Calculus - MA2023 - 2019 Batch – University of Moratuwa

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publications. They may be distributed outside this class only with the permission of the
Instructor. Notes may be updated periodically with new ideas, suggestions from students etc.

1 Vector-Valued Functions

1.1 Introduction to Vector-Valued Functions

Definition 1.1.1: A parametric equation is a group of quantities as functions of one or
more independent variables, called parameters.

Example 1.1.1: Consider the equation 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 in 2-space. This can be converted to parametric
form as
𝑥 = 𝑡 , 𝑦 = 𝑡2 .

Of course, this is a trivial example, but it is good as a starting point.

Example 1.1.2: Consider the circle with radius 𝑟 in 2-space, 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 = 𝑟 2. This can be
converted to parametric form as
𝑥 = 𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝜃) , 𝑦 = 𝑟 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝜃) .

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Dr. Supem Samarasiri, Department of Mathematics, University of Moratuwa, Sri Lanka
 Calculus - MA2023 - 2019 Batch – University of Moratuwa

Example 1.1.3: Circular helix in 3-space can be expressed in parametric form as

𝑥 = 𝑎 cos(𝑡) , 𝑦 = 𝑎 sin(𝑡) , 𝑧 = 𝑐𝑡 .

Example 1.1.4: Tricuspoid 𝑥 = 2 cos(𝑡) + cos(2𝑡) , 𝑦 = 2 sin(𝑡) − sin(2𝑡).

Definition 1.1.2:
Let 𝐫(𝑡) = (𝑥(𝑡), 𝑦(𝑡), 𝑧(𝑡)) = 𝑥(𝑡)𝐢 + 𝑦(𝑡)𝐣 + 𝑧(𝑡)𝐤 ; for all 𝑡. Then we say that 𝐫 is
a vector-valued function and the real valued functions 𝑥(𝑡) , 𝑦(𝑡) and 𝑧(𝑡) are called
components of 𝐫(𝑡). Here 𝑡 is a real parameter.

Example 1.1.5: The circular helix mentioned in example 1.1.3 can be expressed as the vector-
valued function
𝐫(𝑡) = (𝑎 cos(𝑡) , 𝑎 sin(𝑡) , 𝑐𝑡) ; for all 𝑡 ≥ 0.

Example 1.1.6: Find the natural domain of 𝐫(𝑡) = ( ln|𝑡 − 1| , 𝑒 𝑡 , √𝑡 ).

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Dr. Supem Samarasiri, Department of Mathematics, University of Moratuwa, Sri Lanka
 Calculus - MA2023 - 2019 Batch – University of Moratuwa

1.2 Calculus of Vector-Valued Functions

Definition 1.2.1: Let 𝑓 be a real-valued function defined on the real line and let 𝑎 , 𝐿 ∈ ℝ. We
say that the limit of 𝑓(𝑥), as 𝑥 approaches 𝑎, is 𝐿 and write lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝐿 if and only if
𝑥→𝑎
For every 𝜖 > 0 , there exists a 𝛿 > 0 such that for every 𝑥 ∈ ℝ ,
0 < |𝑥 − 𝑎| < 𝛿 𝑖𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑒𝑠 |𝑓(𝑥) − 𝐿| < 𝜖 .

A similar definition can be motivated for vector-valued functions as well.

Definition 1.2.2: Let 𝐫 be a vector-valued function and let 𝑎 ∈ ℝ , 𝐋 ∈ ℝ3 . We say that the limit
of 𝐫(𝑡), as 𝑡 approaches 𝑎, is 𝐋 and write lim 𝐫(𝑡) = 𝐋 if and only if
𝑡→𝑎
For every 𝜖 > 0 , there exists a 𝛿 > 0 such that for every 𝑡 ,
0 < |𝑡 − 𝑎| < 𝛿 𝑖𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑒𝑠 ||𝐫(𝑡) − 𝐋|| < 𝜖 .

Theorem 1.2.1:
Let 𝐫(𝑡) = (𝑥(𝑡), 𝑦(𝑡), 𝑧(𝑡)); for all 𝑡 and let 𝑎 ∈ ℝ, 𝐋 = (𝐿1 , 𝐿2 , 𝐿3 ) ∈ ℝ3 . Then
lim 𝐫(𝑡) = 𝐋 = (𝐿1 , 𝐿2 , 𝐿3 ) iff lim 𝑥(𝑡) = 𝐿1 , lim 𝑦(𝑡) = 𝐿2 and lim 𝑧(𝑡) = 𝐿3 , in which
𝑡→𝑎 𝑡→𝑎 𝑡→𝑎 𝑡→𝑎
case lim 𝐫(𝑡) = 𝐋 = (𝐿1 , 𝐿2 , 𝐿3 ) = ( lim 𝑥(𝑡) , lim 𝑦(𝑡) , lim 𝑧(𝑡) ).
𝑡→𝑎 𝑡→𝑎 𝑡→𝑎 𝑡→𝑎

Proof: Will be done in class.

So, Theorem 1.2.1 shows us that limits of vector-valued functions, when exists, can be evaluated
in a component-wise fashion and since components are real-valued functions we can apply
whatever theorems you proved in MA1013/1023 course when handling those limits of real
valued functions.

Theorem 1.2.2: Let 𝐅 and 𝐆 be two vector-valued functions and let ℎ be a real-valued function
such that all three functions have limits as 𝑡 → 𝑎 ∈ ℝ. Then
a) lim[ 𝐅(𝑡) + 𝐆(𝑡)] = lim 𝐅(𝑡) + lim 𝐆(𝑡) ,
𝑡→𝑎 𝑡→𝑎 𝑡→𝑎
b) lim[ 𝐅(𝑡) − 𝐆(𝑡)] = lim 𝐅(𝑡) − lim 𝐆(𝑡)
𝑡→𝑎 𝑡→𝑎 𝑡→𝑎
c) lim[ ℎ(𝑡)𝐅(𝑡)] = [lim ℎ(𝑡)] [lim 𝐅(𝑡)] ,
𝑡→𝑎 𝑡→𝑎 𝑡→𝑎
d) lim[ 𝐅(𝑡) ⋅ 𝐆(𝑡)] = [lim 𝐅(𝑡)] ⋅ [lim 𝐆(𝑡)] and
𝑡→𝑎 𝑡→𝑎 𝑡→𝑎
e) lim[ 𝐅(𝑡) × 𝐆(𝑡)] = [lim 𝐅(𝑡)] × [lim 𝐆(𝑡)] .
𝑡→𝑎 𝑡→𝑎 𝑡→𝑎

Proof: part (a) will be done in class. Rest will be exercises.

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Dr. Supem Samarasiri, Department of Mathematics, University of Moratuwa, Sri Lanka
 Calculus - MA2023 - 2019 Batch – University of Moratuwa

Definition 1.2.3: A vector function 𝐫 is said to be continuous at 𝑎 ∈ ℝ iff 𝑎 is in the domain of 𝐫

and lim 𝐫(𝑡) = 𝐫(𝑎).
𝑡→𝑎

Theorem 1.2.3: A vector function 𝐫 is continuous at 𝑎 ∈ ℝ iff each component function (real-
valued) is continuous at 𝑎.
Proof: Will be done in class.

Definition 1.2.4: If 𝐫 is a vector-valued function, we define the derivative of 𝐫 to be the vector-

valued function 𝐫′ given by
𝐫(𝑡+ℎ)−𝐫(𝑡)
𝐫′(𝑡)= lim ; for all 𝑡 at which the limit exists.
ℎ→0 ℎ

Note that the domain of 𝐫′ consists of all values in the domain of 𝐫 for which the above limit
exists.

Theorem 1.2.4: If 𝐫 is a vector-valued function, then 𝐫 is differentiable at 𝑡 if and only

if each of its component functions is differentiable at 𝑡, in which case the component
functions of 𝐫′ are the derivatives of the corresponding component functions of 𝐫.
Proof:

Theorem 1.2.5: Rules of Differentiation.

Let 𝐫, 𝐫𝟏 and 𝐫𝟐 be differentiable vector-valued functions that are all in 2-space or
3-space and let 𝑓(𝑡) be a differentiable real-valued function, 𝑘 a scalar, and 𝐜 a constant
vector. Then the following rules of differentiation hold:
𝑑
a) [𝐜] = 𝟎 ,
𝑑𝑡
𝑑 𝑑
b) [𝑘𝐫(𝑡) ] = 𝑘 [𝐫(𝑡)],
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑑 𝑑 𝑑
c) [𝐫𝟏 (𝑡) + 𝐫𝟐 (𝑡) ] = 𝑑𝑡 [𝐫𝟏 (𝑡)] + 𝑑𝑡 [𝐫𝟐 (𝑡)],
𝑑𝑡
𝑑 𝑑 𝑑
d) [𝐫𝟏 (𝑡) − 𝐫𝟐 (𝑡) ] = 𝑑𝑡 [𝐫𝟏 (𝑡)] − 𝑑𝑡 [𝐫𝟐 (𝑡)],
𝑑𝑡
𝑑 𝑑 𝑑
e) [𝑓(𝑡) 𝐫(𝑡) ] = 𝑓(𝑡) 𝑑𝑡 [𝐫(𝑡)] + 𝑑𝑡 [𝑓(𝑡)] 𝐫(𝑡).
𝑑𝑡

Proof:

4
Dr. Supem Samarasiri, Department of Mathematics, University of Moratuwa, Sri Lanka
 Calculus - MA2023 - 2019 Batch – University of Moratuwa

Definition 1.2.5: Let P be a point on the graph of a vector-valued function 𝐫, and let
𝐫(𝑡0 ) be a vector from the origin to P. If 𝐫′(𝑡0 ) exists and 𝐫′(𝑡0 ) ≠ 0, then we call 𝐫′(𝑡0 ) a
tangent vector to the graph of 𝐫 at 𝐫(𝑡0 ), and we call the line through P that is parallel
to the tangent vector the tangent line to the graph of 𝐫 at 𝐫(𝑡0 ).

Examples:
1. Find a tangent vector at the point 𝑃0 where 𝑡 = 0.2 on the graph of the vector function
𝐅(𝑡) = (𝑒 2𝑡 , 𝑡 2 − 𝑡, 𝑙𝑛𝑡).

2. Let 𝐫𝟏 (𝑡) = (tan−1 𝑡 )𝐢 + (sin 𝑡)𝐣 + 𝑡 2 𝐤

and
𝐫𝟐 (𝑡) = (𝑡 2 − 𝑡)𝐢 + (2𝑡 − 2)𝐣 + (ln 𝑡)𝐤.
The graph of 𝐫𝟏 and 𝐫𝟐 intersect at the origin. Find the degree measure of the acute angle
between the tangent lines to the graphs of 𝐫𝟏 and 𝐫𝟐 at the origin.

Theorem 1.2.6: Let 𝐫𝟏 and 𝐫𝟐 be two differentiable vector-valued functions. Then

𝑑 𝑑𝐫𝟐 (𝑡) 𝑑𝐫𝟏 (𝑡)

[𝐫 (𝑡) ⋅ 𝐫𝟐 (𝑡)]= 𝐫𝟏 (𝑡) ⋅ + ⋅ 𝐫𝟐 (𝑡)
𝑑𝑡 𝟏 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡

𝑑 𝑑𝐫𝟐 (𝑡) 𝑑𝐫𝟏 (𝑡)

[𝐫 (𝑡) × 𝐫𝟐 (𝑡)]= 𝐫𝟏 (𝑡) × + × 𝐫𝟐 (𝑡).
𝑑𝑡 𝟏 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡

Theorem 1.2.7: If 𝐫 is a differentiable vector-valued function and ‖𝐫(𝑡)‖ is constant

for all 𝑡, then
𝐫(𝑡) · 𝐫′(𝑡) = 0 ; ∀ 𝑡.

That is, 𝐫(𝑡) and 𝐫′(𝑡) are orthogonal vectors for all t.
Proof: Homework.

5
Dr. Supem Samarasiri, Department of Mathematics, University of Moratuwa, Sri Lanka
 Calculus - MA2023 - 2019 Batch – University of Moratuwa

Definition 1.2.6: Let r(t) = 𝑥(𝑡)i + 𝑦(𝑡) 𝐣 + 𝑧(𝑡)k be a vector-valued function in 3-space
that is continuous on the interval 𝑎 ≤ 𝑡 ≤ 𝑏, then the definite integral of 𝐫 over this
interval be defined as:
𝑏 𝑏 𝑏 𝑏

∫ 𝐫(𝑡)𝑑𝑡 = (∫ 𝑥(𝑡) 𝑑𝑡) 𝐢 + (∫ 𝑦(𝑡) 𝑑𝑡) 𝐣 + (∫ 𝑧(𝑡) 𝑑𝑡) 𝐤 .

𝑎 𝑎 𝑎 𝑎

Theorem 1.2.8: Let 𝐫(𝑡), 𝐫𝟏 (𝑡), 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐫𝟐 (𝑡) be vector-valued functions that are continuous
on the interval 𝑎 ≤ 𝑡 ≤ 𝑏, and let 𝑘 be a scalar. Then the following rules of integration
hold:
𝑏 𝑏
a) ∫𝑎 𝑘 𝐫(𝑡)𝑑𝑡 = 𝑘 ∫𝑎 𝐫(𝑡)𝑑𝑡
𝑏 𝑏 𝑏
b) ∫𝑎 [𝐫𝟏 (𝑡) + 𝐫𝟐 (𝑡)] 𝑑𝑡 = ∫𝑎 𝐫𝟏 (𝑡)𝑑𝑡 + ∫𝑎 𝐫𝟐 (𝑡)𝑑𝑡
𝑏 𝑏 𝑏
c) ∫𝑎 [𝐫𝟏 (𝑡) − 𝐫𝟐 (𝑡)] 𝑑𝑡 = ∫𝑎 𝐫𝟏 (𝑡)𝑑𝑡 − ∫𝑎 𝐫𝟐 (𝑡)𝑑𝑡

6
Dr. Supem Samarasiri, Department of Mathematics, University of Moratuwa, Sri Lanka