Chapter 20

Reproduction
Bin Yameen Chohan
Mehran Coaching Academy of Science and English Language
(MCASEL)

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 Introduction to Reproduction
❑Living things come from other living things, continuing life.
❑Older ones are called parents, and newly formed ones are progeny.
❑Reproduction:
▪ Process by which living things produce more of their kind.
▪ Vital for the organism’s life and essential for the continuity of its race.
▪ Ensures the transmission of genetic information from one generation to
the next.

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 Types of Reproduction
❑Asexual Reproduction
▪ Primitive method involving only one
parent.
▪ No participation of mate, gamete,
or fertilization.
▪ Offspring are exact copies of the
parent with no variations.

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 Types of Reproduction
❑Sexual Reproduction
▪ Involves sex cells (gametes).
▪ Male gamete (sperm) fuses
with a female gamete (ovum)
to form a zygote.
▪ Leads to genetic diversity and
adaptability.
▪ Involves specialized
reproductive cells.

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 Human Reproductive System
▪ A complex network of organs and
tissues facilitating reproduction.
▪ Humans are unisexual (dioecious
or heterogametic).
▪ Males have testes
▪ Females have ovaries.
▪ Male reproductive system
generates and delivers sperm.
▪ Female reproductive system
produces, prepares, and supports
fertilization and fetal
development.
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 Male Reproductive System
❑Components:
▪ Internal Genitalia:
▪ Paired gonads (testes) produce
sperm and male sex hormones.
▪ Accessory structures produce
secretions to activate and
nourish sperm.
▪ External Genitalia:
▪ Penis and scrotum.

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 Male Reproductive System
❑Gonads (Testes):
▪ Produce sperm and male hormones.
▪ Located in the scrotum, outside the
abdomen.
▪ Scrotum maintains optimal
temperature for sperm development
(34°C).
▪ Composed of seminiferous tubules
where sperm are formed.
➢Spermatogenesis:
▪ Process of sperm production in
seminiferous tubules.
▪ Involves Sertoli cells for sperm
production. 7
 Accessory Ducts
❑Epididymis:
▪ Sperm mature and are stored here
after production.
▪ Connected to seminiferous tubules
via rete testis and efferent ducts.

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 Accessory Ducts
❑Ductus Deferens (Vas
Deferens):
▪ Thick-walled tube carrying sperm
from the epididymis to the
ejaculatory duct.
▪ Contains an ampulla that serves as
a reservoir.
❑Ejaculatory Duct:
▪ Formed by the union of the ductus
deferens and seminal vesicle duct.
▪ Transfers sperm and seminal fluid
to the urethra.
❑Urinogenital Duct:
▪ Common tube for both urinary
and reproductive discharge. 9
 External Genitalia
❑Penis
▪ Glans (Head/Tip of Penis)
▪ Very sensitive
▪ Contains the opening of the urethra
▪ May be covered by foreskin in some
men
▪ Shaft
▪ Contains layers of erectile tissues
▪ Root
▪ Attaches the penis to the pelvic area

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 External Genitalia

❑Scrotum
▪ Protects the testes
▪ Maintains temperature several degrees
below normal body temperature

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 Accessory Glands
❑Seminal Vesicles
▪ Contribute ~60% of total semen volume
❑Prostate Gland
▪ Largest semen-producing gland
▪ Secretes products directly into the urethra
❑Bulbourethral Glands
▪ Small glands along the urethra below the
prostate
▪ Secrete clear mucus before ejaculation
to neutralize acidic urine
❑Semen
▪ Average volume per ejaculation: 2-5 ml
▪ Contains 200 to 300 million sperms

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13
 Spermatogenesis
❑Process Overview
▪ Takes place in the seminiferous tubules
within the testes

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 Stages of Spermatogenesis
❑Spermatogonia (2n)
▪ Undifferentiated germ cells
▪ Undergo mitosis to produce
identical daughter cells
▪ Transform into primary
spermatocytes (2n) triggered by
hormonal signals

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 Stages of Spermatogenesis
❑Meiosis I
▪ Primary spermatocytes undergo
DNA replication
▪ Divide into secondary
spermatocytes (n)
▪ Reduces chromosome number
by half, ensuring genetic
diversity

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 Stages of Spermatogenesis
❑Meiosis II
▪ Secondary spermatocytes divide
further
▪ Yield four haploid spermatids (n)
▪ Each spermatid contains half the
original chromosome number

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 Spermiogenesis
❑Transformation of spermatids into
mature sperm cells
▪ Reshaping of the nucleus
▪ Formation of the acrosome
▪ Contains enzymes crucial for
fertilization
▪ Development of the flagellum
▪ Enables sperm motility
▪ Mature sperm cells
(spermatozoa) released into the
lumen of seminiferous tubules
❑Epididymis
▪ Sperm cells acquire swimming
ability and maturity necessary for
fertilization
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 Hormonal Regulation in Males
❑Overview
▪ The male reproductive system is
regulated by several hormones:
▪ Testosterone
▪ Follicle-Stimulating Hormone
(FSH)
▪ Luteinizing Hormone (LH)
▪ Inhibin
▪ Gonadotropin-Releasing
Hormone (GnRH)

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Key Hormones and
Their
❑Testosterone
Roles
▪ Primary male sex hormone
▪ Produced by the testes
▪ Functions:
▪ Development and
maintenance of male
reproductive tissues (testes,
prostate gland, seminal
vesicles)
▪ Development of male
secondary sexual
characteristics (facial/body
hair, deep voice, muscle
mass)
▪ Stimulates sperm
production 20
 Key Hormones and
Their Roles
❑Follicle-Stimulating Hormone (FSH)
▪ Produced by the pituitary gland
▪ Acts on the testes
▪ Functions:
▪ Promotes development and
maturation of sperm cells in
seminiferous tubules
▪ Stimulates production of proteins
essential for sperm production

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 Key Hormones and
Their Roles
❑Inhibin
▪ Peptide hormone
▪ Released from Sertoli cells of
the testes
▪ Functions:
▪ Inhibits secretion of FSH

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 Key Hormones and
Their Roles
❑Luteinizing Hormone (LH)
▪ Produced by the pituitary gland
▪ Acts on the testes
▪ Functions:
▪ Stimulates production of
testosterone by Leydig cells in the
testes
▪ Triggers release of testosterone
into the bloodstream

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Key Hormones and
Their Roles
❑Gonadotropin-Releasing
Hormone (GnRH)
▪ Produced by the hypothalamus
▪ Functions:
▪ Stimulates the release of FSH
and LH from the anterior
pituitary gland

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 Female Reproductive System
❑Overview
▪ Comprises four main parts:
▪ Ovaries
▪ Oviducts (Fallopian tubes)
▪ Uterus
▪ Vagina

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 Gonads
(Ovaries)
❑Location:
▪ Lie in the abdominal cavity,
nearby the uterus
❑Structure:
▪ Enclosed in a tough protective
capsule
▪ Contains many follicles

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 Gonads
(Ovaries)
❑Follicles:
▪ Each follicle consists of one egg cell surrounded by follicle cells
▪ Nourish and protect the developing egg cell
▪ Female ovaries contain ~200,000 follicles
▪ Only several hundred follicles will release egg cells during reproductive
years

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 Gonads
(Ovaries)
❑Function:
▪ Produce female sex hormone, estrogen
▪ Release one egg cell per menstrual cycle from puberty to menopause

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 Oviducts
(Fallopian Tubes/Uterine Tubes)
❑Structure:
▪ Begin at the open end with ciliated
"fingers" called fimbriae
▪ Inner epithelial linings have cilia
❑Function:
▪ Fertilization typically occurs here
▪ Carry eggs from the ovary to the
uterus
▪ Each oviduct is ~10 cm long

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 Uterus
❑Location:
▪ Muscular organ located between the
bladder and the rectum

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 Uterus
❑Structure:
▪ Regions:
▪ Fundus
▪ Body (Main portion, extends
below the fallopian tubes)
▪ Cervix (Lowest section, opens
into the vagina)

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 Uterus
▪ Uterine Wall Layers:
▪ Endometrium:
▪ Inner epithelial layer with mucous
membrane, richly supplied with
blood vessels
▪ Myometrium:
▪ Middle muscular layer
▪ Perimetrium:
▪ Outermost thin layer covering the
uterus

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 Uterus
❑Function:
▪ Supports fetal development
during pregnancy

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 Cervix
❑Cervix:
▪ provides passage between the
vaginal cavity and uterine cavity.

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 Vagina
❑Structure:
▪ Muscular tube
❑Function:
▪ Receives sperm
▪ Serves as the birth canal for
the delivery of the fetus

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 Summary of Functions
❑Ovaries:
▪ Produce eggs and sex hormones
❑Oviducts (Fallopian Tubes):
▪ Conduct eggs
▪ Site of fertilization
❑Uterus (Womb):
▪ Houses the developing embryo and fetus
❑Vagina:
▪ Receives sperm and serves as the birth
canal
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 Ovarian Cycle
❑Overview
▪ Human females undergo an ovarian cycle, not a seasonal estrous cycle.
▪ One egg is released from an ovary approximately every 28 days.

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 Stages of the Ovarian Cycle
❑Primary Follicle:
▪ Contains a primary
oocyte enveloped by
epithelial cells.
❑Secondary Follicle:
▪ Characterized by
follicular fluid pools
surrounding the oocyte.
❑Vesicular (Graafian)
Follicle:
▪ Contains a cavity filled
with fluid.
▪ The follicle wall
protrudes outwardly on
the surface of the ovary.
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 Stages of the Ovarian Cycle
❑Ovulation:
▪ The oocyte is released from
the Graafian follicle.
❑Corpus Luteum
Development:
▪ The ruptured follicle
transforms into the corpus
luteum.
❑Corpus Luteum
Degeneration:
▪ If fertilization does not occur,
the corpus luteum
degenerates.
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 Regulation
❑Hormones Involved:
▪ Follicle-Stimulating Hormone (FSH)
▪ Luteinizing Hormone (LH)
▪ Secreted by the anterior pituitary
gland

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 Oogenesis
❑Process Overview
▪ Formation of ova (eggs) from germ cells in the ovaries.

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Stages of Oogenesis
❑Fetal Period:
▪ Germ cells divide mitotically
to form oogonia (2n).
▪ Oogonia develop into primary
oocytes (2n).

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Stages of Oogenesis
❑Childhood:
▪ Primary oocytes remain
arrested in development.

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Stages of Oogenesis
❑Puberty to Menopause:
1. Each month, meiosis I is completed
by one primary oocyte.
2. First Meiotic Division:
▪ Forms a larger secondary oocyte (n) and
a smaller polar body (n).
3. Ovulation:
▪ Expulsion of the secondary oocyte
occurs with the rupture of the Graafian
follicle.
▪ The secondary oocyte travels to the
oviduct.
4. If Fertilization Occurs:
▪ A sperm penetrates the secondary
oocyte, completing meiosis.
▪ Results in a mature egg and a second
polar body.
▪ The egg (n) and sperm (n) nuclei unite
to form a zygote (2n).
5. If Fertilization Does Not Occur:
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▪ The corpus luteum degenerates.
 Uterine Cycle
❑Phases of the Uterine Cycle
1.Menstruation (Days 1-5):
▪ Low hormone levels cause the shedding of the
endometrium, resulting in menstrual bleeding.
2.Proliferative Phase (Days 6-13):
▪ Higher estrogen levels stimulate the growth
and rebuilding of the endometrium.
3.Ovulation (Day 14):
▪ Occurs mid-cycle.
4.Secretory Phase (Days 15-28):
▪ Increased progesterone from the corpus luteum
causes the endometrium to thicken and
mature, preparing for potential implantation.
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 Key Events
❑Ovarian Cycle
Events:
❑Follicular Phase
(Days 1-13):
▪ FSH leads to follicle
maturation, and estrogen
increases.
❑Ovulation
(Day 14):
▪ LH spike triggers
ovulation.
❑Luteal Phase
(Days 15-28):
▪ Corpus luteum forms
and secretes
progesterone. 46
 Key Events
❑Uterine Cycle
Events:
▪ Menstruation
(Days 1-5):
Endometrium breaks
down.
▪ Proliferative Phase
(Days 6-13):
Endometrium rebuilds.
▪ Secretory Phase
(Days 15-28):
Endometrium thickens
and becomes secretory. 47
 Menstrual Cycle Overview
❑Definition:
▪ A complex physiological process in reproductive-aged individuals with
uteruses.
❑Duration:
▪ Typically lasts around 28 days, though variations are common.
❑Regulation:
▪ Controlled by four key hormones:
1. FSH
2. LH
3. Estrogen
4. Progesterone.

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Phases of the Menstrual Phases of the Menstrual Cycle
Menstruation Phase
(Days 1-5)

Proliferative/Pre-Ovulatory
Phase
Cycle

(Days 6-14)

Ovulation
(Day 14)

Secretory/Post-Ovulatory
Phase
(Days 15-28)

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 1. Menstruation Phase
(Days 1-5)
❑Process:
▪ Starts with menstrual bleeding, discharging
blood and uterine tissue through the vagina.
▪ Occurs when no fertilization or pregnancy is
detected.
❑Hormonal Changes:
▪ Progesterone secretion stops as the corpus
luteum degenerates.
▪ The endometrium breaks down and is shed
as menstrual flow. Menstrual flow from the uterus consists of
50–150 mL of blood, tissue fluid, mucus, and
❑Significance:
epithelial cells shed from the endometrium
▪ Marks the beginning of a new menstrual
cycle.
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 2. Proliferative/Pre-Ovulatory Phase
(Days 6-14)
❑Follicular Development:
▪ FSH stimulates ovarian follicles, leading to one
dominant follicle's maturation.
▪ Other follicles undergo atresia (degeneration).
❑Endometrial Changes:
▪ Estrogen produced by the Graafian follicle
thickens the endometrium, increasing blood
supply.
▪ Cervical mucus becomes fluid and
transparent, facilitating sperm movement.
❑Hormonal Feedback:
▪ Rising estrogen levels decrease FSH via
negative feedback.
▪ LH surge from the pituitary gland triggers
ovulation.
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 Ovulation (Day 14)
❑Process:
▪ Release of the egg from the mature follicle
into the oviduct.
▪ Occurs rapidly within minutes.
❑Formation of Corpus Luteum:
▪ LH converts the ruptured follicle into the
corpus luteum.

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 Secretory/Post-Ovulatory Phase
(Days 15-28)
❑Endometrial Preparation:
▪ Progesterone from the corpus luteum
thickens the endometrium.
▪ Glands and blood vessels develop,
preparing for potential implantation.
❑Outcome if No Fertilization:
▪ Corpus luteum regresses, leading to
decreased progesterone.
▪ Endometrium breaks down, initiating
menstruation.

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 Fertilization and Pregnancy
➢Process
❑Fertilization:
▪ Sperm fertilizes the egg
in the oviduct.
❑Implantation:
▪ The embryo migrates to
the uterus and implants
in the endometrium.
❑Placenta Formation:
▪ Facilitates nutrient and
gas exchange between
maternal and fetal
blood.
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 Fertilization and Pregnancy
❑Hormonal Changes:
▪ Human Chorionic
Gonadotropin (HCG) sustains
the corpus luteum initially.
▪ Placenta later produces
progesterone and estrogen,
maintaining pregnancy and
preventing new follicle
maturation.
❑Result:
▪ Menstruation ceases during
pregnancy.

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Hormonal Control of the Female Reproductive
System

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 Hormonal Control of the Female
Reproductive System
❑Regulatory Mechanism:
❑GnRH:
▪ Released by the hypothalamus,
stimulates the pituitary gland.
▪ FSH and LH:
▪ Stimulate ovarian function,
leading to ovulation and
hormone production.

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 Hormonal Control of the Female
Reproductive System
❑Key Hormones:
❑Estrogen:
▪ Development of female reproductive organs
▪ Secondary sexual characteristics
▪ Distribution of body fat
▪ Breast development.
❑Progesterone:
▪ Essential for breast development
▪ Maintaining the endometrium.

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 Disorders of the Reproductive System
➢Infertility
❑Definition:
▪ Inability to conceive after one year of regular, unprotected sexual
intercourse.
❑Affects:
▪ Both males and females.

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 Causes of Male Infertility
❑a) Abnormal Sperm Production or Function:
▪ Sperm count:
▪ Low sperm count (<20 million) known as oligospermia.
▪ Azoospermia:
▪ Complete absence of sperm in the ejaculate.
❑b) Ejaculation Disorders:
▪ Retrograde ejaculation:
▪ Semen enters the bladder instead of being expelled.
▪ Erectile dysfunction:
▪ Can result in infertility.

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 Causes of Male Infertility
❑c) Obstruction:
▪ Blockages in the male reproductive tract.
▪ Causes:
▪ Congenital absence of vas deferens, scarring from infections or surgeries.
❑d) Lifestyle Factors:
▪ Contributing factors:
▪ Excessive alcohol, smoking, drug use, obesity.
▪ Environmental exposure:
▪ Toxins, prolonged high temperatures (e.g., saunas, hot tubs).

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 Causes of Female Infertility
❑a) Ovulation Disorders:
▪ Causes: Hormonal imbalances, polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS),
thyroid disorders, premature ovarian failure.
▪ Effect: Irregular or absent ovulation.
❑b) Fallopian Tube Blockage:
▪ Blockages hinder transport of eggs and sperm.
▪ Causes: Pelvic inflammatory disease, endometriosis, previous pelvic
surgeries.

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 Causes of Female Infertility
❑c) Uterine or Cervical Issues:
▪ Abnormalities: Uterine fibroids, polyps, cervical stenosis.
▪ Effect: Interference with implantation or sperm passage.

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 Causes of Female Infertility
❑d) Endometriosis:
▪ Tissue grows outside the uterus, affecting ovaries, fallopian tubes, and pelvic
organs.
▪ Effects: Inflammation, scarring, structural abnormalities, fertility problems.
❑e) Age-related Factors:
▪ Decline in egg quality and quantity with age.
▪ Increased risk of infertility and pregnancy complications with advanced
maternal age.

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 In Vitro Fertilization (IVF)
❑Definition:
▪ Medical procedure where eggs are
fertilized by sperm outside the
body and implanted into the uterus.
❑Process:
▪ Egg collection from the ovaries.
▪ Fertilization in a laboratory
setting.
▪ Embryo transfer into the uterus.

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 Miscarriage
❑Definition:
▪ Loss of a pregnancy before 20 weeks of gestation.
▪ Occurs when the fetus stops developing, and the pregnant tissue eventually
leaves the body.

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 Causes of Miscarriage
❑Embryo Position:
▪ Embryo implants near the cervix, causing complications as the placenta
expands.
❑Placenta Issues:
▪ Partial or full crossing of the cervical opening by the placenta, which can
tear and lead to bleeding.
❑Hemorrhage:
▪ Caused by a normally positioned placenta detaching from the uterine wall,
endangering the mother's life.

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 Miscarriage vs. Abortion
Miscarriage: Abortion
❑Involuntary loss of pregnancy ❑Deliberate termination of a
due to natural causes pregnancy
❑Often involving issues with the ❑Reason: including unintended
uterus or placenta. pregnancy or health concerns for
the mother or child.

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 Sexually Transmitted Diseases (STDs)
❑Definition:
▪ Diseases transmitted through sexual contact with an infected person.

Sexually Transmitted Diseases

Gonorrhea Syphilis AIDS

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 Gonorrhea
❑Symptoms:
▪ Painful or burning urination.
▪ Increased vaginal discharge (females).
▪ Testicular pain or swelling (males).
▪ Painful bowel movements or rectal itching.
▪ Sore throat or difficulty swallowing.
❑Treatment:
▪ Treated with antibiotics.
▪ Importance of completing the prescribed treatment due to antibiotic resistance.

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 Syphilis
❑Cause:
▪ Bacterium Treponema pallidum.
❑Transmission:
▪ Primarily through genital and oral contact.
❑Risk:
▪ Can affect various organs and systems if left untreated.

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 Syphilis
❑Symptoms of Syphilis
❑Stages:
▪ Primary Stage: Painless sore (chancre) at the infection site.
▪ Secondary Stage: Rash and flu-like symptoms.
▪ Latent Stage: Symptom-free but still infectious.
▪ Tertiary Stage: Severe complications, affecting the heart, brain, and bones,
with symptoms ranging from neurological issues to cardiovascular problems.

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 Syphilis
❑Treatment:
▪ Treatable with antibiotics.
▪ Specific antibiotics and duration depend on the infection stage.

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 AIDS
❑ Definition:
▪ Acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS) caused by the human
immunodeficiency virus (HIV).
❑Effect:
▪ HIV attacks helper T cells, a type of lymphocyte, weakening the immune
system.

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 AIDS
❑Global Impact:
▪ Pandemic Scale:
▪ Millions infected worldwide, leading to high morbidity and mortality.
▪ Effect:
▪ Severely affects regions with limited access to healthcare and
resources, particularly sub-Saharan Africa.
▪ Global Concern:
▪ AIDS impacts people of all ages, genders, and locations.

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