.2.2.
Wider cracks may be repaired as follows:
(a) If cracks run through masonry units and mortar beds, cut out the units and remove the
joint mortar. Wet the masonry. Allow to dry until it is just damp (no residual water).
Install new units, bonding with mortar similar to that in the existing wall. Avoid
strong mortar and use a well-graded sand to minimize shrinkage. Where the wall is
severely exposed, polymer additives may be used in the mortar to increase bond and
durability, provided the sand used has negligible clay content.
NOTE: The above procedure for replacing cracked masonry units may also be used for
repairing spalled masonry.
(b) If cracks run through joints only (i.e. masonry units are not affected), rake the joints
(on both sides of the walls if accessible) to a minimum depth of 15 mm using a square
edged tool. Clean the joints of dust and debris with a wire brush or by oil-free air-
blasting. Wet the masonry. Allow to dry until it is just damp. Fill and point with
mortar not richer than a 1:2:9 mix of cement:lime:sand.
6.4.3 Repair of fretting
6.4.3.1 General
To stop the fretting process permanently, it will be necessary to halt the flow of salt-laden
water through the structure. If this is not practicable, the alternative is to repair or replace
the masonry units or jointing mortar that have been damaged.
Application of waterproofing membranes to the exposed surfaces of masonry with a view to
stopping water entering from the back face should not be considered. The membrane type of
coatings generally blister and peel off under the build-up of vapour-pressure from behind.
The penetration type of coatings (silane/siloxane) repel the ingress of water from the front,
such as rain but, being breathable do not stop water entering from the back face and
evaporating from the front face. Thus, the wetting and drying process is unchecked and
fretting will continue unabated.
If the masonry consists of ‘soft’ lime mortar in the joints, do not replace it with ‘hard’
cement mortar, as it will do more harm than good. As cement mortar is less pervious than
lime mortar, more of the salt laden water permeating through the wall will now flow
through the bricks or stone. Thus while fretting of the mortar will have been reduced, the
rate of fretting of the units will increase.

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 59 AS 5100.8:2017

6.4.3.2 Repair of damage to jointing mortar

Repointing of joints is best done in the winter as lime mortar relies on absorbing carbon
dioxide from the air to set. This process takes time and if the temperature is too warm, the
mortar will dry out before setting.
NOTE: If working in hot weather, the mortar should be lightly sprayed with water at two to four-
hour intervals for a day.
The procedure shall be as follows:
(a) Where the jointing mortar has been damaged, rake out all loose and fretting mortar
from joints with a square edged tool, taking care not to disturb the masonry units.
Rake out another 20 mm of mortar to make sure that all crystallized salt is removed.
Rake the joints in the topmost 3-4 courses to be repaired first.
(b) Thoroughly wet the masonry and allow to dry till it is just damp and without any
residual water.
(c) The mortar mix for repointing shall consist of hydrated lime and washed concrete
sand (without any clay content) in the ratio of 1 lime:4-5 sand. Sand shall be free of
salts.
NOTE: Only water that is suitable for drinking should be used for the mortar.
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Mix dry sand and lime, then slowly add water while still mixing to make a stiff mix.
As the lime takes a long time to go off, prepare the mortar some hours in advance of
the repointing operation and keep it covered with damp bags until used.
(d) Pack the joints with the stiff mortar. Ensure that no voids are left, using a pointing
tool to ram the mortar into the joint. (Start at the topmost joint and work
progressively down). Tool off the joint surface to match the original.
(e) Where extensive repointing is involved, carry out raking and repointing in small
sections to avoid instability. For example, work on 3–4 horizontal joints at a time and
limit the length of repair to a maximum of 3 m or ¼ of the length of the wall,
whichever is less. Allow at least 24 hours for the mortar to set before raking joints in
the next section. Start at the top and work progressively downwards.
6.4.3.3 Repair of damage to masonry units
Spalling usually affects only a small proportion of the units in the structure. Replacing the
spalled units with new units that would match the rest of the structure is difficult and it may
be decided to leave things as they are until complete re-surfacing becomes necessary.
However, if matching is not essential, spalling shall be repaired as given in the procedure
below. Before commencing repairs, the stability of the structure shall be checked to ensure
that it will not be adversely affected by removal of the spalled masonry. As few spalled
units shall be removed at any time as is feasible.
The procedure shall be as follows:
(a) Cut out the spalled units to a depth at least 20 mm beyond the depth of spalling, or
remove the whole units. Remove the jointing mortar also.
(b) Wash down the broken surfaces to remove dust and debris. Allow the surfaces to dry
until it is just damp.
(c) Set new units (whole or sawn as required) in place of the old with a lime and sand
mortar as specified in step (c) of Clause 6.4.3.2.
6.4.4 Repair of impact damage
Masonry spalled by accidental impact would require removal and replacement of the spalled
units and the repair of cracks. The repair procedure for repair of impact damage shall be in
accordance with Clause 6.4.2.3.

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 AS 5100.8:2017 60

6.4.5 Repair damage due to corrosion of embedded iron or steel

The procedure shall be as follows:
(a) Open up the masonry to gain access to the steelwork.
(b) If the corrosion is not too far advanced, thoroughly clean the metal by grit-and/or
water-blasting to remove any rust. Apply a corrosion protection system to the steel.
(c) If the corrosion is well advanced, replace the steelwork with corrosion protected steel,
stainless steel, or reinforced concrete.
(d) Rebuild the masonry. Apply a protective coating such as silane/siloxane to prevent
moisture penetration.
6.4.6 Repair of fire-affected concrete
A detailed repair of fire-affected masonry shall be developed following investigation and
assessment of visual and temperature effects of the fire damage on masonry, and
consideration of any effects on physical properties.
All fire-affected and weakened masonry shall be removed to sound material and repaired in
accordance with Clause 6.4.2.3.
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6.5 STRENGTHENING OF MASONRY STRUCTURES

6.5.1 General
Strengthening of masonry structures may be undertaken by using various materials and
techniques including steel plating, external/transverse post tensioning, reinforced concrete
deck overlay and reinforced concrete jacketing systems.
Strengthening of a structure shall be based on a structural analysis undertaken to determine
the level of overloading or under-design for the in-service load conditions, to ensure that
the strengthened structure meets the minimum requirements for serviceability, strength and
durability.
The structural analysis shall consider any load redistribution in the strengthened structure
for the in-service load conditions to prevent any overstressing of unstrengthened sections.
6.5.2 Strengthening of masonry structures with steel plates
Strengthening of deteriorated or underperforming masonry structures or members with steel
plates or steel brackets shall be designed to the required thickness and configuration. Flat
steel plates shall be used in combination with epoxy adhesives and where required bolted
onto the masonry substrate to the minimum requirements. The steel plates or brackets may
be coated for protection. Temporary support systems shall also be designed and installed
where required.
6.5.3 Other types of strengthening of masonry structures
Other forms of strengthening or increasing the structural loadbearing capacity of masonry
structures or individual components for flexure, shear, torsion, and axial load may also be
designed and installed provided minimum requirements, including the following, are
applied:
(a) External/transverse post tensioning (steel rods or tendons)—end anchorage plates
shall be adequately designed and seated securely.
(b) Reinforced concrete deck overlay—strengthening shall be provided for additional live
loads and overall water protection of parts of a structure.
(c) Additional reinforced concrete/sprayed concrete strengthening of arches, columns,
and walls.

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 61 AS 5100.8:2017

(d) Additional members such as beams, columns, cross-bracing and walls installed to
support damaged structural members.
(e) Arch strengthening by installing arch lining such as steel ribs, prefabricated liners or
concrete lining.
(f) Arch strengthening by grouting voids within the arch barrel.
(g) Arch strengthening by replacing fill over the arch with a concrete ‘saddle’.
(h) Arch strengthening by through-ring stitching.
(i) Addition of embedded steel reinforcement.
In the case of columns, an additional steel cage may be built around the column followed by
formwork and then conventional concrete or suitable cementitious grout placed into the
forms.
Filling or injecting cracks and voids shall be undertaken in conjunction with all types of
strengthening where required.
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 AS 5100.8:2017 62

S E C T I ON 7 BE A RI N G S

7.1 GENERAL
This Section sets out requirements for the inspection and assessment of existing bridge
bearings and, if required, the preparation of the design for their repair.
Bearings may require repair because they are deteriorated, with damage caused by a number
of factors that may include deficiencies in the original design, supply or installation, actual
bridge loadings and environmental conditions.
The bearing repair design shall take into account the methods available for repairing or
replacing deteriorated bearings.
NOTE: Austroads Publication AP-R405-12 contains references and background information on
Australian state road authority practices and experiences with bridge bearings.

7.2 INSPECTION AND CONDITION ASSESSMENT

Bearings shall be visually inspected for deterioration as part of scheduled regular bridge
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inspections carried out by the relevant authority. The condition state of the bearings shall be
reported in accordance with the relevant authority’s bridge inspection and condition rating
system.
Bearings reported as requiring maintenance shall be inspected as soon as practicable by the
relevant authority, with the condition of the bearings assessed to determine the extent and
type of repairs required.
The causes of deterioration shall be identified, and proposals provided for arresting and
preventing further deterioration of existing and newly repaired bearings.
The condition of the bearings with that of new bearings of similar type shall be compared to
assess whether the bearings require replacement.

7.3 REPAIR OPTIONS

For bearings assessed as requiring repair, options for the repair design shall be prepared
taking into account the level of deterioration, constraints on the execution of the repair and
the cost for each option, with higher levels of detail provided for complex repairs.
Options for the bearing repair shall be as follows:
(a) Rehabilitating existing bearings.
(b) Replacing with like for like bearings.
(c) Replacing with different types of bearings.
(d) Repairing concrete, grout or mortar pads in accordance with Clause 3.5.
NOTE: Sketches should be used to detail the scope and key features of the repair options,
including whether to repair by rehabilitation or refurbishment, replacement bearing types,
temporary works required, methods of executing the repair and management of traffic whilst
carrying out the repair.
A report shall be prepared comparing the merits and cost of each option for the bearing
repair, with a recommendation and with justification of the preferred option for the repair
design.

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 63 AS 5100.8:2017

7.4 REPAIR DESIGN

7.4.1 General
The following design parameters shall be considered in the bearing repair design:
(a) Survey and set out (i.e. reduced levels and co-ordinates) details.
(b) Repair design life.
(c) Properties of bearing materials and components.
(d) Design loads (including skew and time-dependent effects) and effects of changes to
load paths.
(e) Load limit requirements (e.g. for temporary works).
(f) Staging of the works.
(g) Temporary works (including provision and removal of temporary supports).
(h) Applicable bearing design specification, Standard or Code.
(i) Available bridge drawings and other information relevant to the repair design.
(j) Provisions required for traffic.
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(k) Required change to articulation or configuration of the bridge.

(l) Other restrictions such as jacking of the bridge and opening bridge spans.
(m) Work site constraints (including ease of construction and safety associated with the
required work methods).
The repair design shall detail preventative measures and eliminate all deficiencies or
defective features and the reasons for the deterioration of the original bearings. Where
necessary, temporary repairs shall be designed to prevent further deterioration of the
bearings before repairs are completed.
Metal components in contact shall be galvanically compatible or, alternatively, electrically
isolated.
7.4.2 Design for temporary works
Design documentation shall be prepared for all temporary works, including accesses,
supports and bracing necessary for the repairs.
The design of the temporary works shall not result in forces, effects or displacements in
bridge members higher than can be safely accommodated.
Where it is not feasible to provide sufficient load-carrying capacity during the temporary
works, consideration shall be given to—
(a) applying load limits;
(b) applying speed limits;
(c) moving lanes; and
(d) reducing the number of lanes.

7.5 REPAIR DESIGN OUTPUT

7.5.1 General
The repair design output shall include a report, drawings and technical specification.

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 AS 5100.8:2017 64

7.5.2 Bearing repair design report

The bearing repair design report shall include the following:
(a) Design assumptions and design loads.
(b) Details of the analysis, including maximum bearing forces and movement
requirements.
(c) Design and design verification calculations.
(d) Other relevant details influencing the design.
7.5.3 Bearing repair drawings
Drawings shall include the following:
(a) Relevant authority’s plan registration number, where required.
(b) General arrangement of the bridge, highlighting any changes to the bridge
configuration or articulation, and the location of the deteriorated bearing(s).
(c) Relevant specifications, Standards and Codes used for the design.
(d) Design criteria.
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(e) Details of the repairs and all temporary works.

(f) Sequence or staging of the repair work.
(g) Lifting points, jacking forces and deflections, loading sequence, etc.
(h) Location of public utilities or similar items.
(i) Traffic arrangements during the repair work.
(j) Set-out information, tolerances and clearances.
7.5.4 Bearing repair specification
The specification shall include the following:
(a) Applicable regulations, Codes, Standards and relevant authority specification
requirements.
(b) Detailed procedures for bridge jacking and for removal and replacement of bearings.
(c) Details of replacement bearings.
(d) Details of bearing components to be refurbished.
(e) Methods of fixing bearings in place.
(f) Protective treatments.

7.6 BEARING REPAIR WORK

7.6.1 General
The bearing repair work shall be carried out in accordance with the approved bearing repair
design and Clauses 7.6.2 and 7.6.3.
7.6.2 Jacking
The bridge shall be jacked at the specified jacking points such that the maximum specified
jacking forces and lift heights are not exceeded.
Jacking details shall include:
(a) Set-up of the jacks and other lifting/braking equipment.

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 65 AS 5100.8:2017

(b) Calculated jacking loads and reactions, and required capacity of supports and
foundations.
(c) Restraints to stabilize and prevent unintended movements of the bridge elements
being lifted.
(d) Parameters (e.g. deflections, displacements, jacking force) to be monitored and
compared with predicted limits during the jacking.
Jack and gauge combinations shall be calibrated. The jacking force shall be determined
from the calibration certificate for the specific jack and gauge combination.
When lifting spans with deck joints, longitudinal and vertical displacements shall be
controlled to prevent the joint being damaged. Expansion joint gaps and the corresponding
ambient shade air temperatures shall be measured at the following times:
(i) Before commencing repairs;
(ii) During repairs, (i.e. before and after every lift); and
(iii) After completion of repairs.
7.6.3 Work-as-executed drawings
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On completion of the repair work, work-as-executed drawings shall be prepared showing all
changes to the bridge, including bearings, using the original bridge design drawings and the
bearing repair drawings as appropriate.
7.6.4 Bearing inspection and assessment
The bearing inspection and assessment shall include the following:
(a) Details of bearing assessment equipment and techniques, for each type of bearing.
(b) Procedures for the inspection of bearing components contaminated by hazardous
materials.
(c) Qualifications and experience of personnel nominated to inspect and assess the
bearings.
(d) Details of sampling and test methods for testing existing bearing materials and/or
components, if required.
7.6.5 Bearing repair work
The bearing repair work shall include the following:
(a) Full details of proposed replacement bearings.
(b) Procedures for bearing repairs and for removing and reinstalling bearings.
(c) Full details of equipment for bridge jacking.
(d) Survey systems and procedures.
(e) Supervisory, structural engineering, and survey personnel’s qualifications and
experience.
Verification of compliance of all work and materials shall be documented and readily
available.

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 AS 5100.8:2017 66

SECTI ON 8 DECK JOINTS

8.1 GENERAL
This Section sets out requirements for the inspection and assessment of existing bridge deck
joints and the preparation of the design for their repair.
Deck joints may require repair as a result of a deficiency in their original design or supply
or installation; due to wheel impacts on joint gaps made wider by abutment movement,
concrete creep and shrinkage and environmental conditions; or for public safety.
The deck joint repair design shall take into account the methods available for repairing or
replacing deteriorated deck joints.
NOTE: Austroads Publication AP-R405-12 contains references and background information on
Australian state road authority practices and experiences with bridge deck joints.

8.2 INSPECTION AND CONDITION ASSESSMENT

Deck joints shall be visually inspected for deterioration as part of scheduled regular bridge
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inspections carried out by the relevant authority. The condition state of the deck joints shall
be reported in accordance with the relevant authority's bridge and deck joint inspection and
condition rating system.
During an inspection, the following activities shall be undertaken and documented:
(a) Measuring relevant dimensions to the joint repair design (e.g. relative position of
bridge members);
(b) Measuring the joint gap width at quarter points along the joint and at the kerbs and
parapets.
(c) Measuring the relative vertical, longitudinal and transverse displacements and
deformation of joint components (compared to the available work-as-executed
drawings for the bridge).
(d) Recording the shaded area air temperature below the bridge.
(e) Recording any changes to the bridge articulation and to joint gap performance as a
result of joint impact and movement.
(f) Identifying the materials comprising the joint and related bridge members included in
the repair design.
NOTE: Where welding repairs are required, the metals should be tested for chemical
composition and grain structure to determine welding parameters.
(g) Clearly identifying the extent and causes of deterioration.
(h) Checking condition and tension in any anchor bolts.
When reporting on the condition of the joint, any repair design constraints (e.g. utilities,
marked traffic lane widths, traffic barrier types, medians, road alignment and sight distance)
shall be identified.
NOTE: For modular deck joints, the centre beams, support beams and yokes should be inspected
for cracking and the condition of mechanical components including bearings and sliding surfaces
assessed.

8.3 REPAIR OPTIONS

For deck joints assessed as requiring repair, options for the repair design shall be prepared
taking into account the level of deterioration, constraints on the execution of the repair and
the cost for each option.

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 67 AS 5100.8:2017

The options for the deck joint repair shall include the following:
(a) Rehabilitating the existing deck joints.
(b) Replacing with like-for-like deck joints.
(c) Replacing with different types of deck joints.
When developing the repair options, the following shall be considered:
(i) Cost of rehabilitation or replacement of the joints.
(ii) Availability of joints requiring replacement, whether like-for-like or of a different
type.
(iii) Potential for work to be performed off-site to minimize on-site activities.
(iv) Timing of the deck joint repair work with respect to bridge traffic.
(v) Traffic management and disruptions during repairs.
(vi) Identification of utility adjustments, where required, and programming of the work.
A report shall be prepared comparing the advantages and constraints of each option for the
deck joint repair.
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8.4 REPAIR DESIGN

8.4.1 General
In the deck joint repair design, the following parameters shall be considered:
(a) Survey and set-out (reduced levels and coordinates) details for the deck joints and
related bridge members
(b) Design life of the repair.
(c) Design loads.
(d) Applicable deck joint design specifications, Standards and Codes.
(e) Bridge type and alignment.
(f) Bridge articulation and bearing alignment
(g) Design movement range (including abutment movements and bearing malfunction)
and movement direction.
NOTE: For bridges older than 15 years, concrete shrinkage and creep movement may be
neglected. The design joint gap width should be calculated at ambient temperature and a
correction table provided to account for temperature variation at installation.
(h) Details of deck concrete and reinforcement in the vicinity of the joint.
(i) Joint anchorage requirements.
(j) Non-metallic materials for the bolted anchorages shall not be used without the
approval of the authority.
(k) Material properties for joints (e.g. skid-resistant treatment) and related bridge
members.
(l) Other relevant information such as the availability of existing bridge design and
works-as-executed drawings.
(m) Traffic requirements.
(n) Work site constraints (such as load limit restrictions, traffic volumes, site access,
noise).
(o) Utility adjustments.
Metal components in contact shall be galvanically compatible or electrically isolated.
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 AS 5100.8:2017 68

8.4.2 Design for temporary works

Consideration shall be given to the design of temporary works, including required
temporary road plates and provision of access.
Temporary road plates shall be designed for the specified repair design loads, anticipated
traffic conditions and the extremes of thermal bridge movements possible during the repair
period.
The structural integrity of bridge members and the bridge shall be maintained during repair
work and in a condition suitable for vehicle and pedestrian use.
Where it is not feasible to provide sufficient load-carrying capacity for the temporary
works, consideration shall be given to reducing traffic loads by—
(a) applying load limits;
(b) applying speed limits;
(c) moving lanes;
(d) reducing the number of lanes; or
(e) closing the bridge.
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8.5 REPAIR DESIGN OUTPUT

8.5.1 General
Design output shall include a repair design report, deck joint repair drawings and the
provision of a relevant technical specification.
8.5.2 Deck joint repair design report
The report shall include—
(a) design assumptions and loads;
(b) design calculations for joint movement range and anchorage requirements; and
(c) evidence of design verification.
8.5.3 Deck joint repair drawings
Drawings of the deck joint repair design shall be in sufficient detail for carrying out the
repair and shall include the following:
(a) Relevant authority’s plan registration number.
(b) General arrangement showing bridge articulation and bridge joints.
(c) Set-out information, tolerances and clearances.
(d) Location of utilities and any required adjustments.
(e) Joint gap widths with installation temperature corrections.
(f) Details of temporary works.
(g) Details of deck joint repairs.
(h) Sequencing of the repair work.
(i) Traffic management for each stage of the repair work.
8.5.4 Deck joint repair specification
A technical specification for the deck joint repair work shall include the following:
(a) Relevant legislation, regulations, Codes and Standards.
(b) Replacement joints and relevant authority specifications.
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 69 AS 5100.8:2017

(c) Joint anchorages and protective treatments.

(d) Applicable authority technical specifications.

8.6 DECK JOINT REPAIR WORK

8.6.1 General
The deck joint repair work shall be carried out in accordance with the approved deck joint
repair design report, drawings and specification, and shall include the requirements of
Clauses 8.6.2 and 8.6.3.
8.6.2 Removal and replacement of deck joints
Existing bridge members shall not be removed, demolished, dismantled, cut, drilled or
otherwise disturbed except as detailed in the repair design report or on the deck joint repair
drawings.
8.6.3 Deck joint installation
Deck joints shall be installed in compliance with the repair design report, the deck joint
repair drawings and the deck joint repair specification.
On completion of the joint repairs, the work site shall be reinstated including any damage to
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bridge members and any disturbance to utilities. Work-as-executed drawings shall be

prepared showing all changes to the bridge, including deck joints, using the original bridge
design drawings and the deck joint repair drawings, as appropriate.

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 AS 5100.8:2017 70

SECTI ON 9 BARRIERS

9.1 GENERAL
This Section sets out requirements for the inspection, assessment and repair of existing
bridge barriers. It also provides for the assessment of barrier performance levels, to be used
in the consideration for the design of replacement traffic barriers.
NOTE: Barriers may require repair because they are deteriorated, or damaged by accidental
vehicle impact.
The barrier repair design shall take into account the methods available for repairing or
replacing damaged barriers.

9.2 REPAIR DESIGN

9.2.1 Minor repairs
Minor repairs generally comprise the following:
(a) Repainting steel and, where appropriate, timber barriers.
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(b) Corrosion protection to spot areas of painted steel or galvanized barriers.

(c) Corrosion protection to reinforcement contained in reinforced concrete barriers.
(d) Replacement and retightening of loose fasteners.
(e) Repairs to grout and mortar pads supporting steel posts.
(f) Pressure washing of barriers to remove salt and other contaminants.
9.2.2 Major repairs
Major repairs generally comprise the following:
(a) Emergency temporary repairs required to make safe traffic accident damage to the
barrier.
(b) Replacement of damaged steel barrier elements. All elements that have undergone
structural damage shall be replaced. Steel elements that have undergone plastic
deformation shall be removed and not re-used. Damaged anchor bolts shall be
replaced.
(c) Replacement of damaged reinforced concrete elements.

9.3 INSPECTION AND CONDITION ASSESSMENT

Barriers shall be visually inspected for deterioration as part of scheduled regular bridge
inspections carried out by the relevant authority. The condition state of the barriers shall be
reported in accordance with the relevant authority’s bridge inspection and condition rating
system.
Barriers that have sustained damage from accidental vehicle impact shall be reported as
soon as practicable to the relevant authority for action, and shall be made safe until a
permanent repair can be effected.
For barriers that have deteriorated, the causes of deterioration shall be identified, and
proposals provided for arresting and preventing further deterioration.

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 71 AS 5100.8:2017

9.4 REPAIR OPTIONS

For barriers assessed as requiring repair, options for the repair design shall be prepared
taking into account the level of deterioration, constraints on the execution of the repair and
the cost for each option, with higher levels of detail provided for complex repairs.
When developing the repair options the following shall be considered:
(a) Rehabilitation or replacement of the barriers.
(b) For replacement, use of the same or upgraded barrier performance level.
(c) Options for on-site or off-site rehabilitation of barrier components.
(d) Timing of the repair work.
(e) Traffic management and disruptions during repairs.
Sketches shall be used to detail the scope and key features of the repair options, including
whether to repair by rehabilitation or refurbishment, replacement barrier types, temporary
works required, methods of executing the repair and management of traffic whilst carrying
out the repair.
A report shall be provided to the relevant authority comparing the merits and cost of each
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option for the barrier repair.

NOTE: The report should include a recommendation with justification of the preferred option for
the repair design.

9.5 FULL BARRIER REPLACEMENT OR MAJOR UPGRADE

Where a bridge is being widened, or substantially rehabilitated, full barrier replacement
shall be undertaken in accordance with AS 5100.1 and AS 5100.2.
Where considered necessary by the relevant authority, the need to upgrade or replace the
barriers on a particular bridge shall be assessed using an appropriate risk assessment
process.
NOTE: Guidance on the risk assessment process is given in Appendix C.
The performance level of a replacement or upgraded barrier shall be indicated on the
drawings. Where the performance level of a replacement or upgraded barrier meets the
geometric requirements of a performance level in AS 5100.2 but does not achieve the
strength requirement, its performance level shall be indicated as a percentage of the
performance level strength in AS 5100.2 (e.g. 60% medium performance level).

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 AS 5100.8:2017 72

SECTI ON 10 CULVERTS

10.1 GENERAL
This Section sets out minimum requirements for the repair, rehabilitation and strengthening
of concrete, corrugated steel and corrugated aluminium culverts, including arches, with
clear spans (or design diameters) extending from 1800 mm and up to 6000 mm. Spans in
excess of 6000 mm shall meet the requirements of concrete and steel structures outlined in
other Sections of this Standard, unless otherwise noted in this Section.
NOTE: For masonry culverts, see Section 6.
This Section applies to pipes, arches and box culverts manufactured using a variety of
materials including reinforced concrete, aluminium and steel.
These culverts are buried structures subject to fill loading and live loads from road and rail
traffic.
Requirements cover—
(a) drainage (not under pressure);
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(b) pedestrian access;

(c) vehicular access;
(d) fauna crossings; and
(e) grade separation

10.2 CONDITION ASSESSMENT CRITERIA

10.2.1 General
A wide application of buried structures is covered within the generic term culverts, which
range from circular and other shaped pipelines to reinforced concrete box culverts to
reinforced concrete and steel arches. Clauses 10.2.2 to 10.2.6 outline criteria that shall be
considered in assessing the existing condition of these buried structures.
10.2.2 Strength and serviceability
10.2.2.1 General
Culvert installations support the weight of the embankment or fill covering a buried
structure and live load resulting from vehicular or rail traffic traversing the culvert.
A review of previous inspection reports and as-built drawings shall be undertaken in
conducting a condition assessment of an existing structure. In addition and where available,
calculations undertaken to design the original structure (and modifications thereto) shall
also be considered. Where as-built drawings are not available, design drawings shall be
reviewed and dimensions and properties compared to the installed culvert.
When assessing condition, and unless otherwise directed by the relevant authority, loads
shall be determined in accordance with AS 5100.2 and their distribution through fill as
outlined in the respective product design Standard where applicable.
NOTE: Distribution of live load through embankment and fill conditions is contained in
AS/NZS 2041.1, AS/NZS 2566.1, and AS/NZS 3725. AS 5100.3 also outlines distribution
through fill that may apply where no other product-related Standard is available.

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 73 AS 5100.8:2017

10.2.2.2 Reinforced concrete culverts

Reinforced concrete arches, box culverts, link slabs and base slabs shall be assessed for
strength by calculation in accordance with the AS 1597.2 and the relevant parts of AS 5100,
as appropriate. Crack orientation and crack width shall be taken into account when
assessing the strength of the culvert (see also Clause 3.2.10).
10.2.2.3 Metal culverts
Corrugated metal structures of circular and other shapes (including metal arches) shall be
assessed for strength in accordance with AS/NZS 2041.1. Deflected shape, seam condition
and structural base metal thickness after metal loss due to corrosion shall be taken into
consideration when assessing the strength of the culvert. The structural base metal thickness
shall be based on measured wall thickness.
Helical seams shall be inspected for cracking and separation. Plate joints shall be inspected
for open seams, cracks at bolt-holes, plate distortion and bolt tipping. Dents and localized
wall damage shall also be inspected as they can impair the ring compression or result in
open joints and seams.
Corrosion of steel shall be assessed with respect to the metal thickness, any protective
applied coating, the existing environment both within the culvert and outside side support
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material and the remaining required in-service life. Abrasion shall also be investigated as it
can accelerate corrosion, particularly when the culvert is routinely subject to high flow rates
and bed load.
NOTE: Uncontrolled corrosion will result in wall perforations and potential seepage of backfill
material into the culvert, resulting in failure of side support and loss of culvert shape. Corrosion
will produce structural failure if the culvert wall material is extensively removed.
10.2.2.4 Masonry
Assessment of masonry condition shall be in accordance with Section 6.
10.2.2.5 Concrete pipes
Concrete pipes shall be designed and manufactured to AS/NZS 4058 by performance-based
testing.
Assessment of strength in service of concrete pipes shall include visual inspection and
identification of the pipe size and load class for the respective installation condition, as
outlined in AS/NZS 3725. Crack orientation and crack width shall be taken into account
when assessing the strength of the pipe.
NOTE: For crack width, see Clause 3.2.10.
10.2.3 Hydraulic performance
The hydraulic performance of the culvert shall be determined by its size, shape, wall
material and profile, slope, inlet and outlet treatments.
Performance of an existing culvert shall be assessed taking into consideration—
(a) changes in landform activities and watercourse alignment upstream that may increase
flow discharge and flow velocity;
(b) changes in landform activities and watercourse alignment downstream that may retard
discharge from the culvert;
(c) debris blocking in part or completely the culvert inlet structure;
(d) scour at the inlet and outlet structure and adequacy of the protection;
(e) piping at inlet structures and along the culvert (noticeable at joints);
(f) sediment build-up both outside and within the culvert;
(g) joint damage within the culvert; and
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 AS 5100.8:2017 74

(h) abrasion of the culvert surface.

When an existing culvert is being refurbished, rehabilitated, strengthened or extended, the
design flows and hydraulic methodology shall be undertaken to the latest Code or Standard,
unless otherwise directed by the relevant authority.
10.2.4 Embedment
Materials for embedment and compaction levels for culvert installations are outlined in the
relevant product installation Standards. A flexible culvert (manufactured from corrugated
metal) is a composite structure involving an interaction with the culvert and the surrounding
supporting soil.
Flexible culverts typically have relatively low stiffness in comparison to a rigid concrete
culvert.
The load-carrying capacity of rigid concrete culverts is essentially provided by the
structural strength of the culvert; however, the surrounding soil does still contribute to
resisting vertical load.
Irrespective of the culvert type, an investigation including the following criteria shall be
reviewed in any condition assessment of buried infrastructure:
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(a) Minimum cover of fill over the buried existing structure as required by the relevant
product installation Standard.
(b) Level of side support provided by the embedment zone (that is, bedding) and native
soil in the installation and to the required compaction level, considering both material
quality and compaction levels.
(c) Trench widths are in accordance with the specified width on work-as-executed
drawings.
(d) Foundations are capable of providing uniform and stable support.
Construction loads applied during installation shall also be assessed where works-as-
executed drawings and other relevant information is available.
NOTE: Embedment material and compaction requirements for flexible culvert installations are
covered in—
(a) AS/NZS 2041.2 for corrugated metal circular and other shape culverts, and
(b) AS/NZS 2566.2 for metallic large diameter pipes;
and for rigid culverts in—
(c) AS 1597.2 for precast reinforced concrete box culverts, and
(d) AS/NZS 3725 for concrete pipe.
10.2.5 Other criteria
Other criteria that shall be assessed in determining the condition of a culvert include the
following:
(a) Recorded settlement in the pavement over the culvert (possibly resulting from
insufficient embankment compaction or loss of embankment support).
(b) Debris collection and other visual evidence upstream and downstream indicating the
water level (compared to design).
(c) Visibility for safety and security within the culvert where used by pedestrians and any
need for lighting.
(d) Vertical and horizontal clearance to the underside of the culvert and the need to
signpost.
(e) Leaking joints and perforations resulting from faulty installation or corrosion.

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 75 AS 5100.8:2017

(f) Floor grade that can limit usage and functionality (particularly where settlement has
occurred).
(g) The treatment of the culvert surface for removal of graffiti.
(h) Measures required to ensure safety of members of the public and inspection and
maintenance personnel.
(i) Impact of fencing at culvert inlets with respect to flooding and debris build-up.

10.3 REPAIR, REHABILITATION AND STRENGTHENING OF STRUCTURES

10.3.1 General
The repair, rehabilitation and strengthening of culvert structures includes the lengthening of
existing culverts. This covers provisions for upgrading the existing culvert to provide the
required hydraulic and structural capacity.
10.3.2 Reinforced concrete culverts
Concrete elements shall be remediated in accordance with Section 3, using suitable repair
and protection procedures.
Dents, bulges, chips and spalls in the order of 200 mm in diameter (and blowholes up to
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20 mm) and not more than 12 mm in depth may not require further investigation unless
there is evidence of rust staining.
NOTE: Strengthening of reinforced concrete culverts may require one or a combination of the
following:
(a) Additional wall at midspan.
(b) Composite steel plate or FRP.
(c) Local concrete thickening and additional reinforcement to the base.
(d) Local concrete thickening and additional reinforcement to the crown.
(e) Installation of steel struts.
(f) Slip lining.
Strengthening of culverts shall consider possible reduction in hydraulic capacity.
10.3.3 Metal culverts
Repair and rehabilitation measures for metal culverts shall include one or a combination of
the following:
(a) Installing a reinforced concrete invert to repair or replace a deteriorated invert of a
corrugated metal pipe.
(b) Installing a new lining internal pipe or lining inside an existing pipe.
(c) Spot patching and repairing.
(d) Installation of a cathodic protection system to prevent further corrosion.
(e) Applying internal bands or similar repairs to problem joints.
(f) Shotcrete lining.
(g) Sandblasting and repainting or recoating.
(h) Stabilizing or filling voids in the embedment surrounding the culvert.
(i) Excavating, realigning and replacing.
10.3.4 Lengthening of existing culverts
Where lengthening is required, the existing culvert shall be assessed to provide the required
hydraulic capacity and for compliance with the AS(AS/NZS) 5100 series and upgraded as
required by the relevant authority.

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 AS 5100.8:2017 76

The interface between the old and new sections of the culvert shall be designed and detailed
to avoid blockage of the culvert by trapped debris.
Consideration shall be given to one or a combination of the following:
(a) Design of connection between new and existing structures.
(b) Use of similar materials to simplify connection and minimize differential movements.
(c) Upgrading inlet and outlet protection.
(d) Hydraulic performance of the lengthened culvert:
(i) Provision of additional culvert(s).
(ii) Enlarging diameter at outlet.
(iii) Tapered inlets.
(iv) Lining of culvert to improve water flow.
10.3.5 Hydraulic performance
Damage to concrete headwalls and wing walls shall be—
(a) repaired or rehabilitated in accordance with Section 3; or
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(b) reconstructed.
Consideration shall be given to the protection of the inlets and outlets to withstand
hydraulic forces generated during peak flows (see Note 1).
Seepage along the outside of the culvert cell shall be blocked to prevent the development of
piping and the removal of the embedment material providing support to the culvert (see
Note 2).
NOTES:
1 Inadequately protected inlets and outlets may be subject to damage due to hydraulic forces
generated during peak flows and damage to surrounding property and washout of the roadway
or railway may result.
2 Seepage may be eliminated by modifications to the inlet structure, such as extending the
concrete apron and the wing walls deeper into the soil.

10.4 DESIGN REQUIREMENTS

10.4.1 Reinforced concrete culverts
Rehabilitation and strengthening design of reinforced concrete culverts shall be in
accordance with AS 5100.5.
10.4.2 Metal culverts
Rehabilitation and strengthening design of corrugated metal culverts of circular and other
shapes (including metal arches) shall be in accordance with AS/NZS 2041.1.
Reinforced concrete elements shall be designed in accordance with AS 5100.5.

10.5 TESTING
Testing (other than load testing) of culvert units shall be undertaken in accordance with
Section 3.
Load testing of an existing buried concrete structure to determine strength and
serviceability criteria shall be undertaken in accordance with the provisions of AS 5100.5.

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 77 AS 5100.8:2017

SECTI ON 11 WO RK, HEALTH AND SAFETY

AND QUALI TY RE QUIRE MENT S

11.1 GENERAL
Health and safety shall be considered at all times during all maintenance or rehabilitation
repair operations. Rules and regulations for the health and safety of personnel as well as
safety for traffic and the bridge shall be adhered to when handling or applying the various
types of proprietary or specialized materials.
A site safety plan detailing all site-specific safety risks associated with repair, maintenance
and assessment work, shall be developed to ensure compliance with all relevant Work,
Health and Safety Legislation.
The relevant government authorities shall be consulted to obtain updated regulations and
codes of practice. Where required, relevant personnel shall comply with the provisions of
Work, Health and Safety Legislation, including—
(a) scaffolding and access requirements;
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(b) confined spaces;

(c) working at heights;
(d) use and maintenance of personal protective equipment;
(e) inspection, testing and tagging of electrical equipment;
(f) use of life jackets whilst in boats or over water; and
(g) safe design of structures.

11.2 HANDLING PRECAUTIONS

The materials and products in their uncured state may cause skin irritation, or sensitization
or other injuries or diseases. Manufacturer’s safety data sheets and labels for use, handling,
storage and disposal of repair materials and products shall be followed.
Suitable personal protective equipment shall be utilized at all times in order to ensure
protection of personnel. Personnel utilizing various repair materials and products shall be
suitably trained and instructed of potential hazards, and the correct use of equipment and
working procedures shall be enforced during repair operations.

11.3 FIRST AID

Health and safety plans shall provide procedures that consider first aid for eyes, skin,
inhalation, ingestion and fire.

11.4 CLEANING UP
Any leaks or spillages, tools and equipment shall be cleaned up in a timely manner and
waste shall be disposed of in line with environmental legislation.

11.5 QUALITY REQUIREMENTS

Detailed quality, inspection and sampling and testing procedures shall be prepared as part
of the overall pre-planning for the works, including concrete repair, rehabilitation,
strengthening and protective systems. This shall include procedures for satisfying Work,
Health and Safety Legislation and environmental requirements (including waste control and
disposal).

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 AS 5100.8:2017 78

APPENDIX A
FIBRE REINFORCED POLYMER (FRP) STRENGTHENING
(Normative)

A1 SCOPE
This Appendix sets out requirements for the use, application and design of fibre reinforced
polymer (FRP) in the strengthening of existing concrete structures. The use of FRP is
predicated upon achieving the minimum concrete pull-off strength of 1.5 MPa as measured
by AS 1012.24 and a minimum concrete compressive strength of 17 MPa and a maximum
concrete compressive strength of 100 MPa.
NOTE: For information on fibre reinforced polymer strengthening, see HB 305–2008,
ACI 440.2R-08, British Concrete Society Technical Report TR 55 and AASHTO Guide
specifications for design of bonded FRP systems for repair and strengthening of concrete bridge
elements.

A2 MATERIALS
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A2.1 General
The constituent materials used for the FRP strengthening system shall include all resins,
primers, putties, saturants, adhesives, reinforcing fibres and protective coatings as required.
All constituent materials used for the FRP strengthening systems shall be compatible and
shall be tested to recognized Australian or International Standard test methods.
Material details shall include documented evidence of relevant test results and certificates
of compliance, which shall be not more than twenty four (24) months old.
A2.2 Reinforcing fibre materials
A2.2.1 Carbon laminate (carbon fibre reinforced with polymer matrix)
The carbon laminate shall be a pre-fabricated, pultruded section, specifically designed for
adding strength as part of a compatible, load-transferring, bonded system.
NOTE: Carbon laminates are suitable for strengthening long-term and short-term load conditions.
Carbon laminate shall be specified to one of the four types stated in Table A2.2.1.

TABLE A2.2.1
PROPERTIES OF CARBON LAMINATE
Performance property Carbon laminate type (including carbon rod)
minimum characteristic
value CLS(1) CLS(2) CLM(1) CLM(2) CR

Tensile modulus (E), GPa 150 160 200 245 140

Tensile strength (σ), MPa 2200 2800 2400 2000 2200
Elongation at break 1.3 % 1.6% 1.3% 0.7% 1.3%
Volumetric fibre fraction 68% 68% 68% 68% 65%
Glass transition
70 70 70 70 70
temperature (T g) in °C
LEGEND:
CLS = carbon laminate where tensile strength is the dominant required property
CLM = carbon laminate where tensile modulus is the dominant required property
CR = carbon rod
NOTE: Numbers in parenthesis represent different material types.

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 79 AS 5100.8:2017

A2.2.2 Carbon fabric (high strength, high modulus carbon fibres)

The carbon fabric shall be pre-woven sheets specifically designed for adding strength as
part of a compatible, load-transferring, bonded system.
NOTE: Carbon fabrics are suitable for strengthening long-term and short-term load conditions.
Carbon fabric shall be specified to one of the three types stated in Table A2.2.2.

TABLE A2.2.2
PROPERTIES OF CARBON FABRIC

Performance property minimum Carbon fabric type

characteristic value CFS(1) CFM(1) CFM(2)
Tensile modulus (E), GPa 215 340 600
Tensile strength (σ), MPa 4300 4000 2600
Elongation at break 1.8% 0.7% 0.6%
Fibre aerial weight, g/m2 150 200 200
Fibre density, g/cm3 1.6 1.6 1.6
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LEGEND:
CFS = carbon fabric where tensile strength is the dominant required property
CFM = carbon fabric where tensile modulus is the dominant required property
NOTE: Numbers in parenthesis represent different material types.

A2.2.3 Glass fabric (medium strength, low modulus glass fibres)

The glass fabric shall be pre-woven sheets specifically designed for adding strength as part
of a compatible, load-transferring, bonded system.
NOTES:
1 Glass fabric is not suitable for bridge strengthening due to creep rupture effects.
2 Glass fabric may be suitable for seismic retrofit because of its low modulus.
The glass fabric shall be specified to the properties stated in Table A2.2.3.

TABLE A2.2.3
PROPERTIES OF GLASS FABRIC

Performance property minimum Glass fabric type

characteristic value GF
Tensile modulus (E), GPa 60
Tensile strength (σ), MPa 2800
Elongation at break 4.0%
Fibre aerial weight, g/m2 300
Fibre density, g/cm3 2.2

A2.2.4 Aramid fabric (medium strength, medium modulus aramid fibres)

The aramid fabric shall be pre-woven sheets specifically designed for adding strength as
part of a compatible, load-transferring, bonded system.
NOTE: Aramid fabrics are suitable for strengthening long-term and short-term load conditions
and applications where the fibre requires a high shear resistance, perpendicular to the fibre, such
as for impact resistance.

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 AS 5100.8:2017 80

The aramid fabric shall be specified to the properties stated in Table A2.2.4:

TABLE A2.2.4
PROPERTIES OF ARAMID FABRIC
Aramid fabric type
Performance property
AF
Tensile modulus (E), GPa 100
Tensile strength (σ), MPa 2800
Elongation at break 2.0%
Fibre aerial weight, g/m2 250
Fibre density, g/cm3 1.3

A2.3 Resin materials

A2.3.1 General requirements
Resins used as part of FRP strengthening systems, including compatible primers, putty
fillers, saturants and adhesives, shall have the following characteristics:
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(a) Compatibility with and adhesion to the substrate.

(b) Compatibility with and adhesion to the FRP system.
(c) Resistance to in-service environmental effects including, but not be limited to,
moisture, salt water, temperature extremes and chemicals normally associated with
exposed concrete.
(d) Filling ability.
(e) Workability.
(f) Pot life consistent with the application.
(g) Compatibility with and adhesion to the reinforcing fibre.
(h) Development of appropriate mechanical properties for the FRP.
A2.3.2 Primer
Primers shall be very low viscosity resins used to penetrate a porous substrate surface and
provide an improved adhesive bond for the saturating resin or adhesive. Primers shall have
properties similar to the saturating resin specified in Paragraph A2.3.4.
A2.3.3 Adhesive for carbon laminate
Adhesives shall be a thixotropic paste used to bond pre-fabricated carbon laminate systems
to the substrate and provide the required shear load path between the substrate and carbon
laminate. Adhesives shall also be used to bond together multiple layers of carbon laminates
where required.
The properties of adhesives for the carbon laminates shall be as stated in Table A2.3.3.

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 81 AS 5100.8:2017

TABLE A2.3.3
PROPERTIES OF ADHESIVE FOR CARBON LAMINATE
Property Required value
Bond strength Not less than 1.5 MPa or concrete failure
Shear strength Not less than 12 MPa or concrete failure
Compressive strength Not less than 55 MPa at 7 days
Tensile strength Not less than 15 MPa at 7 days
Static E-modulus Not less than 9000 MPa
Coefficient of thermal expansion Not more than 9.5  10 5 per °C
Glass transition temperature (T g) Not less than 60°C
NOTE: Values in this Table are based on typical laboratory test results obtained
after 7 days curing at 23°C.

A2.3.4 Saturating resin

Saturating resins shall be used to impregnate the fabric to fix it in place and shall be
capable of providing a shear load path to transfer effectively the load between fibres.
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Saturating resins shall also serve as the adhesive for wet or dry lay-up systems, and shall be
capable of providing a shear load path between the previously primed substrate and the FRP
system.
The properties of saturating resins shall be as stated in Table A2.3.4.

TABLE A2.3.4
PROPERTIES OF SATURATING RESIN

Property Required value

Bond strength Not less than 1.5 MPa or concrete failure
Tensile strength Not less than 25 MPa
Flexural E-modulus Not less than 1000 MPa
Viscosity Not greater than 6000 cps at 25°C
Application temperature Between 5°C and 35°C ambient and substrate
NOTE: Values in this Table are based on typical laboratory test results
obtained after 7 days curing at 23°C.

A2.3.5 Putty filler

The levelling putty filler shall be a thixotropic paste used to fill small voids, including bug
holes, in the concrete substrate, to provide a smooth surface to which the FRP system bonds
and also prevent bubbles from forming during curing of the saturating resin. The levelling
putty filler shall have properties similar to the adhesive for carbon fibre laminate in
Paragraph A2.3.3.
A2.4 Handling and storage of materials
Adhesives and other resins shall be stored in dry conditions not exposed to direct sunlight,
in strict accordance with the manufacturer’s current written specifications and within the
manufacturer’s specified maximum and minimum temperature range. Materials shall remain
in their original, sealed containers until time of use.
All material shall be brought to site in the original unopened containers clearly labelled
with the appropriate manufacturer’s name, product type, reference number and batch
number. Materials stored beyond the manufacturer’s recommended shelf life shall not be
used.

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 AS 5100.8:2017 82

For each batch of FRP system material, a copy of the manufacturer’s information shall be
available, including the following:
(a) Manufacturer’s name and address.
(b) Product name.
(c) Batch number.
FRP system materials including adhesives and resins shall be used in order of manufacture.
FRP laminates shall be supplied and stored on site such that damage or contamination does
not occur. Laminates shall be free from unintended curves, bows, wraps, undulations or
twists. Prior to bonding, they shall be handled with clean gloves under dry conditions, and
touching of surfaces without peel ply shall be avoided. Where FRP materials are fitted with
protective peel ply to ensure a clean surface, the ply shall be removed immediately prior to
application and touching of the surface shall be avoided.
FRP fabric sheets or rolls shall be kept free from any contamination. The FRP fabric sheets
shall be—
(i) handled carefully and shall be free from wraps, twists or fibre misalignment and
protective peel ply shall be removed immediately prior to application;
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(ii) stored either by being rolled to a radius greater than that in which they were
originally supplied (normally at least 200 mm) or by being dry stacked after cutting;
and
(iii) protected from dust and moisture.
All FRP materials shall be checked for possible damage resulting from transportation,
handling or incorrect cutting. Handling and preparation precautions shall be in accordance
with the material manufacturer’s specifications and material data sheets. Records shall be
maintained, showing which elements were treated with each batch of FRP system material.
Details of the proposed FRP strengthening system, including information on the proposed
resins, primers, putties, saturants, adhesives and reinforcing fibres, substrate preparation,
method of application, equipment, and operators shall be submitted to the relevant authority
for review not less than fourteen (14) days prior to the commencement of the FRP
strengthening works. FRP strengthening and repair works shall not take place until the
proposed materials and procedures have been reviewed by the relevant authority.
A2.5 Durability
Exposure to certain environmental factors including temperature, humidity, chemical
exposure (such as alkalinity, acidity, salt water, chemicals), ultraviolet light and freeze-
thaw cycles may reduce the mechanical properties of many FRP systems. The factors that
may influence the extent of a reduction in mechanical properties include—
(a) exposure environment;
(b) duration of exposure;
(c) resin type and formulation;
(d) fibre type; and
(e) resin curing method.
Mechanical properties reported by manufacturers are generally based on testing conducted
in a laboratory environment and may not reflect the effects of environmental exposure.
These properties shall be adjusted according to Paragraph A5.4 to account for the
anticipated service environment to which the FRP system may be exposed during its service
life.

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 83 AS 5100.8:2017

FRP systems may create a moisture impermeable layer on the surface of the concrete.
Where the system completely covers the concrete section, effects of freeze-thaw, steel
corrosion, alkali aggregate reactions, water entrapment, vapour pressures and moisture
vapour transmission shall be considered. In particular, for areas where moisture vapour
transmission is expected, adequate means shall be provided to allow moisture to escape
from the concrete surface.
Where protective coatings are used to prolong the service life of FRP systems, they shall be
maintained to ensure continued effectiveness.
A2.6 Fire
In the event of exposure to elevated temperatures, the mechanical and bond performance of
FRP systems deteriorates as temperatures approach or exceed the Tg (glass transition
temperature) of the polymer resins used (typically 60°C to 80°C).
Under fire conditions, it shall be assumed that the FRP system does not contribute to the
capacity of the member, unless the FRP temperature can be demonstrated to remain below a
critical temperature for the FRP, where the properties have had no significant deterioration.
This shall be taken as the lowest Tg of the components of the system.
Design under fire conditions shall be in accordance with AS 5100.5.
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A3 SYSTEM INSTALLATION
A3.1 General
The FRP system shall be installed by an appropriately experienced person. Evidence shall
be made available to the relevant authority that the FRP system satisfies the minimum
requirements specified in this Standard. This evidence may be based on satisfactory
performance from either trial applications or previous projects.
A3.2 Concrete surface preparation
A3.2.1 General
Concrete surfaces shall be dry and shall be free from all laitance including but not limited
to—
(a) dust;
(b) oil;
(c) grease;
(d) loose particles;
(e) remnants of curing compounds;
(f) waxes;
(g) coatings;
(h) impregnations;
(i) organic contaminants;
(j) any form of bond inhibiting materials; and
(k) weak concrete layers.
The concrete surface shall be prepared by any of the following methods or combinations
thereof to achieve a clean and sound surface:
(i) Dry abrasive blasting.
(ii) Wet abrasive blasting.

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 AS 5100.8:2017 84

(iii) Steam cleaning.

(iv) Wire brushing.
(v) Angle grinder.
(vi) High-pressure water jet blasting.
All methods shall be carried out in accordance with the relevant Australian Standards and
other WHS and environmental regulations imposed by the relevant authorities. The surface
shall be vacuumed before the application of the FRP.
A3.2.2 Surface profile
The surface layer of the concrete shall be removed to expose small particles of sound
aggregate such that the minimum roughness or surface profile to be achieved lies between
an amplitude of 0.5 mm to 1 mm, with a surface presenting similar to 60-grit sandpaper.
The surface shall not be roughened excessively or in a manner that will create unnecessary
damage to the substrate concrete.
NOTE: For surface profile, consideration may be given to adopting the requirements of CSP 3, as
per ICRI (International Concrete Repair Institute) Technical Guideline No. 310.2R-2013 if
accepted by the relevant authority.
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A3.2.3 Reference profile

Prior to the commencement of full-scale surface preparation procedures, a representative
sample area shall be prepared for approval by the relevant authority. The sample area shall
be prepared in accordance with the requirements of this Appendix and shall be used as a
reference standard exhibiting a prepared surface satisfactory for the duration of the works.
A3.2.4 Surface treatment
Blowholes, honeycombing, loose surface layers and weak concrete, cracks of width less
than 0.20 mm or other defects, either revealed by surface preparation process or otherwise
exposed, shall be treated by an epoxy putty or other methods approved by the relevant
authority.
Where fabric is to be wrapped around corners, the corners shall be rounded to a minimum
radius of 25 mm to avoid local damage to the fabric.
The surface to which the FRP is to be applied shall be such that the following is achieved:
(i) The gap under a 2000 mm straightedge shall not exceed 4 mm.
(ii) The gap under a 300 mm straightedge shall not exceed 1 mm.
Any out of tolerance areas shall be rectified with a suitable epoxy material or combination
thereof as specified above.
NOTE: Inside corners and concave surface may require special detailing to ensure that the bond
of the FRP system to substrate is maintained. This is due to the development of tensile peeling
stresses between the adhesive and the concrete surface due to the FRP attempting to straighten
under load. For further details, see Paragraph A9.
A3.2.5 Treatment of cracks
The entirety of any crack that originates or extends into areas to be strengthened with the
approved FRP system shall be treated in accordance with Clause 3.5.2.1 and as follows:
(a) Inactive cracks of width equal to or greater than 0.20 mm shall be sealed by epoxy
resin injection.
(b) Active cracks equal to or greater than 0.20 mm shall be treated as specified by the
relevant authority.

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 85 AS 5100.8:2017

A3.2.6 Testing
After the preparation of the concrete surface, the minimum concrete pull-off strength of
1.5 MPa shall be verified as measured by AS 1012.24.
Any breakouts or core holes shall be repaired in accordance with the requirements of
Clause 3.5.
A3.3 Primer and epoxy putty requirements
A primer coat shall be applied to the prepared concrete substrate.
When required, an epoxy putty shall be used to fill in surface irregularities, blowholes and
small voids. The putty shall be applied whilst the primer is stick tacky to touch.
Application of the adhesive or saturating resins shall be done prior to full cure of the primer
and putty, in a sufficient time frame to obtain full intercoat adhesion. If the primer or putty
coats are outside this window or have fully cured, the surfaces shall be roughened, cleaned
and re-primed, before applying the next layer.
NOTES:
1 The primer should be uniformly applied to all areas of the prepared concrete surface using
brush or roller, in accordance with the manufacturer’s specification, including specified rate
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of coverage. Airless spray equipment may be used, provided thorough back-rolling is

undertaken to work the primer into the concrete surface.
2 Compatible epoxy putty should only be used to fill voids, smooth surface discontinuities and
treat minor imperfections prior to the application of other materials. Rough edges or lines of
cured putty should be ground smooth prior to proceeding with the installation. The putty
should have rapid strength gain characteristics which enable over-bonding to be carried out
after a short time and should be capable of being applied in thin layers where required.
3 Prior to applying the adhesive or the saturating resin, the primer and putty filler should be
allowed to cure for the required period in accordance with the material manufacturer’s
specified requirements, to ensure satisfactory adhesion at the interface of the two materials.
Where the primer and putty filler are completely cured, additional surface preparation may be
required prior to the application of the saturating resin or adhesive, consistent with the FRP
strengthening system compatibility requirements.
A3.4 Mixing of resins
All adhesive resin components, including base resin and hardener, shall be mixed following
the procedure, temperature range, mix ratio and mix duration specified by the manufacturer.
Resins shall not be diluted with any organic solvents as a thinner. Any mixed resin that
exceeds its pot life or shows signs of increased viscosity, shall not be used.
NOTES:
1 The mixing of resins should be in accordance with the FRP system manufacturer’s specified
procedures, including batch sizes, mix ratios, mixing methods, mixing times, current material
safety data sheets. The ambient temperature of all resin components should be between 10°C
and 30°C at the time of mixing. Resin and hardeners should be mixed together in the correct
proportions and required mixing times until there is a uniform, homogeneous mixing of
components and colour streaks are eliminated. No excess material should be left in the
individual component containers.
2 Resin components should be mixed using slow speed electrically powered mixing paddles.
All mixed resin should be used within the resin’s specified pot life. Any resin remaining at
the end of the specified pot life should be discarded.
A3.5 Drying and curing requirements
The manufacturer’s specifications regarding drying and curing requirements, reapplication
time intervals for adhesives and other resins, and prevailing weather conditions, shall be
complied with.

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 AS 5100.8:2017 86

A3.6 Environmental conditions

FRP strengthening systems shall not be applied under any of the following conditions:
(a) Windy conditions where over-spray and/or spatter may be generated.
(b) Where windborne debris is likely to contaminate the uncured surface of the freshly
applied coating.
(c) When the ambient temperature exceeds 30°C or is below 5°C, unless otherwise
agreed to in writing with the manufacturer.
(d) When the concrete surface temperature exceeds 35°C or is below 8°C, unless an
appropriate heating method is in place.
(e) When the relative humidity exceeds 85%, unless an appropriate drying method is in
place.
(f) When rain spatter or run-off, including leakage through deck joints, contaminating
the surface and adversely affecting the adhesion to the substrate, may occur.
(g) When the surface temperature of the substrate is less than 3°C above the dew point, or
exceeds 35°C.
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(h) When the moisture content of the concrete or cementitious repairs exceeds 8%.
(i) When the surface moisture condition of the concrete is not dry and it does not satisfy
the manufacturer’s specification.
A3.7 Application of laminates
Application tolerances for laminates shall be as follows:
(a) Material length: ............................................................................................. 20 mm.
(b) Application position: ..................................................................................... 25 mm.
(c) Adhesive thickness (applied to substrate): ...................................................... 1–2 mm.
(d) Adhesive thickness (applied to laminate): ................ 3 mm at centre to 1 mm at edges.
(e) Spacing between adjacent parallel elements: ............................................ 5 mm (min).
Immediately prior to installation, any protective peel-ply shall be removed from the
bonding surface of the laminate. Where protective peel-ply has not been supplied, the
bonding surface shall be thoroughly cleaned with suitable solvent. Where the laminates are
overlapped, each of the overlapping surfaces shall be lightly abraded. Care shall be taken to
avoid longitudinal splitting when cutting to length.
After priming, a layer of adhesive shall be applied to the substrate and to one side of the
FRP laminate. The FRP laminate shall be brought into contact and lightly pressed with the
fingers onto the prepared bonding area. The installation of FRP plates shall be effected by
applying uniform pressure by roller along the longitudinal centre-line and working
outwards to expel excess adhesive at the edges and produce an even adhesive line. The
excess adhesive shall be removed.
The layer thickness of the final adhesive along the bond line of the laminate shall be a
minimum of 1.5 mm and a maximum of 3 mm.
A3.8 Application of fabric sheets
Application tolerances for fabrics shall be as follows:
(a) Fabric lengths ................................................................................. +50 mm, 10 mm.
(b) Application position ...................................................................................... 25 mm.

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 87 AS 5100.8:2017

Prior to installation, the fabric sheets shall be cut to the prescribed sizes using suitable
cutters as specified by manufacturer. If fabric is measured and pre-cut, it shall be stored in
rolls of at least the same diameter as it was supplied in.
NOTE: Depending on the weight and density of the fabric, two methods may be employed for
application. For light weight (400 gsm) dry fabric/sheets, the mixed saturant is rolled or brushed
onto the primed concrete surface. The dry fabric is then applied to the resin-saturated surface.
Alternatively, for heavy weight (>400 gsm) fabric/sheets, the resin is applied onto the fabric with
hand-held foam rollers, brushes or impregnation machines, before the wet fabric is installed. The
wet fabric is then applied to the resin-saturated surface.
A layer of saturating resin shall be uniformly applied to the concrete surface utilizing
suitable mechanical means at the coverage rates specified by the manufacturer. The FRP
sheets shall be applied to the resin-saturated concrete surface by pressing manually onto the
surface such that it is stretched by avoiding any wrinkles or the introduction of voids.
Workmanship shall ensure the impregnation of the resin into the fabric material. Rolling
shall be in the longitudinal direction of the fibres along the centre-line and working
outwards to expel excess resin at the edges and to ensure the removal of any entrapped air
and produce an even adhesive line. Rolling perpendicular to the fibre direction shall not be
undertaken.
Where subsequent layers of fabric are required, the time allowed between the layers shall be
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in accordance with the manufacturer’s specification. If the first layer is allowed to cure to a
hard shiny surface, mechanical abrasion shall be used to roughen the surface prior to
application of the subsequent layers as per manufacturer’s specification.
Where FRP fabric or laminates are lapped, the minimum overlap in the longitudinal fibre
direction shall be 300 mm. Any lifting or delamination that may occur during the
application period shall be corrected using appropriate means prior to plastic set of the
epoxy.
NOTES:
1 Where multiple layers of FRP fabric sheet are required as part of the design of the FRP
strengthening system, these should be applied in accordance with the material manufacturer’s
specification, data sheets, and as specified in this Paragraph.
2 Where the resin is factory applied or is applied onto the fabric on site using hand held foam
rollers, brushes or impregnation machines prior to application, additional procedures on how
the installation may be supported should be submitted for review by the relevant authority
prior to installation and verified during the trial application procedure as prescribed in
Paragraph A3.9.
A3.9 FRP trial system application
When specified, a trial application on a test area of the actual substrate of not less than
1.0 m2 for fabric systems and 1 m for laminate systems shall be conducted prior to the
commencement of FRP strengthening work, to the satisfaction of the relevant authority.
If the trial application is deemed to not comply with the requirements of the specification, a
new trial application shall be made until the performance can be appropriately verified.
NOTES:
1 The test area should be prepared and strengthened to satisfy all the requirements of the
material manufacturer’s specification.
2 The trial application should include all materials, methods, personnel and systems that will be
used throughout the works to demonstrate the ability of the system to meet the intended
design assumptions and requirements. Actual coverage rates of adhesives and other resins
should be recorded, in order that due allowance may be made in the full-scale application for
rough, irregular or highly absorbent concrete substrate. Additional requirements or
observations should be recorded and considered for the full-scale application.

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 AS 5100.8:2017 88

A3.10 Installation personnel competency

The FRP system shall be installed by experienced specialist personnel who can demonstrate
competency to the satisfaction of the relevant authority.
NOTES:
1 The FRP system installation contractor or sub-contractor should have experience in the repair
and rehabilitation of reinforced concrete structures and a demonstrated competency for
surface preparation and application of the FRP system to be installed. Such experience should
be supported with documented evidence of previous experience including previous projects
and relevant references.
2 The contractor should also provide documented evidence from the FRP system manufacturer
demonstrating that the contractor’s application personnel are adequately trained and skilled in
the installation procedures of the FRP system to be installed. The FRP system installation
supervisor should be trained and qualified in all aspects of the applied techniques and should
be present during work at all times.

A4 INSPECTION, TESTING AND MAINTENANCE

A4.1 Inspection—Initial
A4.1.1 General
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All stages of the FRP strengthening work shall be inspected, tested and documented and be
made readily available to the relevant authority.
The work shall be inspected at each stage of the FRP strengthening operation and each
interval, including—
(a) after surface preparation;
(b) mixing of materials;
(c) prior to and after adhesive and resin application;
(d) after repairs and/or detailing that may be required; and
(e) during and after installation of FRP laminates or fabric sheets.
A4.1.2 Evaluation and acceptance
FRP system shall be evaluated and accepted or rejected, based on conformance or non-
conformance with the design drawings and specifications.
NOTE: FRP system material properties, installation within specified placement tolerances,
presence of delaminations, cure of resins, adhesion to substrate should be included in the
evaluation. Placement of tolerances including fibre orientation, cured thickness, ply orientation,
width and spacing, corner radii, and lap splice lengths should be evaluated.
A4.2 Inspections—Ongoing
A4.2.1 Routine visual inspections
Routine visual inspections shall be performed on a six-monthly basis in the first two years
after commissioning and then on a two-yearly basis. The following items, including extent
and location, shall be checked during the inspection:
(a) Changes in colour.
(b) Debonding.
(c) Peeling.
(d) Blistering.
(e) Cracking.
(f) Crazing.

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 89 AS 5100.8:2017

(g) Deflections.
(h) Indications of reinforcing bar corrosion and other anomalies.
A4.2.2 Detailed inspection and testing
When a routine visual inspection has identified a problem a detailed inspection and testing
shall be undertaken by a professional engineer with appropriate experience of fibre
composites who can adequately assess and interpret the findings.
NOTE: Tapping the surface to identify voids and areas of debonding is still considered the
standard test for the integrity of the FRP strengthening.
A4.3 Performance testing
A4.3.1 General
Testing for performance during installation shall include an ongoing delamination survey to
check for drummy areas, testing for flatness of the finished product, placement tolerances
and adhesion (pull-off) testing.
A4.3.2 Testing for delaminated areas
A visual inspection shall be conducted immediately after installation is complete and any
defects recorded. At completion of curing, the system shall also be visually inspected and
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checked for delaminations, air voids, and bubbles between multiple layers or between the
FRP system and the concrete.
Delamination testing shall be conducted along the whole length of each applied FRP,
laminate or fabric sheet using a small hammer (or similar). Appropriate care shall be taken
so as not to damage the system.
NOTE: Areas where the FRP material has not bonded correctly to the concrete or to subsequent
layers will be characterized by a ‘drummy’ or hollow sound.
Delamination size, location, and quantity, relative to the overall application area, shall be
recorded and evaluated with respect to structural integrity and durability of the FRP system.
Delaminations shall not be permitted unless all the following conditions are satisfied:
(a) Each delamination shall be less than 25 mm  25 mm.
(b) The total delaminated area is less than 5% of the FRP strengthened area.
(c) There are not more than 5 delaminations per 1 m2 for fabric and not more than
1 delamination in any 2 m length for laminates.
(d) At any given cross-section not more than 25% of the FRP system shall be
delaminated.
(e) No delaminations shall be permitted within 300 mm of the termination of fabrics,
laminates or plates.
(f) For the application of laminates, the stated values shall apply for each individual
laminate as well as the strengthened region covered by multiple laminates
Repairs of all delaminated areas shall be in accordance with Paragraph A4.4.2.
A4.3.3 Testing for flatness
The FRP system installation shall consider out-of-flatness associated with substrate
treatment as determined in Paragraph A3.2.4.
Where the requirements of Paragraph A3.2.4 are not complied with, additional FRP,
laminates, or fabric sheets may be required to be fixed in location adjacent to the materials
in question. The fixing of fabric sheets shall be reviewed for conformance with the
strengthening requirements.

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 AS 5100.8:2017 90

A4.3.4 Adhesion (pull-off) testing

Partially cored direct pull-off tests of the fully cured FRP system shall be conducted to
verify the tensile bond between the FRP material and the existing concrete substrate 7 days
after the completion of installation. The pull-off testing shall be undertaken in accordance
with AS 1012.24.
NOTE: Testing done at 7 days assumes curing at an average of 23°C.
Pull-off adhesion tests shall be carried out on sacrificial pieces of FRP composite following
the satisfactory curing of the resin adhesives. Testing for FRP laminates and fabric shall be
carried out at the specified frequency.
For FRP laminate and fabric testing, samples shall be taken at each representative area. For
each representative area, at least one sample shall be taken. In addition, for laminate, at
least one sample shall be taken per 75 lineal metres or part thereof and, for fabric, at least
one sample shall be taken per 10 m2 or part thereof. Each sample shall consist of three (3)
tests.
The mean bond strength at 7 days shall be greater than 1.5 MPa, and no individual result
shall be below 1.35 MPa.
The mode of failure of the pull-off test shall be in the concrete substrate. Mean bond
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strengths less than 1.5 MPa or failure between the FRP system and the concrete substrate or
between layers of FRP shall be examined and addressed by the relevant authority.
A4.3.5 Component testing
A4.3.5.1 Fibre fabric, laminates and adhesive resins
Material performance data shall be supplied to the relevant authority for approval, prior to
commencing installation of proposed works.
Design values shall be verified by material testing data provided with the materials and
approved by the relevant authority. Materials shall comply with Paragraph A2 and shall be
reviewed by the designer to ensure actual values are within acceptable limits of assumed
values used for design.
The adhesive resin used for laminates shall be site sampled in 50 mm cubes minimum and
then tested for compressive strength. Three (3) test cubes shall be sampled from the first
batch of material mixed, then three (3) cubes for every 100 kg of material used thereafter to
test for compressive strength. The cubes shall be cured for 7 days as per the material
manufacturer’s specification. The cubes shall be tested on day 7, and shall comply with
Paragraph A2 and be reviewed by the designer to ensure actual values are within acceptable
limits of assumed values used for design.
NOTES:
1 The immediate performance of the FRP composite strengthening system may be monitored by
the installation of suitable instrumentation on the strengthened components, at pre-determined
strategic locations.
2 Instrumentation may consist of strain gauges or fibre-optic gauges embedded within the FRP,
bonded to the structure or FRP surface or on additional band of FRP for monitoring and
testing purposes.
3 The instrumentation may be installed following completion of all strengthening and any
rehabilitation works on the strengthened components (i.e. including any repair of concrete,
epoxy injection of cracks, application of anti-carbonation protective coating).
A4.3.5.2 Special inspection and testing
When a routine visual inspection has identified a problem, a detailed inspection and testing
program shall be undertaken by a professional engineer with appropriate experience of fibre
composites, to adequately assess and interpret the findings.

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 91 AS 5100.8:2017

Delamination/drummy testing shall be undertaken by experienced personnel to identify

voids and areas of de-bonding and to establish the integrity of the FRP strengthening.
NOTES:
1 Thermal and acoustic non-destructive methods with proven reliability may be used.
2 Installation of instrumentation such as strain gauges or fibre-optic gauges embedded within
the FRP, bonded to the structure or FRP surface or on additional band of FRP for monitoring
and testing purposes, may be considered for FRP composite strengthening works. Such
devices can provide information as to the ongoing performance of the FRP system as affected
by in-service loads.
A4.4 Maintenance
A4.4.1 General
FRP materials may require some maintenance while in service.
All gutters and drains shall be kept clear of debris, such that rainwater is kept away from
the structure and the FRP. To avoid any damage to the FRP system, water jetting, grit
blasting and solvents shall not be used in its vicinity.
A4.4.2 Repair
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The method of repair for the strengthening system depends on the causes of the damage, the
type of material, the form of degradation, and the level of damage.
Repairs to the FRP system shall not be undertaken without first identifying and addressing
the causes of the damage.
Minor damage (greater than 25  25 mm in size but less than 300  300 mm) shall be
repaired, including localized FRP laminate cracking or abrasions that affect the structural
integrity of the laminate.
NOTE: Minor damage may be repaired by bonding FRP patches over the damaged area.
The FRP patches shall possess the same characteristics, such as thickness or ply orientation,
as the original material. The FRP patches shall be installed in accordance with the
manufacturer’s specification.
NOTES:
1 Minor delaminations may be repaired by resin injection.
2 Major damage (greater than 300  300 mm in size), including peeling and debonding of large
areas, may require removal of the affected area, reconditioning of the cover concrete, and
replacement of the FRP material.
Where the surface protective coating requires replacement, the FRP material shall be
inspected for structural damage or deterioration. Any coating reapplication shall be
compatible with the existing in-service conditions.

A5 DESIGN
A5.1 Design objectives
The aim of the design of an FRP-strengthened element shall be such that it does not reach
any of the limit states defined in AS 5100.1, AS 5100.5 and AS 5100.7 unless noted
otherwise.
A5.2 Capacity reduction factor
The capacity reduction factor shall be not greater that the appropriate values given in
AS 5100.5, AS 5100.7 and Paragraph A6.3.2.

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 AS 5100.8:2017 92

A5.3 Minimum strength requirement

The non-strengthened structural member, without FRP reinforcement, shall have sufficient
capacity to resist a minimum level of load as follows:
1.1 (serviceability design load for permanent effects) + 0.75 (serviceability design
load for transient or thermal effects)
A5.4 FRP design properties
The design tensile strength and rupture strain indicated in Paragraph A2.2 shall be reduced
by the environmental reduction factor given in Table A5.4 unless determined otherwise by
testing.
NOTE: Different reduction factors may be used if FRP reinforcement is protected by a proven
system.

TABLE A5.4
ENVIRONMENTAL REDUCTION FACTOR FOR VARIOUS FRP SYSTEMS
AND EXPOSURE CONDITIONS

Environmental reduction factor

Exposure conditions Exposure classification Fibre type
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(C E )
Carbon 0.95
Interior exposure A Glass 0.75
Aramid 0.85
Carbon 0.85
Exterior exposure A, B1 Glass 0.65
Aramid 0.75
Carbon 0.85
Aggressive exposure B2, C1, C2 Glass 0.50
Aramid 0.70
NOTE: For exposure classification details, see AS 5100.5.

A5.5 Fire resistance

Where it is considered necessary for a member to be designed for fire resistance, the
relevant provisions of AS 5100.5 shall apply.
A5.6 Design by prototype testing
Notwithstanding the requirements of Paragraph A5.1, a structure or a component may be
designed for strength and serviceability by testing in accordance with AS 5100.5.

A6 FLEXURAL STRENGTHENING
A6.1 General
The capacity of an FRP-strengthened beam under bending shall be determined in
accordance with Paragraphs A6.2 to A6.3. The beam behaviour at service shall be checked
in accordance with Paragraph A6.4.
The capacity of an unstrengthened beam under bending shall be determined in accordance
with AS 5100.5.
Beams to be strengthened with FRP in bending shall have a ductile section to ensure that
they show adequate warning prior to total collapse with or without FRP.
All requirements of AS 5100.5 and AS 5100.7 shall apply unless noted otherwise.

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 93 AS 5100.8:2017

FRP materials shall be in accordance with Paragraph A2 and installed in accordance with
Paragraph A3.
A6.2 Basic principles
A6.2.1 Design strength
The design bending capacity of an FRP strengthened beam shall be taken as ϕMuo . The
calculation of ϕMuo shall be in accordance with one of the following:
(a) ϕMuo shall be determined in accordance with Paragraph A6.3
(b) ϕMuo shall be determined from testing in accordance with AS 5100.7.
(c) ϕMuo shall be determined from an alternative method.
NOTE: Where an alternative method of design is proposed, it shall satisfy the relevant authority.
A6.2.2 Design assumptions
Reinforced or prestressed members shall be analysed to incorporate equilibrium and strain-
compatibility considerations and be consistent with the following:
(a) Plane sections normal to the axis remain plane after bending.
(b) The FRP and the concrete are perfectly bonded.
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(c) The stress-strain behaviour of concrete is determined by the relationship given in

Paragraph A6.2.3 or a recognized relationship.
(d) The stress-strain behaviour of steel reinforcement and tendons is in accordance with
AS 5100.5.
(e) The stress-strain behaviour of FRP is linear-elastic to the point of failure.
(f) Sections are analysed taking into account loading history and construction sequence.
A6.2.3 Concrete stress-strain curve
When concrete compressive strain is less than 0.003, the concrete compression stress
distribution shall be modelled as parabolic according to the following equation:
c
1.8 f c
0
fc = 2 . . . A6.2.3
 
1   c 
 0 
where
fc
ε0 =
Ecj
εc = strain in concrete
fc = stress in concrete at strain εc
f c = characteristic compressive cylinder strength of concrete at 28 days, which
shall not be taken to exceed 65 MPa
Ecj = mean value of the modulus of elasticity of concrete at the appropriate age

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 AS 5100.8:2017 94

A6.3 Strength limit state

A6.3.1 Failure modes
The flexural strength of an FRP strengthened beam depends on the controlling failure
modes. The following modes shall be considered:
1 Concrete crushing before FRP rupture or before FRP debonding
(see Paragraph A6.3.5.1).
2 FRP rupture before concrete crushing (see Paragraph A6.3.5.1).
3 Shear (see Paragraph A6.3.5.3).
4 Cover separation (see Paragraph A6.3.5.3).
5 End interfacial debonding (see Paragraph A6.3.5.3).
6 FRP IC debonding induced by intermediate cracks (see Paragraph A6.3.5.2).
7 FRP CDC debonding induced by wide shear cracks (see Paragraph A6.3.4).
8 Any other modes considered possible.
The FRP anchorage shall be checked in accordance with Paragraph A9.
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3 S h ear 1 C o n c rete
crushing

2 FRP r u pture

5 En d inter fac i al 6 Cr i t i c al
debonding d i ag o n a l c r a c k 7 Inter m e d i ate c r ac k
d e b o n d i n g (CD C) in d u c e d d e b o n d in g (IC)

4 C o n c rete se par at i o n

FIGURE A6.3.1 SUMMARY OF FAILURE MODES FOR MEMBERS STRENGTHENED

WITH FRP IN FLEXURE
A6.3.2 Capacity reduction factors
The strain in the tensile steel reinforcement at ultimate limit state (ULS) shall be checked,
to ensure that sufficient member ductility is maintained with the addition of FRP.
For reinforced and prestressed sections, adequate ductility shall be deemed to have been
achieved if the strain in the tensile steel reinforcement exceeds 0.005 at failure, after—
(a) concrete crushing;
(b) FRP rupture; or
(c) FRP debonding.
If the strain in the tensile steel reinforcement is less than 0.005 at ULS, a reduced capacity
reduction factor shall be applied in order to design for a higher factor of safety.

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 95 AS 5100.8:2017

The capacity reduction factor (ϕ) shall be determined in accordance with the following
equation:
0.80 for  s  0.005

 0.15   s   sy 
ϕ = 0.65  . . . A6.3.2
 0.005   sy
0.65 for   
 s sy

where
εs = net tensile strain in extreme tension steel at ULS
εsy = yield strain of the tension steel
NOTE: The above equation sets the capacity reduction factor at 0.80 for ductile sections and 0.65
for brittle sections where the steel does not yield, and provides a linear transition for the
reduction factor between these two extremes. The use of this equation is limited to steel having a
yield strength (f y) less than 550 MPa.
A6.3.3 Ductility
If the ductility assessment of the unstrengthened beam results in a ku value greater than 0.4
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when calculated in accordance with AS 5100.5, the FRP strengthening shall be

mechanically anchored such that end peeling or debonding is prevented.
NOTE: For detailing to prevent premature FRP debonding, see Paragraph A9.1.
A6.3.4 FRP strengthened beam
The effect due to other actions for FRP bonded on the vertical faces of a beam, the
additional vertical shear stress at the bond interface shall be considered.
A6.3.5 Surface-bonded FRP strengthened beam
A6.3.5.1 Concrete crushing or FRP rupture
Concrete crushing is defined to occur when the strain in the concrete reaches 0.003 prior to
the occurrence of either FRP rupture or debonding.
FRP rupture is defined to occur when the strain in the FRP reaches the design strain
(elongation at break) as defined in Paragraphs A2.
The strain in the FRP shall be determined in accordance with Paragraph A6.2.
A6.3.5.2 FRP IC debonding
FRP debonding occurs when the strain at the FRP/concrete interface exceeds the debonding
strain (εfd). The debonding strain (εfd) shall satisfy the following:

f c
εfd = 0.41 . . . A6.3.5.2
Ef t f
where
fc = characteristic compressive strength of concrete, which shall not be taken to
exceed 65 MPa
Ef = average FRP modulus of elasticity
tf = total FRP thickness of all layers

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 AS 5100.8:2017 96

A6.3.5.3 Cover separation and end interfacial debonding

Cover separation and end interfacial debonding shall be prevented by limiting the
longitudinal shear stress between FRP and concrete and limiting the shear at the end of the
FRP. The longitudinal shear stress ( long) shall satisfy the following:
long  0.17 f c . . . A6.3.5.3(1)
where
long = longitudinal shear stress, calculated at two planar locations:
(a) at the adhesive layer; and
(b) in the concrete at the level of the nearest reinforcement or tendon layers
(not including bar/tendon diameters)
fc = characteristic compressive strength of concrete, which shall not be taken to
exceed 65 MPa
The longitudinal shear stress shall be calculated taking into account concrete cracking and
steel yielding. The check shall be done near the FRP ends and where there are significant
longitudinal shear forces such as where section properties change or a point load applies or
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steel starts yielding.

For surface-bonded FRP strengthened beams, when both the original section and the FRP
are prismatic and do not taper along their length, assuming the concrete and reinforcement
are in linear elastic range, the longitudinal shear stress (  long) may be calculated using the
following equation:
*
Vadd nf Af  h  x 
long = . . . A6.3.5.3(2)
Icsbe
where
*
Vadd = ultimate shear force applied after installation of FRP
nf = modular ratio of FRP to concrete
Af = area of FRP
h = depth of section
x = depth of neutral axis
Ics = equivalent second moment of area of strengthened section
be = effective width at the two planar locations (adhesive width or concrete width
at lowest reinforcement level)
When the factored shear force at the termination point of the FRP is greater than 2/3 the
shear strength of the section (V* > 0.67Vu), the FRP laminates shall be anchored with an
appropriate anchorage system to prevent the concrete cover layer from splitting.
NOTE: For detailing, see Paragraph A9.
A6.3.6 Near surface mounted FRP strengthened beam
A6.3.6.1 Concrete crushing or FRP rupture
Concrete crushing or FRP rupture shall be considered in accordance with
Paragraph A6.3.5.1.
A6.3.6.2 FRP IC debonding
FRP IC debonding shall be deemed to occur if the strain at the FRP/concrete interface
exceeds 0.7εfu, where εfu is the FRP design rupture strain.

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 97 AS 5100.8:2017

A6.3.6.3 Cover separation and end interfacial debonding

Cover separation and end interfacial debonding shall be considered in accordance with
Paragraph A6.3.5.3.
A6.4 Serviceability limit state (SLS)
A6.4.1 Creep-rupture and fatigue stress limits
The permanent plus cyclic stress in the FRP shall not exceed the values in Table A6.4.1.

TABLE A6.4.1
CREEP-RUPTURE AND FATIGUE STRESS LIMITS
Type of FRP Creep-rupture and fatigue stress limits
CFRP 0.55f fu
GFRP 0.20f fu
AFRP 0.30f fu

A6.4.2 Serviceability stress limits

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At SLS, the stress in each material shall not exceed the following:
(a) Yield stress for reinforcing steel.
(b) 0.2% proof stress for prestressing steel tendons.
(c) 0.45 f c for concrete.
A6.5 Singly reinforced rectangular section
A6.5.1 Ultimate strength
The internal strain and stress distribution for a singly reinforced rectangular section under
flexure at ULS shall be as illustrated in Figure A6.5.1.

εc ƒ av = β 2 (0.9ƒ c’ )
k2
c

df d

As
εs A sƒ y
Tf

FIGURE A6.5.1 INTERNAL STRAIN AND STRESS DISTRIBUTION FOR A REINFORCED

RECTANGULAR SECTION UNDER FLEXURE AT ULTIMATE LIMIT STATE (ULS)
The capacity (Mu) for the illustrated section shall be taken as:
Mu = [Asfs(d  k2c) + CETf(df  k2c)] . . . A6.5.1(1)
where
 = capacity reduction factor as defined in Paragraph A6.3.2
As = area of non-prestressed steel tension reinforcement

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 AS 5100.8:2017 98

fs = stress in the steel tension reinforcement

= Esεs  fsy
d = distance from extreme compression fibre to the centroid of non-prestressed
tension reinforcement
df = distance from extreme compression fibre to the centroid of FRP
c = depth of concrete compression zone
k2 = multiplier for locating resultant of the compression force in the concrete
   
2 c  arctan c 
   0 
= 1  0 2 . . . A6.5.1(2)
 
 2  c 
 0 
   2 
ln 1   c  
   0  
2 = . . . A6.5.1(3)
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 c 
 
 0 
Tf = tension force in FRP
= Efεf  fsy . . . A6.5.1(4)
CE = environmental reduction factor as defined in Paragraph A5.4
εc = strain in concrete
εs = strain in the steel tension reinforcement
εf = strain in the FRP
εbi = initial strain at FRP level before installation of FRP
= Mi/EfZf
where
Mi = built-in moment before installation of FRP
Zf = section modulus at FRP level equivalent to FRP
If the controlling failure mode is concrete crushing:
εc = 0.003
If the controlling failure is mode is FRP rupture:
εf = εfu
where
εfu = ultimate tensile strain of FRP
If the controlling failure mode is FRP IC bonding:
εf = εfd

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 99 AS 5100.8:2017

The strains may be calculated using the following equations:

 c 
εc =  f   bi   . . . A6.5.1(5)
 df  c 
 d c 
εs =  f   bi   . . . A6.5.1(6)
 df  c 
 df  c 
εf = c    bi . . . A6.5.1(7)
 c 
A6.5.2 Serviceability
The serviceability stresses in concrete, steel and FRP may be calculated based on a cracked
section analysis as illustrated in Figure A6.5.2.

b b εc
kd/3 Fc
kd
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d d
dƒ dƒ

As As
ε s,s Fs
Fƒ
Aƒ Aƒ ε ƒs ε b i

FIGURE A6.5.2 CRACKED SECTION ANALYSIS OF CONCRETE, STEEL AND FRP

The stress in the steel may be calculated using the following equation:
  kd 
 M s   bi Af Ef  d f  3 d  kd Es
fs,s = . . . A6.5.2(1)
kd kd
As Es  d  d  kd   Af Ef  d f  d f  kd 
 3   3 
The stress in the FRP may be calculated using the following equation:

E  d f  kd
ff,s = f s,s  f    bi Ef . . . A6.5.2(2)
 Es  d  kd
A6.6 Design steps
The following shall be carried out in the design of FRP strengthened section:
Step 1
Obtain actions from analysis: M*.
Step 2
Assess existing capacity: Mu.
Step 3
 Compare M* and Mu.
 Mu  M* where  is from AS 5100.5 or AS 5100.7.
 If Mu < M* then strengthening is needed.
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 AS 5100.8:2017 100

Step 4
 Calculate M* min. and compare to Mu.
 If Mu  M* min. then FRP strengthening is not applicable.
 If Mu > M* min. then Step 5.
Step 5
 Choose trial FRP section and materials (as per Paragraph A2).
 Determine FRP strain limit, εfe = min. (εfu, εfd).
Step 6
Analyse new section by assigning εc = 0.003 and determine strain in FRP at the time of
concrete crushing, εfc.
Step 7
 Compare FRP strain εfc to εfe.
 If εfc > εfe then reanalyse by assigning εf = εfe.
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 If εfc < εfe then use εf = εfc.

Step 8
 Determine Mu of strengthened section. Compare Muf with M*.
 If Muf  M* , then adjust FRP and repeat Steps 5 to 8.
 If Muf > M*, go to Step 9.
Step 9
Check for cover separation and interfacial debonding as per Paragraph A6.3.5.3.
Step 10
Check for anchorage as per Paragraph A9.
Step 11
Check for other failure modes as per Paragraph A6.3.1.
Step 12
Check for SLS as per Paragraph A6.4.

A7 SHEAR AND TORSIONAL STRENGTHENING

A7.1 General
The capacity of a beam strengthened with FRP in shear and torsion shall be determined in
accordance with Paragraphs A7.2 and A7.3.
All requirements of AS 5100.5 and AS 5100.7 shall apply unless noted otherwise.
FRP materials shall be in accordance with Paragraph A2 and installed in accordance with
Paragraph A3.
A7.2 Design of members strengthened with FRP in shear
A7.2.1 Design shear capacity of a beam
The design shear capacity of a beam shall be taken as Vu calculated using the following
equation:
V u = (Vuc + Vus + Pv + CEVuf) . . . A7.2.1

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 101 AS 5100.8:2017

where
Vuc, Vus and Pv determined in accordance with AS 5100.5
Vus determined in accordance with Paragraph A7.2.2
The capacity reduction factor () shall be calculated in accordance with AS 5100.5.
CE = environmental reduction factor as defined in Paragraph A5.4
A7.2.2 FRP contribution to shear capacity of a beam
The FRP contribution to the shear capacity of a beam (Vuf) shall be determined using the
following equation:
 Af 
Vuf =  f,e Ef   do  cot  v  cot   sin  . . . A7.2.2
 sf 
where
Af = cross-sectional area of FRP strips
= 2bf.tf for bonded plies on both side faces
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bf = width of FRP strips

tf = total FRP thickness of all layers
do = shear depth (see AS 5100.5)
sf = spacing of FRP strips
Ef = modulus of elasticity for FRP
 = angle between principal fibre orientation and longitudinal axis of member
εf,e = effective fibre strain as defined in Paragraph A7.2.3
v = angle between the axis of the concrete compression strut and the longitudinal
axis of the member (see AS 5100.5)
A7.2.3 Transverse FRP shear strengthening
The effective strain is the maximum strain that can be achieved in the FRP system at the
nominal strength and is governed by the failure mode of the FRP system and of the
strengthened concrete member.
All potential failure modes shall be considered and an effective strain, representative of the
critical failure mode shall be used. The following shall be used in determining the effective
strain:
(a) For completely wrapped members:
εfe = 0.004  0.75εfu . . . A7.2.3(1)
where
εfu = elongation at break of FRP
(b) For bonded U-wraps or bonded face plies:
εfe = vεfu  0.004 . . . A7.2.3(2)
where
v = bond-dependent coefficient for shear
k1 k 2 L e
v =  0 .75 . . . A7.2.3(3)
11900  fu

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 AS 5100.8:2017 102

where
Le = active bond length of FRP
k1 = modification factor to account for concrete strength
k2 = modification factor to account for bond scheme
The active bond length (Le) is the length over which the majority of the bond stress is
maintained. Le shall be calculated using the following equation:
23300
Le = . . . A7.2.3(4)
 nf tf Ef 
0.58

where
nf = modular ratio of elasticity between FRP and concrete
The bond-reduction coefficient also relies on two modification factors, k1 and k2, that
account for the concrete strength and the type of bond scheme used, respectively, which
shall be calculated as follows:
23
 f c 
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k1 =   . . . A7.2.3(5)
 27 
 d fv  Le for U-wraps . . . A7.2.3(6)
 d
 fv
k2 = 
d 
 fv 2 Le for two sides bonded
 d fv . . . A7.2.3(7)

where
dfv = effective depth of FRP shear strengthening as defined in Figure A7.2.3

d
h dƒ

Wƒ Wƒ
bw Sƒ
Sƒ

FIGURE A7.2.3 DIMENSIONAL VARIABLES USED IN SHEAR STRENGTHENING

A7.2.4 Detailing of FRP shear strengthening
The spacing of FRP strips (laminate or fabric) is defined as the distance between the
centreline of the strips.
FRP longitudinal spacing shall comply with the requirements of AS 5100.5 for internal steel
shear reinforcing.
A7.2.5 Anchorage
Mechanical anchorages may be used to improve effective strain in FRP strips, provided
they are in accordance with Paragraph A9.

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 103 AS 5100.8:2017

A7.3 Transverse FRP for combined shear and torsion

A7.3.1 General
This Paragraph applies to beams subjected to both torsion and torsion in combination with
shear. It does not apply to non-flexural members.
A7.3.2 Design torsional capacity of a beam
The design torsional capacity of a beam shall be taken as Tu, calculated using the
following equation:
Tu = (Tus + Tuf) . . . A7.3.2
where
Tus determined in accordance with AS 5100.5
Tuf determined in accordance with Paragraph A7.3.3
The capacity reduction factor () shall be calculated in accordance with AS 5100.5.
A7.3.3 FRP contribution to torsional capacity of a beam
The FRP contribution to the torsional capacity of a beam, Tuf,frp, shall be determined as
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follows:
 Af 
Tu,frp = 2 f,e Ef   At  cot t  cot   sin  . . . A7.3.3
 sf 
where
Af = cross-sectional area of closed FRP strip for torsion
At = area enclosed by the shear flow path, and is taken to be equivalent to the
area of a polygon with vertices at the centre of the longitudinal bars at the
corners of the cross-section
bf = width of FRP strips
sf = spacing of FRP strips
tf = total FRP thickness of all layers
Ef = modulus of elasticity for FRP
 = angle between principal fibre orientation and longitudinal axis of member
εf,e = effective fibre strain
t = angle between the axis of the concrete compression strut and the longitudinal
axis of the member (see AS 5100.5)
A7.3.4 Effective strain in FRP transverse torsional reinforcement
The effective strain is the maximum strain that can be achieved in the FRP system at the
nominal strength and is governed by the failure mode of the FRP system and of the
strengthened concrete member.
All potential failure modes shall be considered and an effective strain, representative of the
critical failure mode, shall be used. The following equations shall be used in determining
the effective strain:
(a) For fully wrapped FRP (or FRP strips with sufficient anchorage) where FRP rupture
controls:
0.30
 f23 
εfe = 0.17  cm   f,u  CE  f,u . . . A7.3.4(1)
 Ef  f 

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 AS 5100.8:2017 104

(b) For side or U-shaped FRP jackets where FRP rupture or peeling off controls:
  f cm2 3 
0.30
 f cm2 3 
0.56

   f,u ,0.65    10   CE f,u
3
εfe = min 0.17  . . . A7.3.4(2)
  Ef f   Ef f  

where
Ef = modulus of elasticity for FRP (GPa)
fcm = mean value of the compressive strength of concrete at the relevant age, in
megapascals, which shall not be taken to exceed 65 MPa
εfu = ultimate FRP strain
ρf = FRP reinforcement ratio
For continuously wrapped members, the FRP reinforcement ratio (ρf) for torsion shall be
taken to be equal to the following:
tf
ρf = . . . A7.3.4(3)
tc

where
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tc = wall thickness of equivalent thin-walled section

= 3Ac/(4pc)
Ac = gross area of concrete
pc = perimeter enclosing gross area of concrete
For box-girders, the smaller of the actual wall thickness or 3Ac/(4pc) shall be taken as tc.
For members strengthened with discrete strips:
tf bf
ρf = . . . A7.3.4(4)
tc sf

A7.3.5 Detailing of FRP transverse torsional reinforcement

The spacing of FRP strips (laminate or fabric) is defined as the distance between the
centreline of the strips.
FRP longitudinal spacing shall comply with the requirements of AS 5100.5 for internal steel
torsional reinforcing.
A7.3.6 Anchorage
Mechanical anchorages may be used to improve effective strain in FRP strips, provided
they are in accordance with Paragraph A9.

A8 AXIAL STRENGTHENING WITH FRP CONFINEMENT

A8.1 General
The capacity of a column strengthened by confinement using FRP wraps under axial forces
and bending moments shall be determined in accordance with Paragraph A8.2. The
serviceability considerations shall be checked in accordance with Paragraph A8.3.
The capacity of an unstrengthened column shall be determined in accordance with
AS 5100.5.
All requirements of AS 5100.5 shall apply unless noted otherwise.
FRP materials shall be in accordance with Paragraph A2 and installed in accordance with
Paragraph A3.

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 105 AS 5100.8:2017

A8.2 Basic principles

A8.2.1 Design assumptions
Calculations of the strength of cross-sections in bending combined with axial forces shall
incorporate equilibrium and strain-compatibility considerations and be consistent with the
following:
(a) Plane sections normal to the axis remain plane after bending.
(b) The stress-strain behaviour of concrete shall be determined by the relationship given
in Paragraph A8.2.4.
(c) The stress-strain behaviour of steel reinforcement and tendons shall be in accordance
with AS 5100.5. The maximum strain in the steel shall be calculated in accordance
with AS 5100.5.
A8.2.2 Calculation of the ultimate strength in compression of a reinforced section
The factored ultimate strength for a short column under pure axial compression, confined
by FRP, shall be taken as ϕNuo. ϕNuo is calculated using the following equation:

ϕNuo =  0.85 f cc  Ag  Ast   f sy Ast  . . . A8.2.2

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where
Nuo = axial capacity of confined column
ϕ = strength reduction factor for members subjected to axial compression as
specified in AS 5100.5
Ag = gross area of section, in millimetres square
Ast = total area of longitudinal reinforcement, in millimetres square
fsy = yield strength of non-prestressed steel reinforcement, in megapascals
f cc = maximum compressive strength of the confined concrete, in megapascals
A short column shall be defined in accordance with AS 5100.5.
A8.2.3 Columns in combined axial compression and bending
The confinement of axial members using FRP can also contribute to an enhancement in
capacity when members are subjected to combined axial compression and bending.
N-M moment interaction diagrams shall be constructed using the principles defined in
Paragraph A8.2.1 with the following limitations:
(a) The effective strain in the FRP (εfe) shall be limited to 0.004.
(b) The control failure mode shall be compression failure.
A8.2.4 Concrete stress-strain curve of a FRP confined section
The concrete stress-strain curve of an FRP confined section with sufficient confinement
shall be illustrated in Figure A8.2.4.

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 AS 5100.8:2017 106

ƒc

ƒ c’ c
C o nfine d c o n c rete
E2
1

ƒ c’

Un c o nfin e d c o n c rete

Ec
εc
ε c’ ε t’ 0.0 0 3 ε ccu

FIGURE A8.2.4 TYPICAL STRESS STRAIN CURVE FOR CONFINED CONCRETE

The curve shall be defined by the following equations:
  Ec  E 2 2 2
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 Ec  c  c 0   c   t
fc =  4 f c . . . A8.2.4(1)
f E   t   c   ccu

 c 2 c

f cc  f c
E2  . . . A8.2.4(2)
 ccu
2 f c
 t  . . . A8.2.4(3)
Ec  E 2

where
fc = unconfined cylinder characteristic strength of concrete

f cc = maximum confined concrete characteristic strength

= fc f 3.3a fl . . . A8.2.4(4)

where
f = 0.95, an additional reduction factor
fl = maximum confinement pressure
2Ef tf  fe
= . . . A8.2.4(5)
D
 0.08 f c

εfe = effective strain level in the FRP at failure

D = either the diameter of a circular cross-section or the dimension as shown in
Figure A.8.2.5.2
ε = strain efficiency factor
= 0.55
εfe = εεfu
εccu = maximum compressive strain in the FRP-confined concrete

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 107 AS 5100.8:2017

 f l   fe 
0 . 45

=  c  1 .50  12  b    . . . A8.2.4(6)
 f c   c  

 0.01
where
fc ,
c = maximum strain of unconfined concrete corresponding to
(mm/mm); may be taken as 0.002
a, b = cross-section efficiency factors as defined in Paragraph A8.2.5
E2 = slope of the linear portion of the stress strain model for FRP confined
concrete
A8.2.5 Cross-section efficiency factors
A8.2.5.1 Circular cross-sections
1 . 71 f c
c = Ec
. . . A8.2.5.1

For circular cross-sections, the shape factors a and b may be taken as 1.0.
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A8.2.5.2 Non-circular cross-sections

For rectangular sections, the shape factors may be calculated as follows:
2
Ae b
a =   . . . A8.2.5.2(1)
Ac h
0.5
Ae h
b =   . . . A8.2.5.2(2)
Ac b
where
b, h = Section dimension as defined in Figure A8.2.5
The aspect ratio h/b shall be less than or equal to 2. The dimensions h and b
shall be less than 900 mm.
Ae/Ac = ratio of the effective confinement area and the concrete cross-sectional area
 b  h 2
 h h  2rc    b b  2rc  
2

= 1  g
3 Ag
1  g

rc = radius of rounded corners

g = longitudinal steel reinforcement ratio

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 AS 5100.8:2017 108

Ef fe c t i ve
c o nfin e m e nt area
nfinement

b
D

rc

h
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FIGURE A8.2.5.2 EQUIVALENT CIRCULAR CROSS-SECTION

A8.3 Serviceability limit state (SLS)
The service stresses in the concrete shall be less than or equal to 0.65 f c .
The service stresses in the longitudinal steel shall be less than or equal to 0.60fsy.

A9 DETAILING
A9.1 Detailing to prevent premature FRP debonding
The resulting force that will be developed in the FRP (Ta) shall be determined using
sectional analysis and checked to ensure that it is less than the ultimate bond capacity (Tk).
The anchorage design shall be satisfied by developing the FRP beyond locations where
Tk > Ta. Alternatively, the FRP may be developed beyond points of zero moment in the case
of continuous spans or in regions where the applied moment at ULS is less than the
cracking moment in the case of end spans.
The ultimate bond capacity (Tk) shall be calculated using to the following equations:
if lt < lt,max:
Tk = Tk,maxlt lt,max 2  lt lt,max  . . . A9.1(1)
if lt  lt,max:
Tk = Tk,max . . . A9.1(2)
where
lt = FRP bond length
lt,max = maximum anchorage length
The values for Tk,max and lt,max shall be calculated using the following equations:
Tk,max = 0.5k b bf Ef tf f ct (N) . . . A9.1(3)

lt,max = 0.7 Ef tf f ct (mm) . . . A9.1(4)

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 109 AS 5100.8:2017

where
kb = 1.06 2  bf bw  1  bf 400   1.0 . . . A9.1(5)
fct = characteristic tensile strength of concrete
A9.2 Anchorage devices for FRP
A9.2.1 General
Anchorage of externally bonded FRP materials is one means by which higher levels of
strain can be achieved prior to failure.
Higher effective FRP strain design values may be used where a substantiated form of
anchorage is provided.
A9.2.2 Anchorage devices for FRP reinforcement used to strengthen members in flexure
The anchorage shall take into account all possible failure modes mentioned in
Paragraph A6.3.1. In an effort to prevent the mechanisms of debonding initiating from the
FRP, the following methods may be considered for flexural members:
(a) FRP U-jacket anchors.
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(b) Metallic anchorage systems

(c) FRP spike anchors
(d) Embedment.
A9.2.3 Anchorage devices for FRP reinforcement used to strengthen members in shear
Various anchorages may be used to enhance the performance of FRP materials used as
externally bonded shear reinforcement such as the following:
(a) FRP enveloping the web of the beam in a U-shape, including termination at the
underside of the beam flange with no anchorage.
(b) Full wrapping of the web and flange of the beams through drilled holes through the
beam flanges.
(c) Mechanically fastened metallic anchors installed at the underside of the beam flange
to anchor FRP U-wrap legs.
(d) Embedment of the FRP U-jacket legs into the beam flanges, through pre-cut grooves
using adhesive bonding.
(e) FRP anchors installed to restrain the legs of the FRP U-jackets.
(f) Mechanical substrate strengthening over the anchorage zone of FRP shear
reinforcement.
(g) FRP enveloping the web of the beam and anchored at the underside of the beam
flanges with uni-directional or bi-directional fibres.
NOTES:
1 By the inclusion of anchorages [Items (b) to (g)], a higher value of FRP strain may be utilized
in the design.
2 The strain value chosen should be substantiated by experimental testing and be no larger than
4000 micro-strain for shear strengthening applications.

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 AS 5100.8:2017 110

APPENDIX B
CATHODIC PROTECTION OF REINFORCED CONCRETE STRUCTURES
(Normative)

B1 GENERAL
This Appendix sets out requirements additional to those specified in Clauses 3.3 and 3.5.7
for the cathodic protection (CP) of steel in reinforced concrete structures that are
atmospherically exposed, buried or submerged. These requirements apply to both new and
existing structures, including relevant inspection and testing, acceptance criteria for both
normal reinforcement and prestressed reinforcement embedded in concrete.
Due to the possible occurrence of hydrogen embrittlement, high strength steels shall not be
exposed to a potential more negative than 900 mV (Ag/AgCl/0.5M KCl).
NOTE: Prestressed steel may be sensitive to hydrogen embrittlement, which can cause
catastrophic failure due to high tensile loading of prestressing members. It is essential that
caution be exercised in any application of CP to prestressed elements.
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CP of steel in reinforced concrete structures shall be undertaken in accordance with the

requirements of AS 2832.5 and the requirements of this Appendix.

B2 PROTECTION CRITERIA
The CP system shall deliver sufficient current to polarize satisfactorily the reinforcement of
the whole of the reinforced concrete structure in all cathodic protection zones.
Satisfactory polarization shall be demonstrated by achieving the protection criteria in
accordance with the requirements of AS 2832.5.

B3 COMPETENCY OF PERSONNEL
In addition to the requirements of AS 2832.5 for the qualifications of personnel undertaking
cathodic protection, personnel used in the design or installation of CP of reinforced
concrete shall—
(a) demonstrate competency through a minimum of 5 years experience in the
cementitious patch repair, rehabilitation and coating of concrete structures and
demonstrate competency for surface preparation and associated CP system
disciplines, and application of the associated cementitious repair materials; or
(b) work under direct supervision of the competent personnel as stated in Item (a).
The CP system installation supervisor shall be trained and qualified in all aspects of the
applied techniques and shall be present during work at all times. Application personnel
shall be adequately trained in installation of the CP system and application of the
cementitious repair materials.
Documented evidence shall be available to demonstrate experience, qualifications, skills
and training of personnel, subcontractors and suppliers.

B4 CATHODIC PROTECTION REGULATIONS

Any assets that may be attached to the reinforced concrete structure, and/or may be present
within the surrounding ground shall be identified and confirmed during the design stage.
The CP system shall be designed such that once activated, it does not create any adverse
effect upon those assets or any other part of the reinforced concrete structure, by creating
stray current or interference.

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 111 AS 5100.8:2017

Authorities whose assets or other operating CP systems may be affected by the operation of
the new CP system shall be consulted.
Registration and approval to operate the CP system shall be obtained from the relevant
electrolysis committee, prior to switching on the system. Any interference testing shall be
undertaken as required.

B5 CATHODIC PROTECTION EXPOSURE ZONES

Different in-service exposure conditions require different design methodologies.
The following exposure zones have been identified as having different environments, which
shall be taken into consideration when designing and installing the CP system:
(a) Atmospheric zone.
(b) Splash zone.
(c) Tidal zone.
(d) Submerged zone.
(e) Buried zone.
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B6 DESIGN OF CATHODIC PROTECTION SYSTEMS

The CP system shall be designed such that it is capable of delivering sufficient current to
satisfactorily polarize and provide 100% protection to the whole of the reinforced concrete
structure identified as requiring protection, as stated in this Appendix and Clauses 3.3 and
3.5.7 for a design life of not less than 30 years.
NOTE: A shorter design life may be adopted subject to approval by the relevant authority.
The design shall include:
(a) Preparation of detailed working drawings and technical specification, including
details of the location of monitoring devices (reference electrodes) and
transformer/rectifier (T/R) units, plus performance and detailed maintenance
requirements of the system.
(b) Drawings describing the extent and type of concrete repairs prior to and after
installation of the CP system.
(c) Design calculations related to current densities and any anticipated losses in the
system.
(d) Design basis of the actual condition and the actual resistivity of the concrete zones
identified in Paragraph B5.
The CP system shall be designed to ensure protection for all components incorporated into
the CP system against power surges caused by lightning strikes and/or voltage variation
resulting from any other cause.

B7 DESIGN CHECK AND CERTIFICATION

The design, including design drawings, design documentation and all quality
documentation, shall be certified by an independent reviewer.
The independent review shall include confirmation that—
(a) the current densities and current requirements are appropriate for all cathodic
protection zones;
(b) anode materials and anode operating levels are suitable for the intended purpose;

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 AS 5100.8:2017 112

(c) reference electrodes, connections, cables, conduits, d.c. power supplies, and all other
equipment are suitable and adequately rated;
(d) all drawings adequately reflect the proposed system and contain sufficient detail to
enable correct installation of the system;
(e) all installation procedures are adequate;
(f) the inspection and testing methods are appropriate to ensure the system will be
installed and perform as designed;
(g) the commissioning and maintenance procedures are suitable to ensure the system can
be energized and operated as designed; and
(h) all aspects of the design, specification, drawings, installation, commissioning,
records, documentation and operation conform to the requirements of AS 2832.5.
The independent reviewer shall be a person who holds a tertiary qualification in the relevant
discipline, eligible to satisfy the requirements of the Australasian Corrosion Association
certification as a Corrosion Technologist, competent as defined in Paragraph B3, with at
least 10 years experience in CP system design, installation and monitoring of steel in
concrete.
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B8 DESIGN PARAMETERS
The design life of the whole cathodic protection system and each and every component
shall be not less than 30 years.
The whole of the CP system shall be capable of operating for the full design life of 30 years
without the replacement of components such as anodes, anode cementitious backfill, fillers,
cables and T/R units.
The CP system shall be capable of—
(a) supplying a minimum 20 mA/m2 at the surface of all the steel; and
(b) synchronous interruption of all d.c. power supplies.
All internal and external wiring shall be properly protected against vandalism and tidal and
splash zone conditions with conduits and protective covers resistant to corrosion and
ultraviolet degradation.

B9 MONITORING AND REFERENCE ELECTRODES

It is essential for the protection of the structure to be easily and readily checked during the
intended life of the CP system. Incorporated into the design of the CP system shall be a
simple and reliable system to monitor the various parameters that require regular
assessment. As a minimum, this shall include permanent reference electrodes embedded
within the concrete structure and external to the concrete for the submerged or buried
sections. The reference electrodes and structure connections shall be cabled to a common
location such that access to the cathodically protected concrete components is not required
to take the measurements.
Reference electrodes installed to monitor the performance of the CP system shall comply
with the requirements of AS 2832.5, unless otherwise shown on the drawings. Reference
electrodes installed in the works shall have a design life of not less than 30 years.
Reference electrodes shall be specifically designed for permanent embedment in reinforced
concrete structures and other electrolytes, such as soil and water, that form part of the CP
system for the purpose of accurate monitoring of steel reinforcement potentials.

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 113 AS 5100.8:2017

Reference electrodes shall be installed at multiple representative locations within each

individual zone and control area to enable sufficient measurement points to be available to
properly assess the performance of the CP system. The quantity, type and location of
reference electrodes shall be as shown on the drawings and as specified in the specification,
and final locations shall be jointly determined during installation and accurately located and
recorded.
Permanent reference electrodes shall be supplied with a calibration certificate prior to
installation, and shall be stored, maintained, handled and installed in accordance with the
manufacturer’s instructions. They shall be calibrated on site against a master calibrated
reference electrode immediately prior to embedment, immediately following embedment,
and within 24 h of installation.
Care shall be taken not to place any strain on cable to anode or reinforcement connections
or reference electrode cables.

B10 REPAIR AND REPLACEMENT OF CONCRETE AND TREATMENT OF

DEFICIENT STEEL
Concrete repairs to all areas of damaged or delaminated concrete, as shown on the drawings
and as exposed during the removal operation, shall be completed in accordance with the
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requirements of Clause 3.5 and this Appendix. New reinforcing steel or other means of
strengthening may need to be incorporated into the structure to compensate for the
corrosion loss of existing reinforcement.
All defective and delaminated concrete and existing repair materials shall be broken out to
leave a sound and dense concrete surface at least 20 mm beyond the steel reinforcement.
Hammer sounding shall be repeated on completion of breakout to ensure that all
delaminations have been removed. The complete concrete surface to be repaired shall have
an exposed aggregate finish and be non-friable and dust free.
Cracks of width equal to or greater than 0.10 mm shall be repaired by epoxy injection.
The exposed reinforcing steel shall be prepared by removal from the full circumference of
all surface rust scale, dirt, grease and any other material that might reduce the adhesion of
the new concrete to the steel, in accordance with Clause 3.6.
Where existing concrete cover is less than the specified requirement, the cover shall be
re-profiled (as required) to ensure the specified requirement is met.
In addition to the general testing for electrical continuity of the steel reinforcement, all
reinforcement exposed in the concrete removal for repair work shall also be tested for
electrical continuity.
Multiple electrical connection points to the steel reinforcement shall be provided in each
zone of the CP system in accordance with the requirements of AS 2832.5, and as shown on
the drawings to ensure the effective functioning of the CP system in that zone.
Cementitious materials used for concrete repairs shall be compatible for use with cathodic
protection and of proven suitability, as demonstrated by the product datasheet. Only
cementitious materials shall be used for concrete repairs. The electrical resistivity
characteristics of the repair materials shall be compatible with those of the parent concrete
and the requirements of the CP system.

B11 INSTALLATION
The installation of any proposed CP system shall take into account the manufacturer’s
specification for the use of any particular equipment or material and its suitability for
long-term performance for a design life of not less than 30 years in the manner or
environment in which it is installed.

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 AS 5100.8:2017 114

All a.c. power requirements shall be provided at the required locations for the operation and
monitoring of the CP system, including approval by the relevant power authority.
Any electrical equipment, such as T/Rs and control panels shall be housed in powder-coated
mild steel, lockable, weatherproof and vandal-proof cubicles with a minimum rating of
IP 65 at suitable secure locations as shown on the design drawings.

B12 COMMISSIONING THE SYSTEM

Commissioning shall be carried out in accordance with the requirements of AS 2832.5.
Prior to energizing the system, tests shall be undertaken to ensure that all measurements,
power and bonding circuits are correctly wired, connected and labelled, to provide the
expected resistances.
All commissioning procedures, including necessary adjustments, shall be carried out, to
demonstrate stability of the system and that the various protection criteria as described in
AS 2832.5 have been achieved.
Written records shall be maintained for all tests conducted during the commissioning phase.

B13 MONITORING AND MAINTENANCE MANUAL

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The monitoring and maintenance manual containing all information necessary to operate the
CP system shall include the following:
(a) As-built drawings of the installed CP system showing the exact location of all cables,
reinforcing connections, reference electrodes and conduits. The drawings shall also
define all concrete repair locations.
(b) All system wiring diagrams, names and addresses of all manufacturers and suppliers
of all electrical equipment, including system components all cables, conduit, junction
boxes and enclosures as supplied and installed.
(c) Details of all maintenance activities including service schedules required for the
specified life of the installation.
(d) Copies of all quality documentation for the project.
(e) Fault finding information for minor repair or replacement of the most likely to fail
components.
(f) Transformer-rectifier control panel details;
(g) Wiring schematics and operating manuals for the new electrical equipment details.
(h) Results of all testing completed during and after the installation.
(i) Copy of commissioning report.

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 115 AS 5100.8:2017

APPENDIX C
EXISTING TRAFFIC BARRIER ASSESSMENT
(Informative)

C1 GENERAL
This Appendix provides guidance for the design of replacement traffic barriers for existing
bridges.

C2 PROCEDURE
The process for designing replacement traffic barriers should be as shown in Figure C1.
In order to determine the required barrier performance level, the designer should undertake
a risk assessment for the bridge site in accordance with AS 5100.1. Bridge approaches
should also be considered in the risk assessment. The barrier design solution should be
consistent along the road length being considered.
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If the bridge cannot be economically strengthened to install a traffic barrier to the barrier
performance level specified in AS 5100.1 then the highest barrier performance level
achievable within the economic constraints applicable to the site should be adopted.
Where the proposed barrier design achieves a performance level at or higher than that
required by the risk assessment, the approval of the relevant authority to the barrier design
is not required. In all other cases, the approval of the relevant authority is required. A
summary of the hazards identified and actions taken will then need to be provided to aid the
approval.
Where the proposed barrier performance level is less than that required from the risk
assessment, alternative amelioration strategies should be considered, including reduced
speed limits or advance warning signs.
Alternatives to upgrading barriers on bridge sized culverts include widening the culvert and
continuing the flexible barrier system on the approaches across the culvert.
The resulting barrier design solution should take into account any adverse impact on
vulnerable road users such as cyclists or pedestrians.

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 AS 5100.8:2017 116

C o n d u c t s i te i n s p e c t i o n
I d e n t i f y h a z ar d s
Car r y o ut r i s k a s se s s m e nt of c ur re nt br i d g e s ite c o n d it i o n s

Is a
No
b ar r i e r u p g r ad e
re quire d?

Ye s

B ri d g e b a rri e r Bridge barrier? A p p r o a c h b a rri e r

A p proac h barr ier ?
B ot h?

D eter m in e re q uire d bar r i er Bot h Design approach

p er fo r m a n c e l eve l b ar r i e r s

Is
bridge structurally Ye s D e s i g n b ar r i er s to
ad e q u ate to ac c o m o d ate
AS 510 0. 2
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n ew b ar r i er
l o ad s?

No

Is it c o st ef fe c t i ve to:

D e s i g n l ower Re d u c e
Build a No Strengthen No No No
barr ier s i te Do
n ew ex i st in g
p er fo r m a n c e h a z ar d s n ot h i n g?
br i d g e? br i d g e?
l eve l? only?
Ye s Ye s Ye s Ye s Ye s

Is
bridge structurally
ad e q u ate to ac c o m o d ate
n ew b ar r i er
l o ad s?
Ye s

D e s i g n r e p l a c e m e nt Design bridge
D e s i g n n ew b ar r i er bar r i er to t h e hi g h e st and road
to AS 510 0. 2 pr ac t i c al l y fea s i b l e eliminate
p er fo r m a n c e l eve l h a z ar d s

D o c u m e nt rea s o n s for bar r i er p er for m an c e l eve l

se l e c t i o n s an d r i s ks re m ainin g at br i d g e s ite

C o m p l ete an d fil e d o c u m e nt at i o n

FIGURE C1 PROCESS FOR DESIGN OF REPLACEMENT TRAFFIC BARRIERS

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 117 AS 5100.8:2017

APPENDIX D
DESIGN OF TIMBER ELEMENTS IN BRIDGES
(Normative)

D1 DESIGN LOADS
D1.1 General
Design loadings for timber bridges shall comply with AS 5100.2 unless otherwise
determined by the relevant authority or the requirements of this Appendix.
Minimum additional design loadings for timber bridges shall comply with Paragraphs D1.2
and D1.3. Load factors for these additional design loadings shall be as given in Table D1.
D1.2 Dead loads
The minimum dead load per unit volume of any hardwood timber component (excluding
kiln-dried timber) shall be taken as 11 kN/m3. The minimum dead load per unit volume for
kiln-dried timber [as used in stress laminated timber (SLT) decks] shall be taken as
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9 kN/m3.
The design loads for SLS and ULS shall be obtained by applying the appropriate load factor
in Table D1 to the nominal loads on the structure. Where the dead load is calculated from
the dimensions shown on the drawings, the ‘design case’ load shall apply. Where an
assessment of an existing member is being undertaken, and dead load is calculated from
actual dimensions measured on site, the ‘direct measurement’ load factor shall apply.
Whether dead load is calculated from drawings or from site measurements, care shall be
taken to ensure that all relevant elements are included in dead load calculations.
A load factor of 1.1 shall be applied to metal components.
NOTES:
1 For example, longitudinal timber sheeting varying in depth from 50 mm to 125 mm is
provided on many timber bridges despite not being present in original drawings.
2 Care should be taken to ensure that all metal components (such as cast iron or welded steel
shoes splice plates, monorails with monorail attachments, utilities with attachments and
barriers) are included in dead load calculations.
3 A spray seal is often provided on traditional timber decks and care should be taken to ensure
the superimposed dead load from the spray seal is included in dead load calculations.

TABLE D1
LOAD FACTORS FOR TIMBER BRIDGE DESIGN

Serviceability limit Ultimate limit states (ULSs)

Type of load
state (SLS) Load reduces safety Load increases safety
Dead load (design case) 1.0 1.4 0.8
Dead load (direct measurement) 1.0 1.2 0.9
Dead load (SLT deck) 1.0 1.2 0.9
Superimposed dead load 1.0 2.0 0.0

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 AS 5100.8:2017 118

D1.3 Dynamic load allowance (DLA)

The dynamic load allowance (DLA) for timber road bridges shall be 0.25 irrespective of the
expected vehicle speed. The DLA for timber rail bridges shall be calculated in accordance
with AS 5100.2.

D2 DESIGN PARAMETERS
D2.1 Capacity reduction factors
Values of the capacity reduction factor () for calculating the design capacity of primary
and secondary structural members and structural connections shall be as given in Table D2.
NOTE: Primary structural elements are members and connections whose failure could result in
collapse of a significant portion of a structure. These include timber girders, all truss elements
and elements in piers. Secondary structural elements include members and connections whose
failure would result in a localized collapse. These include stringers (spaning between cross
girders) and decking elements.

TABLE D2
CAPACITY REDUCTION FACTORS ( )
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Secondary Primary
structural element structural element
Sawn timber F-grade F17 and higher 0.85 0.75
Round timber 0.70 0.60
Bolts or coach screws M16 and smaller 0.80 0.75
Bolts or coach screws larger than M16 0.65 0.60

D3 MODIFICATION FACTORS
D3.1 Duration of load factor (k 1 )
Values for the duration of load factor (k1) for the strength of timber shall be as follows:
(a) Permanent actions (e.g. dead load, superimposed dead load, earth pressure) ........ 0.57.
(b) Serviceability live load ........................................................................................ 0.80.
(c) Ultimate design live load (T44) ........................................................................... 0.97.
(d) Ultimate assessment live load where design vehicle is less than T44 .................... 0.94.
(e) Other ultimate actions (e.g. braking force, minimum lateral restraint, log
impact) ................................................................................................................ 1.00.
Values for k1 for the strength of joints with laterally loaded fasteners shall be as follows:
(i) Permanent actions (e.g. dead load, superimposed dead load, earth pressure) ........ 0.57.
(ii) Serviceability live load ........................................................................................ 0.69.
(iii) Ultimate live load (T44) ...................................................................................... 0.86.
(iv) Ultimate assessment live load (where design vehicle is less than T44) ................. 0.77.
(v) Other ultimate actions (e.g. braking force, minimum lateral restraint, log
impact) ................................................................................................................ 1.00.
NOTE: For any given combination of loads of differing duration, the factor k1 to be used is that
appropriate to the action that is of the shortest duration. For example, when considering ultimate
dead load plus ultimate live load (T44), the appropriate member k1 factor is 0.97.

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 119 AS 5100.8:2017

D3.2 Size factor (k 11 )

The capacity in bending and tension for sawn timber shall be modified by the size
factor (k11):
(a) For bending, k11 shall be the lesser of (300/d)0.167 or 1.
(b) For tension parallel to grain, k11 shall be the lesser of (150/d)0.167 or 1.
D3.3 Factors for bolted connections (k 16 and k17 )
k16 shall generally be taken as 1.0.
k16 may be taken as 1.2 for bolts that transfer load through two metal side plates, one on
each side of the timber, only where the bolts are a close fit to the holes in these plates, and
where metal plates are of adequate strength and stiffness to induce double curvature in the
bolt.
NOTE: Thick steel side plates can increase the capacity of a bolt in bearing on the timber by
restricting bolt rotation within the members. In order for this to be effective, the plate will need to
be thick and stiff enough to give effective bending restraint to the bolt.
Where timber shrinkage is restrained by a bolted connection, a k17 factor of 0.5 shall apply.
When using unseasoned timber, consideration shall be given to the effects of shrinkage
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especially when detailing connections. For most timbers, the magnitude of shrinkage is in
the range of 0.1% to 0.3% in the direction of the wood grain and 2% to 10% transverse to
the grain.
Connections shall be detailed, wherever possible to ensure no restraint to timber shrinkage.
NOTES:
1 Examples of poor detailing are given in Figure D1.
2 Restraint to timber shrinkage due to the detailing of bolted connections in unseasoned timber
causes splitting of timber with a loss of capacity equivalent to specifying half the number of
bolts. In addition to the loss of capacity, there is a reduction in durability of the timber as
premature splitting allows moisture ingress.

S te e l p l ate
Un s ea s o n e d t im b er m e m b er

S p lit t in g
Un s ea s o n e d t im b er m e m b er

S h r in k ag e d ir e c t i o n

T im b er m e m b er

FIGURE D1 POOR DETAILING—TIMBER SHRINKAGE RESTRAINED

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 AS 5100.8:2017 120

D3.4 Shaving factor (k 21 )

Where round timbers (such as in pier trestles or girders) are shaved on one or more faces,
the modulus of elasticity shall be reduced by 5% and a shaving factor (k21) as given in
Table D3 shall be applied.

TABLE D3
SHAVING FACTOR FOR ROUND TIMBER (k 21 )
Shaved on all faces, subject to bending 0.85
Shaved on compression face only, subject to bending 0.95
Shaved on all or any face, subject to compression parallel to grain 0.95
Shaved on all or any face, subject to compression perpendicular to grain or shear 1.00
Shaved on all or any face, subject to tension 0.85

D4 CHARACTERISTIC VALUES
The characteristic strength and stiffness properties for the design of structural timber
elements shall be taken from Table D4 for the relevant stress grade.
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TABLE D4
CHARACTERISTIC VALUES FOR TIMBER DESIGN AND ASSESSMENT (MPa)
Stress Tension parallel Compression parallel Modulus of
Bending ( fb ) Shear ( fs )
Grade to grain ( ft ) to grain ( fc ) elasticity E
F27 67 42 5.1 51 18 500
F22 55 34 4.2 42 16 000
F17 42 25 3.6 34 14 000

D5 MODULUS OF ELASTICITY
The average values for modulus of elasticity shall be as given in Table D4.
For the purposes of estimating the lower and higher fifth percentile values (necessary when
determining forces due to permanent deflections or buckling capacity), the following
expressions shall be satisfied:
E0.05 = 0.5Eaverage
E0.95 = 1.5Eaverage
NOTE: The average value includes an allowance of about 5% for shear deformation. These values
are appropriate for use in global models.

D6 DESIGN CAPACITY OF MEMBERS SUBJECT TO BENDING

D6.1 Bending capacity
For the design of members subject to bending, which are not subject to slenderness effects,
the provisions of this Paragraph shall be satisfied. This includes members of round or
square cross-section, members subject to bending about their minor axis only, and members
subject to bending about their major axis which have continuous lateral restraint to their
compression edge.

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 121 AS 5100.8:2017

The design capacity in bending shall be greater than the design action effect in bending as
follows:
Md  M* . . . D6.1(1)
where
Md = k1k11k21 f bZ . . . D6.1(2)
where
Md = design capacity in bending
*
M = design action effect in bending
 = capacity reduction factor
k1 = duration of load factor
k11 = size factor
= in accordance with Paragraph D3.2 for rectangular sections
= 1.0 for round sections
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k21 = shaving factor

= 1.0 for rectangular sections
= in accordance with Paragraph D3.4 for round sections
fb = characteristic value in bending (Paragraph D4)
Z = section modulus
= db2/6 for bending of rectangular sections about minor axis
= bd2/6 for bending of rectangular sections about major axis
= d3/32 for round sections
For elements of a timber truss consisting of an assembly of two members with permanent
bending due to fabrication, the calculation of M* shall include these permanent bending
effects and secondary bending moments due to eccentricity from axial loads shall be taken
into account in the calculation.
For such members, bending moments due to fabrication shall be calculated with three
values of E relating to the lower fifth percentile, the highest ninety-fifth percentile, and the
characteristic average in accordance with Paragraph D5.
For assessment of an existing assembly with permanent bending due to fabrication, a
reduction factor of 0.5 may be applied to the design bending moment (M*) to account for
stress relaxation of the timber.
D6.2 Flexural shear capacity
For the design of members subject to shear, the provisions of this Paragraph shall be
satisfied. In calculating the design action effect in shear (V* ), the shear effects within a
distance of 1.5 times the depth of the member from the inside face of the support shall be
disregarded.
The design capacity in shear shall be greater than the design action effect in shear as
follows:
Vd  V* . . . D6.2(1)
where
Vd = k1k21 fsAs . . . D6.2(2)

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 AS 5100.8:2017 122

where
Vd = design capacity in shear
V* = design action effect in shear
 = capacity reduction factor
k1 = duration of load factor
fs = characteristic value in shear (Paragraph D4)
As = shear plane area
= 2/3 (bd) for rectangular sections
= 3d2/16 for round sections
D6.3 Bearing capacity
The design capacity in bearing perpendicular to the grain (Nd,p) shall satisfy the following:
*
Nd,p  Np . . . D6.3(1)

where
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Nd,p = k1 f p Ap . . . D6.3(2)

where
Nd,p = design capacity in bearing perpendicular to the grain

Np* = design action effect in bearing perpendicular to the grain

 = capacity reduction factor
k1 = duration of load factor
fp =
characteristic value in bearing perpendicular to the grain, as given in
Table D5
Ap = bearing area for loading perpendicular to the grain
The design capacity in bearing parallel to the grain (Nd,l) shall satisfy the following:
Nd,l = N l* . . . D6.3(3)
where
Nd,l = k1 f lAl . . . D6.3(4)
where
Nd,l = design capacity in bearing parallel to the grain
N l* = design action effect in bearing parallel to the grain
 = capacity reduction factor
k1 = duration of load factor
fl = characteristic value in bearing parallel to the grain, as given in Table D5

Al = bearing area for loading parallel to the grain

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 123 AS 5100.8:2017

TABLE D5
CHARACTERISTIC VALUES FOR BEARING
PERPENDICULAR AND PARALLEL TO GRAIN
Strength group Perpendicular to Parallel to
(unseasoned) grain ( fp ) grain ( fl )
S1 17 51
S2 13 40
S3 10 30

D7 DESIGN CAPACITY OF MEMBERS SUBJECT TO AXIAL FORCES

D7.1 Compression capacity
For design of members subject to compression, the provisions of this Paragraph shall be
satisfied.
The design capacity in shear shall be greater than the design action effect in shear as
follows:
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Nd,c  N c* . . . D7.1(1)
where Nd,c is the lesser of:
k1 fcAc
or
Ncr
where
Nd,c = design capacity in compression
N c* = design action effect in compression
 = capacity reduction factor
k1 = duration of load factor
fc = characteristic value, compression parallel to grain (Paragraph D4)
Ac = cross-sectional area
Ncr = critical elastic buckling load of the member
The critical elastic buckling load (Ncr) of a member shall be determined using the following
equation:
 2 E0.05 I
Ncr = . . . D7.1(2)
g13 L2
where
E0.05 = lower fifth percentile modulus of elasticity (Paragraph D5)
I = second moment of area about the minor axis
= db3/12 for a rectangular section
= d4/64 for round sections
g13 = effective length factor, as given in Table D6
L = length of member in mm

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 AS 5100.8:2017 124

Alternatively, the critical elastic buckling load (Ncr) of a member or assembly may be
determined by modelling but with the lower fifth percentile value of the modulus of
elasticity used rather than the average or characteristic value. Both ends shall be modelled
as pinned.

TABLE D6
EFFECTIVE LENGTH FACTOR g 13 FOR COMPRESSION MEMBERS
Condition of end restraint g 13
Restrained at both ends in position and direction 0.70
One end fixed in position and direction, other end restrained in position only 0.85
Flat ends bearing on timber perpendicular to the grain (through cast iron shoes) 0.90
Restrained in position only 1.00

D7.2 Force on lateral restraints

In computing the load capacity of a compression member of length (L) with n intermediate
lateral restraints, the design force ( N R* ) on each lateral restraint shall be calculated using
the following equation:
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0.1N c*
N R* = h26 h27 g 38 . . . D7.2
n 1
where
N c* = design action effect in compression
n = number of equally spaced intermediate restraints
h26 = 2.0 when loads are dead loads only and timber is initially unseasoned
= 1.5 when loads are dead plus live loads and timber is initially unseasoned
h27 = 1.0 for sawn timbers
g38 = lesser of (m + 1)/2 and 5
m = number of members supported by restraint system
D7.3 Tension capacity
For the design of members subject to tension, the provisions of this Paragraph shall be
satisfied.
Nd,t = N t* . . . D7.3(1)
where
Nd,t = k1k11k21 f tAt . . . D7.3(2)
where
Nd,t = design capacity in tension
N t* = design action effect in tension
 = capacity reduction factor
k1 = duration of load factor
k11 = size factor
in accordance with Paragraph D3.2 for rectangular sections

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 125 AS 5100.8:2017

= 1.0 for round sections

k21 = shaving factor
1.0 for rectangular sections; in accordance with Paragraph D3.4 for round
sections
ft = characteristic value in tension parallel to grain, as given in Table D4
At = net cross-sectional area of tension member

D8 DESIGN CAPACITY OF MEMBERS SUBJECT TO COMBINED ACTIONS

D8.1 Combined bending and compression
The capacity of a timber member subject to combined compression and bending shall
satisfy the following:
 M y*   N c* 
    1 .0 . . . D8.1
 M d, y   N d, c 
   

For elements of a truss consisting of an assembly of two members with permanent bending
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due to fabrication (e.g. de Burgh truss verticals or Allan truss diagonals), this formula shall
be satisfied for three values of the modulus of elasticity relating to the lower fifth
percentile, the highest ninety-fifth percentile, and the characteristic average. These values
of E determined in accordance with Paragraph D5 shall be applied to bending stress and
compressive strength calculations.
D8.2 Combined bending and tension
For the design of sawn timber members subject to combined bending and tension, which are
not subject to slenderness effects, the following formula shall be satisfied:
 M *   N t* 
     1.0
 M  N  . . . D8.2
 d   d, t 

D9 DESIGN CAPACITY OF BOLTED CONNECTIONS

D9.1 General
For the purpose of connection design, connections are classified into two types as identified
in Figure D2.

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 AS 5100.8:2017 126

Fa ste n er su bj e c t
Fa ste n er su bj e c t
to te n s i o n a n d /o r
to s h ear
w i t h d r awa l
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(a) Type 1 (shear) (b) Type 2 (tension)

FIGURE D2 BOLTED CONNECTION TYPES

D9.2 Type 1 connections—Bolts subject to shear
For the design of bolted connections subject to shear, the provisions of this Paragraph shall
be satisfied. The provisions of this Paragraph apply to bolts fitted into pre-bored holes of
diameter approximately 10% greater than the bolt diameter and fitted with washers at each
end.
The design capacity in shear shall be greater than the design action effect in shear as
follows:
*
Nd,j  Nj . . . D9.2(1)

where
Nd,j = k1k16k17nb nsQ . . . D9.2(2)
where
Nd,j = design capacity in shear

N *j = design action effect in shear

 = capacity reduction factor
k1 = duration of load factor
k16 = generally 1.0 (Paragraph D3.3)
k17 = factor for multiple bolted joint (Paragraph D3.3)
nb = number of bolts resisting design action effect in shear
ns = number of shear planes through which bolt passes
Q = characteristic capacity of bolt

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 127 AS 5100.8:2017

as given in Tables D7 and D9 for bolts loaded perpendicular to grain

as given in Tables D8 and D9 for bolts loaded parallel to grain

TABLE D7
CHARACTERISTIC CAPACITY FOR BOLTS LOADED PERPENDICULAR
TO THE GRAIN (Q)—UNSEASONED TIMBER
Joint group Timber thickness M12 M16 M20 M24
50 6 600 8 800 11 000 13 200
75 9 150 13 200 16 500 19 800
J1 100 9 150 14 080 19 680 25 870
150 9 150 14 080 19 680 25 870
200 9 150 14 080 19 680 25 870
50 5 250 7 000 8 750 10 500
75 7 880 10 500 13 130 15 750
J2 100 8 730 13 440 17 500 21 000
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150 8 730 13 440 18 780 24 690

200 8 730 13 440 18 780 24 690
50 3 300 4 400 5 500 6 600
75 4 950 6 600 8 250 9 900
J3 100 6 600 8 800 11 000 13 200
150 6 860 10 560 14 760 19 400
200 6 860 10 560 14 760 19 400

TABLE D8
CHARACTERISTIC CAPACITY FOR BOLTS LOADED PARALLEL
TO THE GRAIN (Q)—UNSEASONED TIMBER

Joint group Timber thickness M12 M16 M20 M24

50 13 200 22 200 27 800 33 300
75 13 200 23 400 36 600 50 000
J1 100 13 200 23 400 36 600 52 700
150 13 200 23 400 36 600 52 700
200 13 200 23 400 36 600 52 700
50 11 100 17 600 22 000 26 400
75 11 100 19 700 30 800 39 600
J2 100 11 100 19 700 30 800 44 400
150 11 100 19 700 30 800 44 400
200 11 100 19 700 30 800 44 400
50 10 200 14 200 17 800 21 300
75 10 200 18 200 26 600 32 000
J3 100 10 200 18 200 28 400 40 900
150 10 200 18 200 28 400 40 900
200 10 200 18 200 28 400 40 900

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 AS 5100.8:2017 128

D9.3 Type 2 connections—Bolts subject to tension

For the design of bolted connections subject to tension, the provisions of this Paragraph
shall be satisfied. The provisions of this Paragraph are applicable to bolts fitted into pre-
bored holes of diameter approximately 10% greater than the bolt diameter and fitted with
washers at each end.
In addition to checking the tensile capacity of the bolt in accordance with AS/NZS 5100.6,
the possibility of crushing of the timber under the washer shall be determined using the
following equation:
*
Nd,j  Nj . . . D9.3(1)

where
Nd,j = k1 n b f pj Aw . . . D9.3(2)

where
Nd,j = design capacity in tension

N *j = design action effect in tension

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 = capacity reduction factor

k1 = duration of load factor
nb = number of bolts resisting design action effect in tension
f pj = characteristic bearing capacity for timber in joints
= 22.0 for joint group 1 (see Table D9)
= 17.5 for joint group 2 (see Table D9)
= 11.0 for joint group 3 (see Table D9)
Aw = effective area of washer for bearing = 1/3  area of washer
Strength group, joint group and durability class for common timber truss species are given
in Table D9.

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 129 AS 5100.8:2017

TABLE D9
STRENGTH GROUP, JOINT GROUP AND DURABILITY CLASS FOR VARIOUS
SPECIES
Strength Natural in-ground
Common name Botanical names Joint group
group durability class
Brown bloodwood Corymbia trachyphloia S3 1 J2
Coast grey box or Bosisto’s box Eucalyptus bosistoana S1 1 J2
Coastal blackbutt (free of heart) Eucalyptus pilularis S2 2 J2
Forest red gum Eucalyptus tereticornis S3 1 J2
Grey box or Gum-topped box Eucalyptus microcarpa S2 1 J1
Eucalyptus hemiphloia
Eucalyptus woolsiana
Eucalyptus moluccana
Grey gum Eucalyptus propinqua S1 1 J2
Eucalyptus punctata
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Grey ironbark Eucalyptus paniculata S1 1 J1

Eucalyptus siderophloia
Gympie messmate Eucalyptus cloeziana S2 1 J2
Red bloodwood Corymbia gummifera S3 1 J2
Red ironbark (broad-leaved) Eucalyptus fibrosa S1 1 J2
Red ironbark (narrow-leaved) Eucalyptus crebra S2 1 J1
Red ironbark Eucalyptus sideroxylon S2 1 J2
Red mahogany Eucalyptus resinifera S2 2 J1
Spotted gum Corymbia maculata S2 2 J2
Corymbia citriodora
Corymbia henryi
Steel box Eucalyptus rummeryi S2 1 J2
Tallowwood Eucalyptus microcorys S2 1 J1
Turpentine Syncarpia glomulifera S3 J2
White mahogany Eucalyptus acmenoides S2 1 J2
White stringybark Eucalyptus eugenioides S3 3 J2
White stringybark Eucalyptus globoidea S3 2 J2
White topped box Eucalyptus S2 2 J2
quadrangulata
Woollybutt Eucalyptus longifolia S2 1 J2
Yellow box Eucalyptus melliodora S3 1 J2
Yellow stringybark Eucalyptus muellerana S3 3 J2

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 AS 5100.8:2017 130

APPENDIX E
BRIDGE SPECIFIC ASSESSMENT LIVE LOADING (BSALL)
(Informative)

E1 GENERAL
Where the relevant authority agrees to the adoption of a BSALL, provision should be made
to take account of any future changes of traffic patterns by regular comparison surveys, at
intervals not exceeding 2 years (or as stipulated by the relevant authority) from the date of
the original traffic survey. Allowance should also be made for any changes in traffic
patterns caused by re-routing or disruptions due to major bridge or highway maintenance
works in the locality.
Collection of traffic loading data and the determination of the BSALL should be the
responsibility of the relevant authority. As a minimum, the following criteria should be
used in the determination of the BSALL:
(a) Traffic surveys should take place over a minimum three month period and establish
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the following:
(i) The frequency distribution of each vehicle type (including light goods vehicles
and cars), for each traffic lane and for each hour.
(ii) The traffic flow rates within each lane for each hour of the day.
(iii) The gross vehicle axle weights and the vehicle overall length.
(iv) Queue formation and lane selection details in traffic jam situations.
(b) Automatic data collection using WIM (weigh in motion) equipment may be used to
determine vehicle lengths and axle weights. Alternatively, manual counts may be
used in conjunction with a weighbridge static survey and/or a related database of
vehicle dimensions and axle weights.
(c) Probability methods such as those referred to in UK, TRRL Contractor Report 16,
should be applied to the traffic survey data to determine the characteristic BSALL, in
excess of a 50 m loaded length, for the particular bridge site, which should have a 5%
probability of occurrence in a period of 100 years. The nominal BSALL should be
derived from the characteristic loading by dividing it by a factor of 1.2.
NOTE: For loaded lengths in excess of 50 m the effects of crowding vehicles into a lane (lateral
bunching factor) or dynamic impact (impact factor) need not normally be considered. The effects
for any overloaded vehicles (overload factor) will normally be contained within the survey
statistics.

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 131 AS 5100.8:2017

APPENDIX F
TIMBER STRUCTURES—TYPES OF REPAIRS AND STRENGTHENING
WORKS
(Informative)

F1 GENERAL
This Appendix provides guidance for the implementation of repairs and strengthening
works for timber structures.
F1.1 Remedial and temporary repairs
F1.1.1 Splicing of timber piles
While splices can provide a solution to local deterioration of timber piles, splices should
not be applied to too many piles in the same structure, especially near ground level.
Splicing should be limited to not more than 1 in 4 piles in a group, unless a detailed
engineering assessment of the overall substructure is carried out.
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Typically, deterioration of piles occurs at or near ground level where both moisture and
oxygen are abundant. Without oxygen, the potential for deterioration is low. Splices in piles
should be located a minimum of 1.2 m below ground level and ideally below a permanent
water table. Splicing will generally be more durable in low permeability soil than granular
soil.
The interface should be liberally coated with a gel or grease type remedial preservative and
wrapped with a geotextile fabric, to help contain the treatment, and secured with galvanized
steel plates and bolts.
NOTE: Driven timber piles not only provide resistance to vertical loads, but also provide lateral
resistance to horizontal loads caused by flooding, vehicle braking and earth pressure at
abutments. A spliced pile generally provides very little resistance to bending, so if too many piles
are spliced then the integrity of the structure can be seriously affected.
F1.1.2 Additional girders
Two additional girders may be installed directly adjacent to a damaged or under-strength
member (one on each side). It is important to provide additional girders on both sides so
that the correct load distribution between the girders in the span is maintained.
F1.1.3 Concrete overlay
Due to uncertainties in long-term composite action between overlays and timber decks,
concrete overlays are not considered to contribute to strength or stiffness in the longitudinal
direction, and should be ignored in-strength calculations for the timber girders; however,
they improve the transverse distribution of load, and therefore should be modelled in the
transverse direction in the grillage model. Concrete overlays are considered structural when
assessing the local effects of the transverse timber decking. Early concrete overlays were
designed as thin, flexible running surfaces providing a weatherproof cover to the timber
deck. Consequently, many of the overlays carried out in the early 1970s are now failing,
having badly cracked due to timber flexibility under traffic loading, and are leaking water.
Concrete overlays designed today are thicker and contain more steel reinforcement than the
earlier overlays. With increasing guardrail requirements, another important consideration
for the concrete overlay is to provide adequate connection for a guardrail appropriate to the
current Standards.

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 AS 5100.8:2017 132

F1.2 Protection of timber members

F1.2.1 Flashing
Flashing provides direct moisture protection for timber components and can considerably
improve the longevity of timber in exposed conditions. The primary applications should be
on the top of exposed horizontal surfaces and the tops or ends of vertical members. When
detailing and installing flashing on a timber structure, the following should be considered:
(a) Flashing should not allow entry of direct moisture to the surface it is protecting
except for under extreme weather conditions.
(b) Flashing should not be perforated by holes or such holes should be sealed properly.
(c) Flashing should be raised above the member to allow for air circulation to prevent
condensation and promote drying in case moisture gains access.
(d) Alternatively, flashing should be completely sealed against the timber with a thick
layer of gel or grease type remedial preservative.
(e) Flashing should be easily removable for inspection and retreatment of members.
F1.2.2 Preservative protection
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Preservative should be applied to the ends of all members as well as between components
and other hidden areas that attract moisture. Bolt holes should be treated using the bolt
itself as an applicator, with a gel or grease type remedial preservative to fill the void around
the bolt. The timber surface under any flashing should be treated to provide an additional
barrier to insect attack.
F1.3 Rehabilitation and component replacement
F1.3.1 Timber concrete composite decks
The timber concrete composite (TCC) system may be used to replace deteriorated timber
girder superstructures of spans up to 12 m. These are built in panels with each panel having
two round timber girders which are made semi-composite with a concrete deck by steel
shear connectors. Generally the TCC decks do not have a wearing surface applied and the
vehicles travel directly on the concrete. These modules should, in effect, be treated as
disposable units, as there is little that can be done to repair them once they lose strength
through damage or deterioration. The timber girders cannot be replaced, nor can the shear
connection between the components be properly reinstated.
F1.3.2 Replacement of timber piers
Typically, deterioration of timber piles occurs at or near ground level where both moisture
and oxygen are abundant. It is possible to increase substantially the durability of a timber
pier by providing a concrete pile cap below ground level, which extends at least 300 mm
above ground level, with a timber trestle pier founded on top of the concrete pile cap.
The connection between the concrete and the timber at the base of the pier is not capable of
taking substantial bending moments, and so this solution should be limited to those bridges
with four or less spans, which are not subjected to high flood or debris loading, and where
both abutments have sufficient capacity to take all forces due to braking loads.

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 133 AS 5100.8:2017

F1.3.3 Stress laminated timber decks

The stress laminated timber (SLT) system uses 35 mm to 45 mm thick timber laminates of
widths from 140 mm to 290 mm (and wider where manufactured wood products are
utilized). These laminates are oriented on edge (upright) and stressed together using high
strength bars or prestressing strands to form a solid structural slab. The SLT decks require
both a waterproofing system as well as a wearing surface. Since the SLT system provides a
strong structural slab, these decks can support any bitumen-based wearing surface without
cracking. For spans up to 8 m, the SLT deck system generally represents a reduction in
overall dead load as the deck replaces the stringers, decking and sheeting.
F1.3.4 Replacement of members
There are two practical methods of strengthening and upgrading existing timber girder
bridges and deck systems using a similar structural arrangement. The size of the girders
may be increased or additional girders added. In most cases, obtaining larger girders is
becoming more difficult. Therefore, in a bridge where the existing girders are sound,
additional girders should be added between the existing members to strengthen the
superstructure. If there is variability in the sizes of the timber girders, a proper engineering
evaluation has to be performed as the load carried by the girders is related to their stiffness.
All timber components should be ordered by specifying the size, strength grade, seasoning
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requirements (green, 12 months air-dried or kiln-dried) and durability class. If unseasoned

or air-dried timber is ordered, a larger size has to be specified (add 5%) to cover shrinkage
of the timber as it seasons with time.

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 AS 5100.8:2017 134

BIBLIOGRAPHY

AS
HB 84 Guide to Concrete Repair and Protection
HB 305 Design handbook for RC structures retrofitted with FRP and metal plates:
beams and slabs
AS/NZS
2041 Buried corrugated metal structures
2041.2 Part 2: Installation
2312 Guide to the protection of structural steel against atmospheric corrosion by the
use of protective coatings
2312.1 Part 1: Paint coatings
2312.2 Part 2: Hot dip galvanizing
2566 Buried flexible pipelines
2566.1 Part 1: Structural design
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2566.2 Part 2: Installation

ASTM G57 Standard Test Method for Field Measurement of Soil Resistivity Using the
Wenner Four-Electrode Method
EN
1504 Products and systems for protection and repair of concrete structures (series)
Austroads
AP-R405-12 Design Rules for Bridge Bearings and Expansion Joints
ICRI International Concrete Repair Institute
Technical Guideline No. 310.2R-2013, Specifying Concrete Surface Preparation for
Sealers, Coatings, Polymer Overlays, and Concrete Repair
Main Roads Western Australia
WA 620.1—2012 Test Method—Carbonation of Concrete
TRRL Transport and Road Research Laboratory
Contractor Report 16
TR55 Design guidance for strengthening concrete structures using fibre composite
materials, British Concrete Society, 2000
AASHTO Guide Specifications for Design of Bonded FRP Systems for Repair and
Strengthening of Concrete Bridge Elements, 2012
ACI 440.2R-08 Guide for the Design and Construction of Externally Bonded FRP
Systems for Strengthening Concrete Structures, American Concrete
Institute, 2012

 Standards Australia www.standards.org.au

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135

NOTES
AS 5100.8:2017
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AS 5100.8:2017
136

NOTES
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