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Ch
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Ch
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Ch
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Ch
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Ch
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Ph
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ran
chofs
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 S
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Defi
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ysi
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 Manycon
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I
I. Ri
sin
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s, wi
thi
nat
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ndther
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tan
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I
V. Apl
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Th
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ph
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tri
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rowaveovens
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tab
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Me cha
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Br
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hesofPh
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ogy

1
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 I td ealswithr el
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Examp
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n
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1 Mea
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nth
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la
bora
tor
y . 2 For
ce

3 Pr
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tch
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gasa
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tert
apsa
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6. Wh
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and
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faces

7
. Ne
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nfor
eig
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ter
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sin
toe
lec
tri
cals
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. 6 Th
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pan
sion

7 Hea
ttr
ans
fer
8. S
hir
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lou
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1
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aborat
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1
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mmed
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ely.

1
3.Ha
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for
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avi
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hel
abor
ator
y

Pa
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Ch
apt
erTwo MEAS
UREMENTI
I
ntr
odu
cti
on 3. Comp
let
eth
eta
bleb
elow

 Measu
rementr
eferst
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ssoff
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ingt
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izeofa Ba
sicq
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tit
y S
I S
ymb
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ved
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ysi
calqu
anti
ty. qua
ntit
y
u
nit
 Sc
ien
tis
tsalloverth
eworldha
veonei
nter
nat
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alsyst
e m
Len
gth
ofun
itsi.
e.sys
temeint
ern
ati
onal
edeun
ites(
SIuni
ts)for
ph
ysi
calqu
anti
ties
. Mass

El
ect
ricc
urr
ent

Rea
son
sforEs
tab
lis
hin
gSIUn
its Ther
modyn
amic
temp
era
ture
1
. Toh
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nte
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tya
mon
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tis
ts.
L
umi
nou
sin
ten
sit
y
2. Toa
voi
dcon
fus
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ts.
Amou
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ubs
tan
ce

4. Wh
yisi
tnec
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lis
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nit
s?
Ty
pesofPh
ysi
calQu
ant
iti
es

. Ba
i sic Physi
cal Qu
ant
iti
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Fun
damen
tal Ph
ysi
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Quan
tit
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) L
ENGTH

 Thes
ea requa
nti
tie
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atc
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romot
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amp
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ysica
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tie
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engt
ha r
e:

 Ther
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asi
cq u
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iti
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cor
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e  b
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ica
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Iun
it S
ymboloft
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Iun
it  De
pthe
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L
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ter m Mu
lti
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ub-
mul
tip
lesoft
hemet
re

Ma
ss Ki
log
ram k
g 1k
ilome
ter(
1km)=1
000m

Ti
me S
econ
d s 1h
ect
ome
ter(
1Hm)=1
00m

El
ect
ricc
urr
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s Amp
ere A 1d
eca
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er(
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0m

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lvi
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dm)
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ent
ime
ter(
cm)

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ge|
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L
umi
nou
sin
ten
sit
y Ca
nde
la Cd 1m=1000mi
ll
ime
ter(
mm)

Amou
ntofs
ubs
tan
ce mol
e mol 1m=1000000mi
crome
ter(
µm)

i
i.Der
ivedPh
ysi
calQu
ant
iti
es

 Thes
ea requa
ntit
iesobt
aine
dbymulti
pli
cati
onordi
vis
ion
ofotherph
ysic
alquan
tit
iese.
g.a
rea
,volume
,work
,den
sit
y,
moment
umetc.

Ex
erc
ise2.
2

Con
ver
tth
efol
lowi
ngi
ntoS
Iun
its

a
) 1
000km (
ans
wer
:1000000m)

b
) 0.
00025mm(
ans
wer
:0.
00000025m)

c
) 0.
01Hm (
ans
wer
:1m)

d
) 25mm (
ans
wer
:0.
025m)

e) 25µm (
ans
wer
:0.
000025m)

Ex
erc
ise2.
1
Mea
sur
emen
tofL
eng
th
1
. I
den
tifythemis
take(
s)i
nth
efol
lowi
ngS
Iun
itsa
ndh
enc
ewr
ite
t
hemcorr
ectl
y. Th
erea
ret
womet
hod
sth
atc
anb
eus
edi
nme
asu
reme
ntofl
eng
th:

(
a) Amp
eres
(a) 1
. Me
asu
reme
ntb
yes
tima
tion
.

(
b) Ca
ndel
a(c
and
) 2. Ac
cur
ateme
asu
reme
ntu
sin
gas
uit
abl
eme
asu
rin
gin
str
ume
nt.

(
c) Met
res
(M) Ex
amp
lesofi
nst
rumen
tsu
sedi
nmea
sur
ingl
eng
th
(
d) Ka
lvi
n
. Me
I terr
ulea
ndh
alf
-me
terr
ule
.
(
e) S
econ
ds
I
I. Tapemeasu
reusedtomea
sur
ere
lat
ive
lyl
ongl
eng
thse
.g.
(
f) Ki
log
rams le
ngthofasoc
cerfi
eld
.

(
g) Pa
sca
ls I
I. Ve
I rn
ierc a
lip
ers –usedto me
asu
reshor
tlen
gth
se .
g.
th
icknes
sof at e
xtb
ook ordi
amet
erof asmea
sur
ing
(
h)n
ewt
ons cyl
ind
er.

Pa
ge|
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s

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2. Ther
ea retwoty
pesofphysi
calquan
tit
ies
:ba
sica
ndd
erved I
i V. Mic
rome
terscre
wg au
ge–u se
dtome
asu
reve
rys
hor
t
qu
a n
tit
ies,
sta
tet
hedi
ffer
enc
eb et
weenthet
wo. l
eng
thse.
g.
dia
meterofawi
re.

Pa
ge|
9
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ehi
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ote
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s

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ats
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Fa
ctor
s Consid
ered Wh
en Ch
oos
inga
nIn
str
umen
t for
Measu
rin
gLen
gths

1
. S
izeoft
heob
jec
ttob
eme
asu
red
.

2. L
eve
lofa
ccu
rac
yre
qui
red
.

Th
eMet
err
ule

 Meterrul
esandahalf
–me t
err
ule
sar
egr
adu
ate
d(c
ali
bra
ted
)in
cen
timet
eradmi
n ll
imeter

es
 Th ma
lles
tdivi
siononamet
errul
escal
eis1mm(
0.
1mor R1=77.
c 9cm,
R2=82.
8cm,
R3=25.
5cm,
R4=30.
0cm,
R5=3.
4cm,
R6
=7
.0c
m
0.
001m)
.Thisi
stea
h cc
ura
cyofth
eme t
err
ule
.

Not
e:
Ex
erc
ise
I
. Accu
racyofameasur
ingins
tru
menti
sth
esmal
les
tva
lue
th
atcanbea
ccu
rat
elyobta
inedu
sin
gth
ein
str
ume
nt. Ex
pres
sth
eab
over
ead
ing
sin
:

I
I. Themeasu
rementtake nusi
ngameasu
ringinstr
umentmu s
tbe I. Mm
expr
esse
dt othenumb erofdeci
malplacesoft heaccurac
y
I
I. M
oft h
atinstr
ument.Fore x
ampl
e,anyme asu
reme n
tt aken
usi
ngameterrul
esh ouldbeexpr
esse
di nwh ol
en umberifin
mil
li
meter,to1dec imalplacei
finc entimeter
sa ndt o3
deci
malplac
esifinmet ers. Pr
ecau
tionWh
enUs
ingaMet
erRu
le

 Careshoul
dbet a
kentoavoiddamag
etot
h ee
ndsofme
ter
ru
les.Thisisbecau
semostoft hemdonothaveash
ort
Pr
oced
ureFol
lowedWh
enUs
ingaMet
erRu
le al
lowanceatth
eendstoc
aterfort
ear
.

1
. Plac
ethemete
rruleinc
ont
actwi
tht
heob
jec
twh
ose
le
ngthi
stob
emeas
ured
.

2. Pl
aceth
een
doft
heob
jec
tag
ain
stt
hez
eroc
mma
rkoft
he
sc
ale
. Ta
peMe
asu
re

3. Pos
iti
ony
oure
yep
erp
end
icu
lar
lya
bovet
hes
cal
e. Ty
pesofTa
peMe
asu
re

i
. Ta
ilor
’st
apeme
asu
re

i
i. Ca
rpe
nte
r’st
apeme
asu
re

i
ii
. S
urve
yor
’st
apeme
asu
ree
tc.

Not
e:Thech
oic
eoftap
eme a
sur
ede
pen
dsont
hen
atu
rea
ndl
eng
th
ofd
ist
ancetob
emea
sured
.

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ge|
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ats
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com

Pr
eca
uti
onWh
enUs
ingTa
peMea
sur
e

S
our
cesofEr
rorWh
enUs
ingaMet
erRu
le  En
sur
eiti
sta
ut(
ver
yst
rai
ght
)du
rin
gus
e.

 Wh
enu
sin
game
terr
ule
,ane
rrorma
yar
isewh
en:

I
. t
her
ulei
snoti
ncon
tac
twi
tht
heob
jec
t, Mea
sur
ingCu
rvedL
eng
ths

II
. t
heendoft heob
jecti
snotali
gne
dtot h
ezer
omarkof  Tome as
urecur
vedlength
ssuchasr a
ilsandroad
sonma ps
,a
t
hemeterrul
esca
le, thr
eadis p
lac
ed a
longthereq
uir
ed length
.Thelen
gthisthe
n
foun
dbyp l
aci
ngthethr
eadonamil
limetersca
le.
I
II
. t
heposi
tionofth
eeyeisn
otp
erpen
dic
ula
rtot
hesc
ale.
 Forc u
rvedsurfa
c e
sl i
keac y
linder
,at hr
eadisc l
osel
y
wrapp
eda r
oun
dthesurfa
ceanumberoftimes.

 NB:Th
eerrort
hatoc
curswhe
nthep
ositi
onoftheey
eisn
ot
pe
rpen
dic
ulart
othesca
leisc
all
edpar
all
axerr
or.
Ex
per
imen
t2.
1

Ai
m/Ob
jec
tive

Tomeas
uret
hec
irc
umf
ere
nceofame
asu
rin
gcy
lin
deru
sin
ga
th
rea
d

Ap
par
atu
s

i
. 1
0mlme
asu
rin
gcy
lin
der

i
i. Th
rea
d

i
ii
. Me
terr
ule

Pr
oced
ure

. Cl
1 ose
lywr
apat
hint
hre
adt
ent
ime
sar
oun
dth
ecy
lin
dera
s
s
hownb
elow.

Ex
amp
le

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ge|
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Wh a
taret
her
ead
ing
sin
dic
atedb
yar
rowsR1,
R2,
R3,
R4,
R5a
ndR6
b
elow.

2. Ma
rkwi
thi
nkt
heb
egi
nni
nga
nde
ndoft
het
urn
s.

3. Re
movet
het
hre
ad.

4. Me
asu
ret
hel
eng
thb
etwe
ent
hei
nkma
rksa
ndc
alli
tR1.

5. Repe
a tt
wotimes
,rec
ord
ingread
ingsa
sR2 a
ndR3 s
oast
o
en
sureac
cur
acyofyou
rmeasu
rement
s. Re
sul
tsa
ndCa
lcu
lat
ion
s

R+R+R  He
igh
toft
het
reei
ses
tima
tedu
sin
gth
eex
pre
ssi
on:
6. Fi
ndt
hea
ver
agel
eng
t s 1 2 3.
ha
3
h
eightofthetr
ee,ht
ree
le
ngthofshadowoftree,
Ltr
ee
=
Re
sul
tsa
ndCa
lcu
lat
ion
s h
eigthofrod
,hr
od
l
eng
t hofsh
ad owofrod
,Lr
od

R+R+R
 Ave
rag
ele
ngt
hof1
0tu
rns
,R= 1 2 3
3
Ex
amp
le
R
 Ci
rcu
mfe
ren
ceoft
hec
yli
nde
r= I
nanexper
imenttoest
imatetheheig
htofat r
eeinNyab
uru
ruGi
rl
s’
10
S
econ
dar
ySchoolc
ompoun
d,Gra
cerecord
edt
hefoll
owi
ngd
ata.
 Di
ame
teroft
hec
yli
nde
r(D)
isob
tai
neda
s:
I
. L
eng
thofs
had
owoft
het
ree=1
000c
m
ci
rcu
mfe
ren
ce
D= I
I. L
eng
thofs
had
owoft
her
od=200c
m

I
II
. Hei
ghtoft
her
od=1
00c
m

I
V. Det
ermi
net
heh
eig
htoft
het
ree
Ex
erc
ise

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Th
eor
eti
cal S
olu
tion

1
. Alengt
h550c mofathint
hrea
dwrapsar
oun
dacyl
ind
erex
act
ly h
eigt
hoftet
h r
ee,x le
ngthofs
hadowoft
ree
=
25times.Cal
cula
tet h
ec i
rcu
mfer
enceandth
eradiu
softhe h
eigt
hoftherod l eng
thofsha
dowofrod
22
cy
lin
der.
(Take = ) . x 1000
7 =
1
00 200
2. Phi
lip fou
n dthatt
hep eri
met
erof hi
s far
mingpl
otwas
app
roximat
ely500str
ides
.Hiss
tri
dewa
s1.1mlon
g.Whatwa
s x=5.
0m
th
ep er
imeteroft
hep
lot?

AREA
Ex
per
imen
tal
 Ar
ear
efe
rst
oth
eme
asu
reofs
urf
ace
.
1
. Es
timat
et h
ewidt
hofyou
rdes
kbyc
oun
tin
ghowma
nyofy
our
pa
lmleng
thsar
ether
e  Th
eSIu
nitofa
reai
stes
h q
uar erm2.
emet ()
2. Desc
ribeamet
hody ouc
anusetoes
tima
tet
het
hic
knes
swi
dthof
onesh
eetofpaperofyourb
ook.
Mu
lti
plesa
nds
ub-
mul
tip
lesoft
hes
qua
remet
re
3. Desc
rib
eamethodt
hatc
anb
eus
edt
oes
tima
tet
het
hic
knes
sof
ara
zorbla
de. . 1m2=1
I 000000mm2

I
I. 1m2=1 m2
0000c
Es
tima
tionofL
eng
th I
II m2 =1
. 1k 000000m2
Ex
per
imen
t2.
2 a
)

Ai
m/ob
jec
tive:
Toe
sti
mat
eth
ehe
igh
tofat
ree Ex
erc
ise

Ap
par
atu
s 1
. Ex
pres
sth
efol
lowi
ngi
nsq
uar
ecen
timet
er

 Ar
odofl
eng
th2me
ter
s a 00027km2
) 0.

 Ame
terr
ule
. b 5m2
) 4.

Pr
oced
ure 2. Ex
pres
sth
efol
lowi
ngi
nSIu
nit
s
b
)
m2
9000c
1
. Hol
dth
erodu
pri
ghta
ndme
asu
rei
tsl
eng
th.
c
) 0. m2
009c
2. Me
asu
ret
hel
eng
thofi
tss
had
ow.
) 25km2
d
3. Me a
s u
rethel
eng
thoft
hes
had
owofat
reei
nth
esc
hool
compound
.

Mea
sur
emen
tofAr
ea Ex
amp
le

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ats
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Ar
eaofReg
ula
rly–
Sha
pedOb
jec
ts Est
imat
ethea reaofth
eirr
egu
larsur
fac
es howni
nth
efigur
e
bel
owbycoun t
ingth
esmal
lsqu
ares
.Theareaofonecomp
let
e
 Area of i
rre
gul
ar-
sha
ped ob
jec
tsi
s ob
tai
nedu
sin
g squ
arei
s1c
m.2

ap
prop
ria
tefor
mul
ae.

A.Rec
tan
gle

S
olu
tion
Ar
ea=l
eng
th×wi
dth
o Ar
ea=

(
nu
on
mb
es
e
q
rofc
uar
e
omp
let
esq
uar
es
1
+ ×n
2
umb
erofi
ncomp
let
esq
uar
esa
r
)
eaof

B. Ci
rcl
e

o Ar
e
( )
1
m2
a= 4+ ×22×1c
2

o Ar
e 5c
a=1 m2

2 Ex
erc
ise
Ar
ea= r,wh
erer=r
adi
us
1
) Tra
cetheout
lin
eofy ou
rpa
lmonag
rap
hpa
pera
ndes
tima
tet
hea
rea
ofthes
hapeobtai
ned
.

C. Tr
ian
gle 2) Det
ermi
net
hea
reaoft
het
opofy
ourd
esk.

3) Thed
iameterofthebor
eofacap
ill
aryt
ubeis2.0mm.
Cal
cul
atet
he
cr
oss
-sect
ionareaofth
ebor
ei m2(
nc t
ake =3.1
42)

4) As
heetofp
apermea
sur
es25c
mby1
5cm.
Cal
cul
atei
tsa
r nmm2
eai

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ats
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Vol
ume

 Vol
umer
efe
rst
oth
eamou
ntofs
pac
eoc
cup
iedb
yma
tte
r.

 I
tisad
eri
vedq
uan
tit
yofl
eng
th.

 Th
eSIu
nitofvol
u st
mei h
ecu
bicmet m3)
er(
1
Ar
ea= (b
ase×p
erp
end
icu
larh
eig
ht
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lti
plesa
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ub-
Mul
tip
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heCu
bicMet
re
(
a)
m3 =1
1 m3
000000c

(
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D. Tr
apez
ium m3=1
1 000000000mm3

(
c)
1
km3=1
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(
d m3=1
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ite
rs

(
e) 1l
ite
r=1
000ml

Ar
e
1
a= (
sumofp
ara
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de)
s×h
eig
ht (
f)1
l=1
dm3
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Ex
erc
ise

Con
ver
tea
choft
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ngvol
umest
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nit
Ar
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rr
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lar
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Sha
pedS
urfa
ces
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. 1 m3
500000000c
 Areaofi
rr
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lar
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rfac
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nbeesti
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tosmalleq
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I. 20.
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ter
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ob
tain
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I
II
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0ml
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V. 000000000mm3
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(
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e
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aofon
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q
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a
t
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Vs
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Vol
umeofReg
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edS
oli
ds

 Vol
umeofre
gul
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ape
dsol
idsi
sob
tai
nedb
yap
ply
ing
ana
ppr
opr
iat
eformul
a.

. Cu
1 boi
d Ex
amp
les

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Vol
ume=c
ros
s-s
ect
iona
reaxh
eig
ht 1
) Arimoffools
capscon
tai
ns500paper
san
dha
sama
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.Th
e
s
izeis300mmby200mmby50mm.
fin
d :
Vol
ume=l
eng
th×b
rea
dth×h
eig
ht
I
. Th
eth
ickn
essofon
esh
eetofp
aper
.

200mm
=0.
4mm
500p a
per
s

=0.
0004m

I
I. Th
ema
ssofon
esh
eetofp
aper
.

2. Tr
ian
gul
arp
ris
m o 500p
ape
rs=2k
g

2kg
 ma
ssof1
pap
er=
500

o =0.
004k
g

I
II
. Th
evol
umeoft
her
im.

o vol
ume=L
×W×h

o 300mmx200mmx50mm
Vol
ume=c
ros
s-s
ect
iona
reaxl
eng
th
=3000000mm3
1
Vol
ume= ba
se×h
eig
ht×l
eng
th 003m3
=0.
2

I
V. Th
evol
umeofon
esh
eetofp
aper

3. c
yli
nder Vol
umeof500p
ape
r 003m3
s=0.

003m3
0.
o vol
umeof1p
ape
r=
500

000006m3
=0.

2) Abloc
kofgl
assi
s50c
mlon
g,4.
0cmt
hic
kan
d2.
5cmh
igh
.Ca
lcu
lat
e
i
tsvolu
me

vol
umeoft
heg
las
sbl
ock=l
eng
th×b
rea
dth×h
eig
ht

Vol
ume
=cr
osss
ect
iona
reaxh
eig
ht =5.
0cm×4.
0cm×2.
5cm

Vol
u 2
me= rh m2
=50c

000050m3
=0.

4. S
pher
ee.
g.
footb
all 3) Fi
ndthevol
umeoft
hec
yli
ndr
ica
lti
nofr
adi
us7
.0c
man
dhei
ght
3.
0cm.
2
vol
umeoft
in= r

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ge|
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22
= ×7c
m×7c
m×3c
m
7

=462.
0cm3

0004620m3
=0.

4) Fi
ndth
evolumeofat
ria
ngu
larp
ris
mifb
ase=6.
0cm,
hei
ght=5.
0cm
an
dlen
gth=1
2.0c
m

vol
ume=a
reaofc
ros
s-s
ect
ion×l
eng
th
4 3
vol
ume= r
3 1
2(
= ×6.
0cm×5.
0c
)
m×1
2.
0cm

=1
80.
0cm3
5. Con
e
=0. 800m3
0001

5) Fi
ndt
hevol
umeofas
pher
ewh
oser
adi
usi
s3.
0cm

4 3
vol
umeofs
phe
re= r
3

4 22
= × ×3.
0cm×3.
0cm×3.
0cm
3 7
1 2
vol
ume= r h
3 =1
13.
1
4cm3

=0.
0001
1 4m3
31

6) A sph
ereofd i
ameter6.0mmismoldedin
toau n
ifor
mwi r
eof
22
d
iameter0.
2mm.
Calc
u l
ateth
elen
gthofth
ewire.
(t
ake= )
7

vol
umeofs
phe
re=vol
umeofwi
re

4 3 2
R= rl
3

4 22 22
× ×3.
0mm×3.
0mm×3.
0mm= ×0.
1mm×0.
1mm×l
3 7 7

01mm2l
36mm3=0.

36mm3
l= =3600mm=3.
600ml
0.01mm2

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Mea
sur
emen
tofVol
umeofL
iqu
ids S
olu
tion

i
. Us
ingaCon
tai
nerwi
thUn
ifor
mCr
oss
-Sec
tionAr
ea. Vol
umeof1d
rop=0.
1
2cm3

 Theli
qui
dispou
redint
ot h
econtai
nera
ndtheh
eig
htofthe vol
umeof1
00d
rop
s=1
000×0.
1
2cm3
li
qui
dinthec
ontai
nerismeas
ure
d.Thevol
umeofthel
iqu
id
=1
2cm3
isca
lcu
lat
edusi
ngtheexpr
ess
ion
:
i
nit
iall
eve m3
l=24c

f
ina
lle
vel=( 2)
24+1 m3
c
Vol
umeofl
iqu
id=c
ros
sse
cti
ona
reaofc
ont
ain
er ×h
eig
htofl
iqu
id
m3
=36c

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ge|
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Not
e:

 Wh e
nusingameasuri
ngve s
seltheread
ingofthevol
umeis
ta
kenwiththeeyeposi
tione
di nl
evelwit
hthebott
omofthe
meni
scu
s(forli
quid
swh i
c hcur
veupwards
)asin(a
)ortopof
th
eme ni
scus(f
orl i
quid
swh ichcur
ved ownwar
ds)asin(b
)
be
low.

Mea
sur
ingVol
umeofI
rr
egu
lar
-Sh
apedS
oli
ds

 Themeth
oduse
di nthi
scasei
sc al
leddi
spl
acemen
tmet
hod
i
i. Us
ingas
uit
abl
evol
umemea
sur
inga
ppa
rat
us si
ncet
hesol
iddi
spla
cessomel
iqu
idwheni
mmerse
d.

 Thefoll
owingappar
atu
sa reusedt
o me
asu
re vol
ume Condi
tion
su n
derwhi
chdi
spl
acemen
tmethodworks:
ac
cur
atel
yofliq
uid
sinla
bor
ator
y:
Ford
ispla
cementmet
hodt
oworkbest,
thesol
idwhosevol
umei
sto
a
) Pipett
e bede
termine
ds h
oul
d:

b
) Bu
ret
te (
a)n
otb
esol
ubl
eint
hel
iqu
idb
ein
gus
ed,

c
) Vol
ume
tri
cfl
ask (
b)n
otr
eac
twi
tht
hel
iqu
id,

d
)Sy
rin
ge (
c)s
inki
nth
eli
qui
dan
d,

 Pip
ett
eadvol
n umet
ricfl
askme
asu
ref
ixedvol
umesof (
d)n
ota
bsor
bth
eli
qui
d.
l
iqu
ids
.

 Thefol
lowi
ngapp
a r
atusar
euse oa
dt p
prox
ima
tel
yme
asu
re
Ex
per
imen
ts
vol
umeofli
qui
dsinla
bora
tory
:
Ai
m:Tomea
sur
evol
umeofi
rr
egu
lar
ly–s
hap
eds
oli
d
a
) Me
asu
rin
gcy
lin
der
s
Requ
irement
s:st
one,t
hrea
d,mea
suri
ngcyl
ind
e r
,wat
er,
Eur
ekaca
n
b
) Gr
adu
ate
dbe
ake
rs
(
als
oc al
leddi
spl
ace
me n
torove
rflow c
an)
,float
era
ndasi
nke
r.
c
) Con
ica
lfl
ask
s

Met
hod1
:Us
ingmea
sur
ingc
yli
nder
Th
eBu
ret
te
Pr
oced
ure

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ge|
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com

Th
esc
aleofth
eb u
rettei
smar
kedsu
cht
hatz
erocm3mar
kisa
t 1
. Par
tlyfi
llth
emeasu
rin
gcy
lin
derwi
thwa
tera
ndn
ott
he
t
hetopandthemax
imu
mvalu
emar
kattheb
ottom. vol
umeV1oft
hewa
ter

2. Ti
et h
es t
onewit
hathr
eada
ndl
owe
ritg
ent
lyi
nth
ecy
lin
der
un
tili
tisful
lys
ubme
rge
d

3. Not
eth
ene
wvol
umeofwa
terV2

Res
ult
san
dca
lcu
lat
ion
s

Th
evol
umeoft
hes
ton
eca
nbec
alc
ula
teda
s:

vol
ume=V2-
V1

Ex
amp
le

Waterl
eveli
nab u
rett
eis24cm3.
If1
00dr
opsofwat
erfal
lfromt
he
b
ure
tteandtheavera
gevolu
meofonedr
opis0.1
2cm3.
Wh atist
he
f
ina
lwaterl
eveli
nthebur
ett
e?

Met
hod2:
Usi
ngEu
rekac
an Ex
amp
le

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ge|
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com

Pr
oced
ure

1
. Fi
llEu
rek
aca
nwi
thwa
teru
nti
litove
rfl
ows 1
) Det
ermi
net
hevol
umeofwa
teri
nth
ecy
lin
ders
hownb
elow.

2. Wa
itf
ort
hewa
tert
ost
opc
omi
ngou
toft
hes
pou
t

3. Pl
aceame
asu
rin
gcy
lin
deru
nde
rth
esp
out

4. Ti
et h
es t
onewithath
rea
dan
dlowe
ritg
ent
lyi
ntowa
ter
un
tili
tisfu
llys
ubme
rge
d

5. Coll
ectth
ewa
terc
omi
ngou
toft
hes
pou
tus
ingame
asu
rin
g
cyl
ind
er.

S
olu
tion
:

Vol
u m3
me=33c

(
Reme
mbe
rth
ata
ccu
rac
yoft
hes
cal
esh
owna
bovei m3)
s1c

2) I
fas ton
eofvolu
me6cm3i
sin
sertedt osin
kinwa
teri
nth
eab
ove
c
yli
nderwha
twil
lbet
henewwaterlevel?

Res
ult
san
dca
lcu
lat
ion
s S
olu
tion

Thevol
umeofwat
ercol
lec
tedi
nth
eme
asu
rin
gcy
lin
deri
sth
e Ne
wle
vel=i
nit
iall
eve
l+vol
umeofs
ton
e
vol
umeofth
est
one.
Ne
wle
ve m3+6c
l=33c m3

m3
=39c

Ma
ss
Method3:Measu
rin
gvol
umeofa
nir
reg
ula
r-s
hap
edfl
oat
er
 Ma
ssi
sth
equ
ant
ityofma
tte
rina
nob
jec
t.
u
sin
gEurekac
an
eS
 Th Iu
nitofma
s st
si h
eki
log
ram(
kg)
.
Pr
oce
dur
e

1
. Fi
llt
heEu
rek
aca
nwi
thwa
teru
nti
litove
rfl
ows
Mu
lti
plesa
ndS
ubmu
lti
plesoft
heki
log
ram
2. Wa
itf
ort
hewa
tert
ost
opc
omi
ngou
toft
hes
pou
t
 1
kg=1
000g
3. L
owe
rth
esi
nke
rti
edwi
that
hre
adg
ent
lyi
ntot
hec
an
 1
ton
ne=1000k
g
4. Measur
eth
e vol
ume V1t
hatf
lowsi
ntot
he me
asu
rin
g
cy
lin
der  1
g=1000mg

5. Re
movet
hes
ink
era
ndt
iei
ttot
hec
orka
syouf
illEu
rek
a  1
kg=1
000000mg
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ats
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c
anaga
ina
ndal
lowi
ttoove
rfl
ow.
The
npl
acet
heme
asu
rin
g  1t
onn
e=1
000000g
c
yli
nde
run
dert
hesp
out.
1
.
6. Lowert
hesin
keran
dc or
kt i
edtog
eth
ergen
tlya
ndme
asu
re
V2th
atove
rflowsi
ntothemeas
uri
ngc
yli
nde
r.

Ex
erc
ise

2. Con
ver
t39.
6mgi
ntokg(
ans
wer
:0.
000039
6k)
g

3. Ch
ang
e50t
onn
esi
ntog(
ans
wer
:50000000g
)

Res
ult
san
dca
lcu
lat
ion
s 4. 340kgi
ntot
onn
es(
ans
wer
:0.
340t
onn
es)

5. 20gi
ntokg(
ans
wer
:0.
020kg
)
Th
evol
umeoft
hes
ton
eca
nbec
alc
ula
teda
s:Vol
ume=V2-
V1
6. 1
00gi
ntokg(
ans
wer:
0.1
00kg
)

Mea
sur
emen
tofMa
ss

 Th
erea
ret
hre
ein
str
ume
ntst
hatc
anb
eus
edu
sed
:

I
. Topp
anb
ala
nce(
ele
ctr
ica
lty
pe)

I
I. Be
amb
ala
nce(
mec
han
ica
lty
pe)

I
II
. L
eve
rba
lan
ce(
mec
han
ica
lty
pe)

Advant
agesofEl
ectr
icalBa
lance(
TopPa
nBa
lan
ce)Overt
he
BeamBala
nce(
Mech
anic
alType)

1
. El
ect
ric
alb
ala
ncei
sac
cur
ate
.

2. I
tise
asyt
ous
eth
anb
eamb
ala
nce
.

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ge|
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ats
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V=L
×W×h

=6c
m×4c
m×3c
m

V=7
2cm3

m 200g
= ; =2.
777
7g/
cm3
v 7 m3
2c

1
g/m3=1
c 000k
g/m3

2.
777
7g/
cm3=2.
777
×1000k
g/m3

=27
78k
g/m3

1
. Th
eden
sit
yofas
ubs
tan
cei
s15g
/cm3.
Exp
res
sth
isi
nSIu
nit
s
Den
sit
y
1
g1m3=1
c 000k
glm3
 I
tisd
efi
neda
sth
ema
ssp
eru
nitvol
umeofas
ubs
tan
ce.
15g
/cm3×1
000kg
lm3
1
5gl
cm3=
 De
nsi
tyi
sde
not
edb
yaGr
eekl
ett
err
ho() 1gc
m 3

ma
ss =1
5000k
g/m3
De
nsi
ty=
vol
ume

2. Th
efigur
ea lon
gsideshowsamea sur
ingcyl
inderwhi
chc on
t a
ins
m m wat
eri
nit
ial
lyatlevelA.Wh ena sol
idofmass11gi
simmersedin
= ;v= ;m= ×v wat
ert
helevelra
isestoB.Deter
min
etheden
sityofth
esoli
d .
v

 Si
ncemassi
smeas
uredink
ga n
dvolumeinm3t
hentheS
Iu n
it
3 -
3
ofden
sit
yisth
ekilog
rampercub
icmeter(
kg/
m orkgm)

1
g/m3=1
c 000k
g/m3

Vol
umeofs
oli
d=VB-
VA
Ex
amp
les
m3-
48c m3=1
33c 5cm3
3 3
3. S
howt
hat1
g/c
m=1
000kg
/m
m
=
3 1g v
g
/cm= 3
1
cm
30g g
= =2.
000 3
0.
001kg 15cm3 c
m
=
000001m3
0.
=2000k
g/m3

Pa
ge|
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ehi
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ote
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s

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ats
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com

=1
000k
g/m3

4. Deter
min
ethedens
ityi
nkgm3ofas
/ ol
idwh
osema
ssi
s40ga
nd Ex
erc
ise
whosedi
men
sion
sincmar
e30×40×3
1
. Thediagr
ambelow sh
owst h
ec h
angeinvolumeofwateri
na
V=L
×W×h meas
uri
ngcyl
ind
erwhenani
rr
egul
arsol
idi
simmers
edi
nit
.

m3
V=30×3×4=360c

m
=
v

40g
=0.
1
111
1gm3
c
m3
360c

o 1
g1m3=1
c 000k
glm3
Giventh
atthemassofthesoli
dis56.
7gdeter
mineth
eden
sit
yoft
he
0.
1
111g
/cm3×1000k
glm3 soli
ding/
cm3(
givean
swercor
rectt
o2deci
malpl
aces
0.
1
111g
lcm3= 3
1gcm

2. Comp
let
eth
eta
ble
=1
11
.1k
g/m3
ma
ss vol
ume Den
sit
y

0.
012kg m3
20c 0.
6gl
cm3
5. Awoodenb
loc
kofmas
s200gis4.
0cmwide3.
0cmth
ickan
d6.
0
c
mlong
.Cal
cul
atet
hed
ens
ityoft
hewood
enbl
ocki
nkgm3
/ 200g ….
….
…cm3 800kg
lm3

……….
ton
nes 25m3
1 ….
….
.
glm3
c

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s

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com

Den
sit
yBot
tle m
V=

 I
tisasmallgl
assbot
tlef
ittedwi
thgl
assst
opp
er(ma
deof
0.
080kg
g
roun
dg l
ass)whic
hhasah ol
ethr
oug
hwh i
chexce
ssliq
uid =
1000k
g/m3
f
lowsout
.
00008m3
=0.

i
) Vol
umeoft
hed
ens
ityb
ott
le
Pr
eca
uti
onsWh
enUs
ingaDen
sit
yBot
tle
Vol
umeoft
hed
ens
ityb
ott
le
1
. Thebot
tleshou
ldbehel
dbyth
enec
kwh e
nwi p
ingi
t.Thi
sis
=Vol
umeofwa
terf
ill
ingi
t.
topr
eventi
tf r
omexp
andin
gdu
etobod
ywa r
mthwhe
nh e
ldby
si
desbyusi
nghand
s. Vol
umeoft
hed
ens
ityb
ott
le=0.
000008m3

2. Th
eou
tsi
deoft
heb
ott
lemu
stb
ewi
pedd
ryc
are
ful
ly.

3. Ther
eshou
ldb
enoa
irb
ubb
leswh
ent
heb
ott
lei
sfi
ll
edwi
th i
i) Ma
ssofs
oli
dDi
npa
rtb
)
li
qui
d.
i
ii
) 9
6-8g

=48g

=0.
088k
g

i
v) Den
sit
yofs
oli
dD

m
=
v

N/BDens
ityb
ott
lei
sus
edme
asu
ret
hed
ens
ityofe
ith
erl
iqu
idor =
0.
088kg
sol
id. 00008m3
0.

=1
100k
g/m3

Ex
amp
les
v) Vol
umeofwa
teri
nc)
1
. Themassofadensi
tyb ott
leis20.
0gwhenempty
,70.
0gwhenfu
ll
ofwa t
erand55.
0gwh enfullofasecon
dliqu
idx.Calc
ula
tethe m
dens
ityofthel
iqu
id(t
a kedensi
tyofwat
ertobe1g/
cm3) V=

S
olu
tion
0.
030kg
=
 Ma
ssofe
mpt
yde
nsi
tyb
ott
le =20.
0g 1000kg
/m3

 Ma
ssofd
ens
ityb
ott
le+wa
t=7
0.0g 000030m3
=0.

 Ma
ssofwa
teri
nde
nsi
tyb
ott
l=50.
0g vi
) Ma
ssofs
oli
dDi
nd)
.

m 50.
0g m= ×v
 Vol
umeofd
ens
ityb
ott
le= = m3
=50c
1g
/cm3
m=1
100×(
0.
000080-000030)
0.

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ats
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ama
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mai
l.
com

 Ma
ssofd
ens
ityb
ott
le+l
iqu
id =55.
0g m=0.
055k

 Ma
ssofl
iqu
idf
ill
ingt
heb
ott
le

=55.
0-20.
0=35.
0g Ex
erc
ise

 Vol
umeofl
iqu
id=vol
umeofd
ens
ityb
ott
le

m3
=50c Adens
ityb
ottl
ehasamassof17.
5gwhenempt
y.Wh
enful
lofwateri
ts
ma
ssis37.
5g.Whenful
lofliq
uidxitsmassi
s35g.I
ftheden
sityof
m wat
eri
s1000kgm3,
/ fin
dthedensi
tyofli
qui
dx.
 ofl
iqu
idx=
v

35.
0 0.7
g
= = 3
50 cm
Den
sit
yofMi
xtu
res
3
=7
00k
g/m
 Amixtu
reisobt
ain
edbyput
tin
gtwoormor
esu
bst
anc
esu
ch
2. I
nanex
per
imen
ttod
eter
min
eth
eden
sit
yofac
ert
ains
oli
dD,
the t
hatth
ey d
o n
otr
eactwi
thon
e a
not
her
.
fol
lowi
ngr
ead
ing
swer
eob
tai
nedu
sin
gad
ens
ityb
ott
le
 Theden
sit
yofthemix
turel
iesb
etwe
ent h
ed en
sit
iesofi
ts
a
) Ma
ssofemp
tyd
ens
ityb
ott
le=8g con
sti
tuen
tsu
bst
anc
esandde
pend
sonthe
irpro
porti
ons.

b
) Ma
ssofad
ens
ityb
ott
lea
nds
oli
dD=96g Totalmassofth
emixt
ure
De
nsi
tyofmi
xtu
re=
Tot
a lvol
umeofmi
xtur
e
c
) Ma
ssofd
ens
ityb
ott
le+30gwa
ter+s
oli
dD=1
32g

d
) Ma
ssofd
ens
ityb
ott
le+wa
ter=88g
Ex
amp
le
Ca
lcu
lat
e
1
. Amixt
u r
econs
ist
sof40c m3ofwatera
n d60cm3ofli
qui
dX.i
fthe
vi
i) Ma
ssofwa
teri
nden
sit
ybot
tlei
npa
rtd
). d
ensi
ties of wat
era n
dl iqu
idX a re1 .0g/
cm3 an
d 0.
8g/
cm3
r
esp
ect i
vel
y,c
alcu
lat
ethedensi
tyofthemixtu
re.
88g-
8g=80g
Ma
ssofwa
ter= w×Vw
=0.
080k
g
=1
.
0g/
cm3×40c
m3
vi
ii
) Vol
umeofwa
teri
nd)
(ta
ked
ens
ityofwa
terb
e1000kg
/m3)
.
=40g

ma
sso
fli
qui
dx= x×Vx

=0.
8g/
cm3×60c
m3=48g

massofwa
ter
+mas
sofliq
uidX
De
nsi
tyofmi
xtu
re=
volu
meofwater
+vol
umeofli
qui
dX

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com

De
nsi
tyofmi
xtu
re=
40g+48g S
imp
lePen
dul
um
m3+60c
40c m3
 I
tisad
evi
cet
hatc
anb
eus
edt
ode
ter
min
eti
mei
nte
rva
ls.
88g
De
nsi
tyofmi
xtu
re= =0.
880g
/cm3
100cm3  I
tma
kesos
cil
lat
ion
swh
end
isp
lac
eds
lig
htl
y.
2. Asolu
tioncont
ain
s40c m3byvolu
meofa lcohola
nd60cm3wat
er.
3
 Anos
cil
lat
ioni
sac
omp
let
etoa
ndf
romot
ion
.
I
fthed en
sityofthealcoh
olis0.79g/c
ma n
dwa teri
s1.
0g/
cm3.
Cal
cul
atethedens
ityofthesol
uti
on .

ma
ssofwa
ter= V
w× w Ex
per
ime
nt
3
=1
g/c
m×60cm3 =60g Ai
m:Tod
ete
rmi
net
imet
ake
ntoc
omp
let
egi
venos
cil
lat
ion
s
ma
ssofa
lcoh
ol= a×Va
Appa
rat
us:
Pen
dul
umb
ob,
thr
ead
,st
opwa
tch
,cl
amp
,bos
san
dre
tor
t
=0.
79g
/c 3
m×40cm =31
.
6g3 st
and
.

massofwa
ter
+mas
sofalc
ohol Pr
oce
dur
e
De
nsi
tyofmi
xtu
re=
volu
meofwater
+vol
umeofal
coh
ol
i
) S
ety
oura
ppa
rat
usa
ssh
ownb
elow.
60g +31
.
6g 91
.6g
De
nsi
tyofmi
xtu
re= =
60cm3+40cm3 100cm3

=0.
91
6g m3
/c

Ti
me

 Ti
mei
sth
eme
asu
reofd
ura
tion
.

 S
Iun
i st
ti h
esec
ond(
s)
.

Mu
lti
plesa
nds
ub-
mul
tip
lesofs
econ
d i
) Sl
ight
lyd
ispl
aceth
eboba
ndd
ete
rmi
net
het
imet
ake
nto
make3osc
ill
ati
ons
1
min
ute=60s
econ
d
i
i) Repe
att h
eproc
edur
eforthef ol
lowi
ngn
umb
erof
1
hou
r=3600s
econ
d
os
cil
lat
ion
san
dfil
lth
eta
bleb
elow.
1
day=24h
our
s=86400s
econ
d
No.
ofos
cil
lat
ion
s Ti
me(
s) Ti
me f or 1
1
sec
ond=1
00c
ent-
sec
ond os
cil
lat
ion,
T(s
)

1
sec
ond=1
000mi
ll
ise
con
d(ms
) 2

1
sec
ond=1
000000mi
cros
econ
d(µs
) 4

Mea
sur
emen
tofTi
me 8
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 Ti
meismeasu
redusi
ngei
therth
estopwat
choras
topc
loc
k Cal
cul
ati
ons
de
pen
dingonl
evelofac
cura
c yr
equ
ired
.
Ti
mefor1os
cil
lat
ionc
anb
eca
lcu
lat
eda
s:

Ti
mef
ornos
cil
lat
ion
s
T=
Ad
van
tag
esofS
topWa
tchOverS
topCl
ock n

1
.
)St
opwa
tchi
sea
syt
oha
ndl
ean
dre
adt
hans
topc
loc
k.

2.
)Iti
smor
eac
cur
atet
hans
topc
loc
k.

Ex
amp
le

Ex
pres
sth
eti
mes
hownont
hes
topwa
tchs
creenb
elowi
nSI
.

=1
0×60+22 Revi
sionEx
erc
ise

1
) I
den
tifythemi
sta
kei
nth
efol
lowi
ngS
Iun
itsa
ndh
enc
ewr
itet
hem
c
orr
ectly
.

(
a) Amp
eres
(a)
+34×0.
01
(
b) Ca
ndel
a(c
and
)
=600+22+0.
34=622.
343s
econ
ds
(
c) Met
res
(M)

(
d) Ka
lvi
n

(
e) S
econ
ds

(
f) Ki
log
rams

(
g) Pa
sca
ls

(
h)n
ewt
ons

2) c
onver
tth
efol
lowi
ngi
ntod
eri
vedS
Iun
its

(
a) 0.
01c
m

(
b)1 m2
00c

(
c) 20d
ays

(
d) 3.
625g

(
e) 324t
onn
es
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ats
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( m3
f) 5d

(
g) 400ml

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s

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ats
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3) Es
tima
tet
hel
eng
thoft
hec
urves
hown
.

4) Defi
ned
ens
itya
ndg
ivei
tsS
Iun
its
.

5) Aburet
teshowsali
qui
dlevelas20cm3.Tendrop
softhes
ame I
fth
ein
iti
alr
ead
ingwa
sat0c
mma
rk,
det
ermi
net
hevol
umeofon
edr
op.
3
l
iqu
ideachofvol
ume0.
5cma readded
.Ca l
cul
atethen
ewli
qui
d
l
evel.

6) Anemptydens
itybot
tleh
asama
ssof15g.
Wh enfu
llofa
lcoh
ol
ofden
sit
y0.8g/m3,
c i
tsma
ssi
s47g.Ca
lcu
late:
-
14.Amixtu
rei smadeupoftwometal
sXa n
dY. Thema ssoft
he
i
) Th
evol
umeoft
heb
ott
le. mixtu
reis30ga ndthevolumeofth
emixt
ureis4.5c m3.
Determi
nethema ssofmetalXint
hemix
ture.
(Densit
yofmet alX
i
i)I
tsma
sswh
enfu
llofwa
ter
.
is6000Kg m-3anddens
ityofmeta
lYis7900Kg m-3)
i
ii
)Itma
sswh
enfu
llofmer
cur
yofd
ens
ity1
3.6g
/cm3.

7
) Amea su
rin
gc yl
inderc on
tain
s8c m3 ofwa t
er.Asmal
lpieceof
br
assofma ss24gi sloweredcarefullyin
toameasur
ingcyl
ind
er
sothatitiscareful
lys ub
merged,ift hedensi
tyofthebra
ssis
8g/
cm3,whatist hen ewr ead
ingoft helevelofwaterinthe
cyl
ind
erinm3.

8) AEurekacanofma s
s60ga ndcrosssecti
onala
reaof60cm2 i
s
3
fi
ll
edwithwaterofdens
ity1g/
cm. Apiec
eofs t
eelofmas
s20g
an
ddensi
ty8g/cm3i
sloweredca
reful
lyint
ot h
ecanass
hown

Ca
lcu
lat
e;

a
) Thetot
almassofwat
era
ndt
heEu
rekac
anb
efor
eth
e
meta
lwaslowered
.

b
) Th
evol
umeofwa
tert
hatoverfl
ower
ed.

c
) Th
efi
nalma
ssoft
heeu
rekac
ana
ndi
tsc
ont
ent
s

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ats
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com

d
) Infin
din
gt h
ed en
s i
tyofli
qui
d,whyi
sth
emethodof
usi
ngdensi
tybottlemor
eaccu
rateth
ant
heon
eofu s
ing
ameasur
ingcyl
inder.

9) 25cm3 ofaliquidxofden
s i
ty1.2g
/cm3 i
smixedwithli
quidof
3 3
volu
me30c ma nd0.
9g/
cm wi t
houtchangei
nvolume.Cal
cula
te
thedensi
tyoft h
emix
tur
e.

1
0)Th
emassofanempt
ydens
itybott
lei
s25.0g.
Itsma
sswhenfil
led
wi
thwateri
s50.
0gandwhenfi
ll
edforma
lini
tsmassi
s60.0g
.
Cal
cul
ate.

a
) Ma
ssofwa
ter

b
) Vol
umeofwa
ter
.

c
) Vol
umeofb
ott
le.

d
) Ma
ssoffor
mal
in.

e) Vol
umeoffor
mal
in.

f) Den
sit
yoffor
mal
in.

1
1) Abutc
herha
sab ea
mbal
anc
eandma
sses0.
5kgand2kg.
How
wou
ldhemeasu
re1.
5kgofmea
tontheb
ala
ncea
tonce?

1
2) Deter
min
ethedens
ityi
nkg/m3ofas
oli
dwh
osema
ssi
s40ga
nd
whosedi
men
sionsi
ncmare30x4x3

1
3)Fi
gur
ebel
ows
howst
her
ead
ingonab
uret
tea
fter55d
rop
sofa
l
iqu
idh
aveb
eenu
sed
.

Pa
ge|
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ats
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Ch
apt
erTh
ree FORCE
Defi
nit
ionofFor
ce c
) Thefi
gur
ebelows
howst
woob
jec
tsofma
ssm1a
ndm2a
cted
up
onbyafor
ceF
 For
ceref
erst
oap
ushorap
ullt
hatr
esu
ltf
romi
nte
rac
tionof
bod
ies
.

 I
tist
hatwh
ichc
han
gest
hes
tat
eofmot
ionofab
ody
.

 Th
eSIu
nitoff
orc
eist
hen
ewt
on(
N).
I
den
tifyfor
ceF
 Forc
eh asbot
hma g
nit
udea
nddir
ect
ionan
disr
epr
ese
nte
dbya
str
aigh
tlin
ewi t
hanarr
owass
hownbel
ow. Gr
avi
tat
ion
alf
orc
e

2. Cen
tri
pet
alFor
ce

 Th
isisaf orcewh
ichma
int
ain
sab
odyt
omo
vei
nac
irc
ula
r
 Thel
engt
hofthel
ines
howsth
ema g
nit
udeofthef
orc
ewh
ile or
bitorp
at h
.
th
earr
owh e
ads
howsth
edir
ect
ionofth
ef or
ce.
 I
tisdi
rec
tedt
owa
rdst
hec
ent
reoft
hec
irc
ula
ror
bit/
Effec
tsofFor
ce t
rac
k.

i
. For
cec
anma
kes
tat
ion
aryob
jec
tmove
. Ex
amp
lesofs
itu
ati
onsi
nwh
ichc
ent
rip
eta
lfor
cea
ctsi
ncl
ude:

i
i. I
tca
nin
cre
ases
pee
dofmovi
ngob
jec
t.  Wh
irl
ingas
ton
eti
edt
oas
tri
ng.

i
ii
. I
tca
nst
opamovi
ngob
jec
t.

i
v. I
tca
nde
cre
ases
pee
dofmovi
ngob
jec
t.

v. I
tc a
nc ha
nges
hap
eofa
nob
jec
t(i
.
e.c
and
efor
man
ob
ject)
.

vi
. I
tcanmakeanobj
ecttur
nabou
taf i
xedp
oin
t(p
ivot
).
Thi
sisc
all
edtu
rni
ngef
fectoffor
ce.

vi
i. I
tca
nch
ang
eth
edi
rec
tionofamovi
ngob
jec
t.

Ex
erc
ise  Th
eea
rthr
evol
vin
gar
oun
dth
esu
nal
ongi
tisor
bit
.

Wh
ichoft
heeffec
tsa
bovec
anb
eca
usedb
y:  Ce
ntr
ifu
geu
sedt
ose
par
ateg
heef
rommi
lk.
a
) Ap
ushon
ly?
 Ac
armovi
ngr
oun
dac
irc
ula
rtr
ackorr
oad(
cor
ner
).
b
) Ap
ullon
ly?
3. Ma
gnet
icfor
ce
c
) Apu
shorap
ull
?
 Ma
gne
ticf
orc
eist
hef
orc
eofa
ttr
act
ionorr
epu
lsi
ond
ue
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ats
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com

Ty
pesoff
orc
e t
oama
gne
t.

 I
tisn
on-
con
tac
tfor
ce.

1
. Gr
avi
tat
ion
alFor
ce  Ma g
neticatt
ract
ion oc
cursbetween a magn
eta n
da
magnet
icma
teri
alorbe
tweenunl
ikep
olesofamagne
twhil
e
 I
trefe
rstoth
ef orceofat
trac
tionbetwe
enanyt
wob od
ies rep
ulsi
onocc
ursbet
weenl
ikepole
sofmagnet.
e
.g.
for
ceofa
ttra
c t
ionbe
tweent
hee a
rthan
dth
emoon.

 Gr
avi
tat
ion
alf
orc
eisan
on-
con
tac
tfor
ce.

Gr
avi
tat
ion
alFor
ceoft
heEa
rth

 I
tisthef
orc
eofa
ttr
act
iononb
odi
est
owa
rdt
hec
ent
reoft
he
e
arth
.

Fa
ctor
saffec
tin
ggr
avi
tat
ion
alfor
ce
4. Upth
rustforce
I. Mass
esoft heobj
ects-Thela
rgerthemass
est hest
ron
ger
th
egravi
tati
ona
lforce
.  Up t
hrus
ti sanu pwa
rdfor
ceact
ingonobj
ect
simmer
sedin
fl
uid
s(l
iquidsorgas
es)
.
I
I. Di
sta
nceofs ep
arat
ionbet
weenth
et woobjects
.Thelon
ger
th
edis
t a
nceofsep
arati
onth
eweakergra
vit
ation
alfor
ce.  Up t
hrus
tc analsobede
fine
dastheapp
are
ntlos
sinwei
ght
ofabodyimmersedi
nali
qui
dorga
s.

Ex
amp
les

a
) Wh
ata
ren
on-
con
tac
tfor
ces
?

 Ther
earef
orc
eswh
icha
cte
veni
fob
jec
tsa
ren
oti
ncon
tac
twi
thon
e
an
other
.

b
) Ex
pla
inwh
yab
allt
hrownu
pwa
rdsr
etu
rnsb
ackt
oth
egr
oun
d

 I
tisd
uet
oat
tra
cti
onb
yea
rth
’sg
ravi
tat
ion
alf
orc
e

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Up
thr
ustonab
ody f
)Smoot
hen
ings
urf
ace
s.

=we
igh
tofb
odyi
nai
r-we
igh
tofb
odyi
nfl
uid g
) Us
ingb
allb
ear
ing
s.

 Up
thr
us sac
ti ont
actfor
ce. h
) Ai
rcu
shi
oni
ng

6. El
ect
ros
tat
icFor
ce

 El
ect
rost
ati
cforceist
hefor
ceofatt
rac
tionorr
epu
lsi
on
be
tweenel
ect
ric
all
ycha
rge
dbodi
es.

 I
tisnon
-con
tactf
orce.Ther
earet
wot
ypesofel
ect
ric
al
Ex
amp
lesofs
itu
ati
onsi
nwh
ichu
pth
rus
tfor
cea
ctsi
ncl
ude: c
har
ges(p
ositi
veandn
eg a
tive)
.

 Ba
lloon
stor
isi
ng  Attr
act
ionoccu
rsbet
weenun
lik
ec h
arge
si .
e.pos
iti
vea
nd
ne
gati
vewhil
erepu
lsi
onoc
cur
sbetweenl
ikecha
rges.
 S
wimme
rsa
ndb
oat
sfl
oat
ing

 Bodi
esi
mme
rse
dinl
iqu
idswe
igh
ingl
esst
hant
hei
rwe
igh
tin
ai
r.

Nu
mer
ica
lEx
amp
le

Abod
yweigh
s100Ninaira
nd80Nwh
ens
ubmer
gedi
nwa
ter
.Ca
lcu
lat
e
t
heup
thr
usta
cti
ngoni
t.
Exampl
esof s
itu
ati
onsi
nwh
ichel
ect
ros
tat
icfor
cea
cts
u
pth
rus
t=a
ppa
ren
tlos
sinwe
igh
t in
clud
e:

=1
00N-
80N=20N a
) Apl
ast
icr
ule
rorpe
nru
bbe
dwi
thp
iec
eofd
ryc
lot
horh
air
a
ttr
act
spi
ecesofp
ape
r.

b
) Awipedgl
asswindowrap
idl
yat
tra
ctsd
ustd
uet
och
arg
es
5. Fr
ict
ion
alFor
ce l
eftonth
emd u
rin
gwi p
ing
.
 Thi
sisafor
ceth
atop
pos
esmot
ionb
etwe
ent
wos
urf
ace
sth
at c
) Pol
ish
edshoe
srapi
dlya
ttr
actd
ustd
uet
och
arg
esl
efton
ar
eincon
tac
t. th
emduri
ngbr
ush
ing
.
 Fr
ict
ion
alforc
einf
lui
ds(
li
qui
dan
dga
ses
)isc
all
edvi
scou
s d
) Anyl
onclot
hp r
od u
cescr
ack
lin
gsou
nda
nds
tic
ksont
he
dr
ag(vi
scos
ity
). b
odywhe
nb e
ingremovede
tc.
 Fr
ict
iona
lf or
ceisacon
tac
tforc
ean ta
di c
tsi
nted
h i
rec
tion
op
posit
et othato
fmoti
onoft
hebod
y.
7
. Ac
tiona
ndRea
cti
onFor
ces

 Acti
onandr
eac
tiona
ret
woe
qua
lfor
cesa
cti
ngi
nop
pos
ite
di
rec
tion
s.
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 Th
eya
rec
ont
actfor
ces
.

 Whenab l
ockofwoodi spl
acedonatab
le,it
sweig
ht
(
act
ion
)ac
tsonth
etabl
e.Th
erea
cti
onoft
hetab
le(
opp
osi
te
f
orce)
act
sonth
eb l
ock
.

Ad
van
tag
esofFr
ict
ion
alFor
ce

Fr
ict
ion
alf
orc
ehe
lpsi
n:

a
) Wr
iti
ng.

b
) Br
aki
ng.

c
) Wa
lki
ng.

d
) Er
asi
ng.

e
)Li
ght
ingama
tchs
tic
ket
c

8. Nu
clea
rFor
ce

Di
sad
van
tag
esofFr
ict
ion
alFor
ce  Thi
sisaf
orc
eth
atb
ind
spr
oton
san
dne
utr
onsi
nat
omi
c
nu
clei
.
a
) Ca
use
swe
ara
ndt
ear
.
 Nu
cle
arf
orc
eisac
ont
actfor
ce.
b
) Hi
nde
rsmot
ion
.

c
) Pr
odu
cesu
nwa
nte
dhe
at.

d
) Pr
odu
cesu
nwa
nte
dsou
nd.

Met
hod
sofRed
uci
ngFr
ict
ion
alFor
ce

i
) Oi
li
nga
ndg
rea
sin
g.

j
) Us
ingr
oll
ers
.

k
)St
rea
mli
nin
gbod
ies
.

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9
. Ten
sionFor
ce i
ii
) Bri
stle
sofab rus
hs pr
eadinwate
rb u
tc l
ingtoget
her
whenthebru
shisretr
ievedou
tofwa ter
.Thec l
ing
ing
 I
tisaf
orc
ewh
icha
ctsons
tre
tch
edb
odi
es. tog
etherofbri
stl
esisduetosu
rfaceten
sionofwater
onthesur
fac
eofb r
ist
les.
 Ten
sionisa
saresu
ltoft
woop
pos
ingf
orc
esa
ppl
iedon
eat
ea
che n
dofabod
y.

 I
tisac
ont
actfor
ce.

i
v) Ad r
opofwa t
erfromaburet
teorwat
ertapgr
owsand
str
etch
esoutbef
oreitfal
lsoffdu
etosu
rfac
etens
ion
onthesu
rfa
ceofthedrop
.

Note:S
urfac
et e
nsionac
tsa
lon
gth
esurfa
ceofal
iqu
idsoasto
re
ducesurfac
ea re
a .Th
isc
anbeil
lus
tra
tedbyt
hef ol
lowi
ng
obse
rvati
ons:

i
) Wh enbu
bbleofsoapisblowntothewideen
doft he
1
0.S
urfa
ceTen
sion fun
nelandt heleftwitht h
eu pp
erend,th
eb ub
ble
re
cedesslowl
yunti
litflatt
enstoafil
m.Itt
her
efore
 Sur
fac
etens
ionisdefin
edastheforceperuni
tle
ngthi
nthe
makesi
tssurf
aceassmal
lasposs
ibl
e.
pl
aneofali
quidsur
faceact
ingatri
ghtangl
esoneit
hersi
de
ofani
mag
inar
ylin
ed r
awnint
hatsur
face.

Mol
ecu
larEx
pla
nat
ionofS
urfa
ceTen
sion

 Amolecu
ledeepinthel
iqu
idissur
roun
dedbyli
qui
dona l
lsi
des
s
ot h
atthenetforceonitiszer
o.Amol ecu
leonthesurf
ace
h
asf ewermolec
ulesont h
eva poursi
dea n
dt h
erefor
ewi l
l
ex
peri
encearesu
ltanti
nwar
df or
ce,cau
sin
gthesur
faceofthe i
i) Whenaf i
lmofas oa
pc on
tain
edinawi reloopis
l
iqu
idtobeint
e n
sion. p
unct
uredorp ierce
da tpoin
tX a sshownbel
ow,t h
e
r
emai
ningpartoft hefi
lmacqui
resamini
mumarea.
The
t
hre
adi st heref
orep ul
ledfrom on
es idemakin
ga
Exampl
esofs
itu
ati
onsi
nwh
ichs
urfa
cet
ens
ionfor
cea
cts p
erfec
tc ur
ve .Thisisbecau
seoff orcesofsurfa
ce
in
clud
e: t
ensi
onfromon esi
deonly.

i
) Astee
lra
zorbl
adeorne
e d
lefloa
tswhe
nc a
ref
ull
ypl
ace
d
onwa
tera
lth
oughst
eelisden
sertha
nwate
r.

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i
i) Ag l
assofwa t
ercanbefi
ll
edwithwat
era
boveth
ebrim Fact
orsAffecti
ngSu
rfa
ceTen
sion
wit
houtwaterpou
rin
gout.
Thisi
sd u
etosu
rfac
etens
ion
onth
es u
rfa
ceofwa te
r. i) Impur
iti
es

 I
mpuri
tie
sr e
duces u
rfacetensi
on of a liqu
id.S oa
p
(
dete
rgent)weak
ensthecohes
iveforc
esb e
tweens u
rfac
e
l
iqu
idmolecul
esandt
here
forer
educi
ngsur
facet
ension.

i
i) Te
mpe
rat
ure

 Temper
atu
rer
educ
essu
rfa
cetens
ionofth
eli
qui
dbeca
useit
weaken
sc oh
esi
ve f
orce of a
ttra
cti
onbetwee
nl iq
uid
mole
cul
es.

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ge|
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Ex
erc
ise  Th
eleve
lofmerc
uryi
ncap
ill
aryt
ube
sislowerth
anth
atof
me
rcu
ryint
heb
asin
.Be
ingl
owesti
nthen
arrowtu
be.
Ex
pla
int
hefol
lowi
ngob
ser
vat
ion
s:
 Inbothcapi
ll
arytub
esme r
cur
ycurve
sd ownwa
rdsattheed
ge
a
) As t
eeln
eed
lep
lac
edc
arefu
llyont
hes
urfa
ceofwa
terd
oesn
ot
(
d oesnotwetglass
).Thi
sisduetostr
on g
ercohe
sivefor
ce
s
ink.
betweenme r
curymolecu
lesthanadhe
s i
veforcesbetween
b
) Wh
enas
mal
ldr
opofd
eter
gen
tsi
spl
acedonwa
ter
,th
efl
oat
ing me r
curyan
dg l
assmolec
ules.
n
eed
lemovesr
api
dlya
wayfr
omi
tan
dsi
nkswh
enmor
edet
erg
ent
i
sad
ded  Th
edown
war
dcu
rvei
sca
lldc
e on
vexmen
isc
us

c
) A ma
tchs ti
ckwra
ppeda toneendwithsoapsta
rtsmoving
i
mmedi
atel
yinon
edi
rect
ionwh
enpl
acedont
hesu
rfa
ceofwater
.
Wa
teronCl
eana
ndWa
xedg
las
ssu
rfa
ces

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ge|
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1
1. Ad
hes
ion(
adh
esi
vefor
ce)

 Adhes
ionrefe
rstot
hefor
ceofa
ttrac
tionb
etweenmol
ecu
les
ofdif
ferentki
nde.
g.f
orc
eofattr
acti
onbetwe
enwa t
erand
gl
assmole
cules
.
 Whenwateri
sd r
op p
edonac le
anpi
eceofg l
ass,i
tspre
ads
Ex
amp
lesofs
itu
ati
onsi
nwh
icha
dhes
ivefor
cea
ctsi
ncl
ude: b
eca
useadhes
ivef orce
sb e
tweengl
assa
n dwatermol
ecul
es
1
) L
iqu
idwe
tti
ngg
las
s. a
restr
ong
erthancohesivefor
cesb
etweenwatermole
cul
es.

2) Pa
ints
tic
kin
gonwa
ll.  Whenwateri
sd r
oppedonwaxedgl
asssur
face,
itroll
sin
to
s
malldr
oplet
s.Thisisb ec
ausewaxin
gr ed
ucesa d
hesi
ve
3) I
nks
tic
kin
gonp
ape
r. f
orcebet
we e
nwa teran
dg la
ssmolec
ules
.Cohesi
vef or
ce
b
ecome
sgreatert
hanadhe
sivefor
ce.
4) Ch
alkma
rks
tic
kin
gont
heb
oar
d.

Ma
ssa
ndWe
igh
t
1
2.Coh
esi
on(
Coh
esi
veFor
ce)
 Massisd e
fine
dast h
eq u
anti
tyofmatt
erinabod
y.
 Cohesionre
fe r
st oth eforceofat t
rac
tionbet
weenmol
ecu
les
ofsamek i
nde.g.
f or
c eofa t
tract
ionbetweenwate
rmole
cul
es.  We i
ghtisthegravi
tati
onalpul
lonabody
. I
tisafor
cea
nd
th
ereforeit
sSIuni
tisNewton(N).
S
omeEffectsofAd hesivean dCohesiveForces
 Thedirect
ionofa c
tionofweightonear
thistowar
dst
he
a
) Capill
aryTubesDi p
p edi
nWa ter cen
treoftheeart
h

Rel
ati
ons
hipb
etweenMa
ssa
ndWei
ght

 Ma
ssa
ndwe
igh
tar
ere
lat
eda
sfol
lows
:

we
igh
t

=ma
ss×a
cce
ler
ati
ond
uet
ogr
avi
ty

(
Gra
vit
ati
ona
lfi
elds
tre
ngt
h)

 I
nbothca
pil
larytu
beswatercur
vesu p
wardsattheedge(wet
s W =Mg
g
lass
).
Theri
seo fwateru
pt h
et ub
eisd u
et oadh
es i
veforc
es
b
etweeng l
assa nd wat
ermol ecul
esb eingstrongertha
n
c
ohesi
veforceofatt
ract
ionbetweenwatermol
ecules
. Defi
nit
ionofa
ccel
era
tiond
uet
ogr
avi
ty(
g)
 Th
eup
war
dcu
rvei
sca
lldc
e on
cavemen
isc
us.  I
tisd
efine
dast
heg
ravi
tat
ion
alf
orc
eac
tin
gonau
nitma
ss
a
taplac
e.

 TheSIun
itofg(g
ravi
tat
ion
alf
iel
dst
ren
gth
)ist
hen
ewt
on
b
) Ca
pil
lar
yTu
besDi
ppedi
nMer
cur
y
perki
log
ram(
N/kg)

 Not
e: A g
rap
hofwe
igh
tve
rsu
sma
ssi
sas
tra
igh
tli
ne

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t
hrou
ght he or
igi
na ndtheslop
e of t
heg
rap
hgi
ves
a
ccel
era
tionduetogr
avi
ty,
gi.
e.

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ge|
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ats
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Di
ffer
enc
esb
etweenMa
ssa
ndWei
ght a
) Ti
me

b
) Te
mpe
rat
ure

Ma s
s weight c
) En
erg
y
Thequantit
yofma t
teri
n Gra
vitati
onalpul
lonan
anobje
c tbody obj
ect d
)Sp
eed
TheSIunitkg(
kil
ogram) SIu
nitisthenewton
Consta
nte ver
ywhere Vari
esf r
omp l
acetopl
ace e
) Ar
ea
As c
alarquant
ity Ave ct
orquanti
ty
f
) Vol
ume
Measu
redu
sin
gab
eam Measu
redu
sin
gas
pri
ng
g
)Le
ngt
h
b
ala
nce b
ala
nce
h
) Ma
ss

i
) Di
sta
nce
.
Ex
amp
les
1
)
1
. Sta
teareasona
stowhywei
ghtofab
odyva
riesfr
omp
lac
etop
lace
ontheea
rth
’ssu
rfa
ce. 2) Vec
torQu
ant
ity

Ave
ctorq
uan
tit
yison
ewi
thb
othma
gni
tud
eadd
n i
rec
tione
.g.
Gr
avita
tionalf
iel
dstren
gthvar
iesfromon
ep l
acetoanot
heront
he
i
) We
igh
t
ea
rth
’ssurf
acebei
ngs
tron
gatth
epole
sa n
dweaka
tthee
qua
tor.
i
i) For
ce

2. Anob
jec
twei
ghs1
000Nonea
rth
’ss
urfa
ce(
g=1
0N/
kg) i
ii
) Ve
loc
ity

a
) Ca
lcu
lat
eit
sma
ss. i
v) Mome
ntu
m

w=mg v) Ac
cel
era
tion

N vi
) Di
spl
ace
men
t
1
000N=m×1
0
kg

1
000N
m= =1
00k
g
10N/k
g  I
fthewei
ghtofacari
s8000N,8000give
smagn
itu
deof
t
heweig
ht,NistheSIuni
tanddir
ect
ionist
oward
sthe
c
ent
reoftheea
rth
.
b
) I
ft h
es ameobjectweigh
s1 60N onthemoons
urfa
ce,fi
ndt
he
g
ravi
tat
ionalfi
eldst
ren
gthofthemoon
.

W =mg Res
ult
antvec
tor

1
60=1
00×g  Thi
sisth
es u
moftwoormoreve
ctor
sta
kin
gin
toa
ccou
nt
th
edir
ecti
onoft
hevect
ors.
160
g= =1
.
60N/
kg
100
Ex
amp
le

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3. Amas
sof7.5kgh
asaweigh
tof30Nonac er
tai
npl
anet
.Ca
lcu
lat
e Fi
ndtheres
ult
an tfor
ceoft
hefor
cesa
cti
ngonap
oin
t
t
hea
ccel
era
t i
ond
uetog
ravit
yont
hisp
lan
et. ob
jec
ts h
ownbelow.
W =mg

30=7
.5×g

30 (
a)
g= =4N/
kg
7.
5

4. Ama
nha
sama
ssof7
0kg
.ca
lcu
lat
e:
S
olu
tion
a
) Hiswei
ghtonea
rthwh
eret
heg
ravi
tat
ion
alfi
elds
tren
gthi
s
10N/kg
. (+4N)+(+5N)= +9N

W =mg

7
0×1
0=7
00N

b
) Hi
sweig
htonmoonwh
eret
heg
ravi
tat
ion
alfi
elds
tren
gthi
s
1.
7N/
kg.

W =mg (
b)

7
0×1
.
7=1
19N

S
cal
ara
ndVec
torQu
ant
iti
es S
olu
tion

1
) S
cal
arQu
ant
ity (
-7N)+(
-3N)+(+2N)+(+4 =-
4N

 Ascal
arq
uan
tit
yison
ewi
thma
gni
tud
eon
lyb
utn
odi
rec
tion
e
.g.

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Ex
amp
les 1
1) Defi
net
het
erms
.

1
) Thefig
ureb
elow s
howst
wog
las
stu
besofd
iffer
entd
iamet
er a
) Ma
ss
di
ppedi
nwat
er.
b
) Wei
ght
.

1
2) Thema
ssofalu
mpofg
oldi
scon
sta
ntever
ywh
ere,
buti
tswei
ght
isn
ot.
Exp
lai
nthi
s.

1
3) Ama
nha
sama
ssof7
0kg
.Ca
lcu
lat
e:

a
) Hisweig
htonea
rth
,wh
eret
heg
ravi
tat
ion
alfi
elds
tren
gthi
s
10N/kg
.
Ex
pla
inwh
yh2i
sgr
eat
ert
hanh
1
b
) Hi
swei g
h tont h
emoon
,wh
eret
heg
ravi
tat
ion
alfi
eld
i
) Ad
hesi
veforc
einn
arr
owt
ubei
sgr
eat
ert
hana
dhe
sivef
orc
e st
ren
gthis1.
7N/
kg.
inwi
dert
ube.
1
4)Ama ssof7.
5kgh a
sweightof30Nonacert
ainp
lan
et.
Cal
cul
ate
i
i) Volu
meofwa t
e ri
nbothtub
esist
hesa
meh
enc
eth
ecol
umnof thea
ccel
era
tionduet
ogravit
yonth
ispl
anet
.
wate
rinn
arrowtubeh2i
sgre
ate
r.
1
5) Defi
neth
efollowi
ngter
ms,gi
vin
gexamp
les.
2) Nametwofor
cest
hatd
eter
min
eth
esh
apeofl
iqu
idd
ropont
hes
oli
d
a
) Vec
torq
uan
tit
y
su
rfac
e
b
) S
cal
arq
uan
tit
y
Coh
esi
vea
nda
dhe
sivef
orc
es
1
6) (
a)Defi
near
esu
lta
ntvec
tor
.
3) Gi
vear
eas
onwh
ywei
ghtoft
heb
odyva
riesfr
omp
lac
etop
lac
e.
(
a) Fi
ndther
esul
tan
tofaforceof4Na n
dafor
ceof8N
Th
egr
avi
tat
ion
alf
iel
dst
ren
gthva
rie
sfr
omp
lac
etop
lac
e.
ac
tin
gatth
esamepoi
ntona
nobjec
tif:
4) A metalb
inwa sobservedtofloa
tonthesurfac
eofp u
rewa t
er.
i
) Th
efor
cea
cti
nth
esa
med
irec
tioni
nth
esa
mes
tra
igh
tli
ne.
Howeverth
ep i
nsankwh enafewdrop
sofsoa
ps ol
uti
onwerea
dded
tothewat
er.Ex
p l
ainth
isobser
vati
on. i
i) Theforc
ea cti
nth
eop
pos
ited
irec
tion
sbu
tint
hes
ame
st
rai
ghtli
ne.
S
oapsolu
tionisanimpur
ity
.Wh enadd
e dtowat
er,i
tl ower
sth
e
s
urfac
eten
sion(
bydi
ssol
vin
g)ofwa
terma
kingth
ene
edl
etosin
k . 1
7)S
howd i
agra
mmatic
all
yh owfor
cesof7Na n
d9Nca
nbec
omb
ined
t
ogivearesul
tan
ttogiveares
ult
antfor
ceof:

(
a)1
6N (
b)2N
Revi
sionEx
erc
ise

1
) Bycon
sid
erin
gacti
on-
rea
cti
onfor
ces
,id
ent
ifywh
ywa
terr
isesu
pa
th
inca
pil
lar
ytub
e.

2) Gi
vet
woex
amp
lesofc
ont
actfor
cea
ndn
on-
con
tac
tfor
ce.

3) S
ket
chh
owavec
torq
uan
tit
yisr
epr
esen
tedonad
iag
ram.

4) Defi
nefor
cea
ndg
iveS
Iun
it.

5) Na
mea
llt
hefor
cesa
cti
ngont
hefol
lowi
ngb
odi
es:

(
a) Ab
oxp
lac
edonat
abl
e

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(
b) Ama
sss
usp
end
edfr
omas
pri
ngb
ala
nce.

(
c) Amovi
ngc
arn
egot
iat
ingab
end
.

6) Defi
nec
ohes
ivefor
cea
nda
dhes
ivefor
ce.

7
) Expl
ainwhyamanu
singapa
rach
utefa
llst
hrou
gha
irs
lowl
ywh
ilea
st
onefallt
hrou
gha
irver
yfast
.

8) As
pri
ngs
tret
chesb
y6c
mwh
ens
upp
ort
ingal
oadof1
5N.

(
b) Byhowmu
chwou
ldi
tst
ret
chwh
ens
upp
ort
ingal
oadof
5kg
?

(
c) Wh
atl
oadwou
ldma
ket
hes
pri
ngex
ten
dby25mm?

9) Ex
p l
aineachofth
efol
lowi
ng,u
sin
gth
ebeh
avi
ourofmol
ecu
les
wher
ep os
sib
le:

(
a) Ast
eelneed
lep
lac
edc
arefu
llyont
hes
urfa
ceofwa
terd
oes
n
ots
ink.

(
b) Wh enasmal
ldr
opofd eter
gentisplac
edonwa t
er,t
h eneedl
e
movesrapi
dlya
wayfromi tandsinkswhenmoredetergenti
s
added.
(assu
metha
tdet er
gentdoesnotaffec
ttheden s
ityof
water)

(
c) A match–sti
ckr
ubb
eda toneendwi
thsoa
ps t
art
smovi
ng
i
mmediatel
yinon
ed i
rec
tionwh
enpla
cedonth
es u
rfa
ceof
water
.

1
0)Defi
nes
urfa
cet
ens
ion
.

a
) Howd oestemper
atu
rer
isea
ndi
mpu
rit
iesa
ffec
tth
esu
rfa
ce
ten
sionofwater?

b
) Howwou
ldt
hes
urfa
cet
ens
ionofwa
terb
ein
crea
sed
?

Ch
apt
erFou
r PRES
SURE

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De
fin
iti
onofPr
ess
ure We ig
ht
a
)Mi
nimu
mPr
ess
ure=
Ma
ximu
mArea
 Pr
ess
urer
efe
rst
ofor
cea
cti
ngp
erp
end
icu
lar
lyp
eru
nita
rea
.
48×10
=
 S
inceforceismeasu
redinnewtonsan
da r
eainsqu
areme t
e r
, 4×3
t
hent h
eS Iun
itofp r
essu
reist h
enewtonpersqu
a r
emet er
480
(
N/m2)orthepas
cal(
Pa).
1newtonpersqu
aremet
er(N/m2)=1 =
1
2
m2
=40N/
p
ascal(Pa
)

For
ce F=P×A
Pr
ess
ure=
Ar
ea We i
ght 480
b
)Ma
ximu
mPr
ess
ure= =
Mi
nimu
marea 2×3
F F
P= A= m2
=80N/
A P

5. Anobjec
twh os
eareaofcont
actwit
ht hefl s5m2 ex
oori ert
sa
pr
ess
ureof900pas
cal.
Cal
cul
atei
tsmass

Pr
ess
urei
nSol
ids F(
Wei
ght
)=P×A

Forceexe
rtedb
yas
oli
dre
sti
ngonas
urf
acei
seq
ualt
oth
ewe
igh
t We
igh
t=9 m2×5m2
00N/
theobj
ect.
w
m=
g
For
ce(
wei
ghtofsol
id)
Pr
ess
ure=
Are
aofcont
act
4500N
= =450k
g.
1
0N/
kg

6. Tr
ackswh
ichc
arr
yhea
vyl
oad
sha
vema
nywh
eel
s.Ex
pla
in.
we
ightofs
oli
d
Ma
ximu
mPr
ess
ure=
Mini
mumArea Man
ywh e
elsincr
eas
et h
eare
aofconta
ctwi
ththeg
roundt
her
eby
r
edu
cin
gpressu
reexer
tedonth
eroa
d.Thi
spr
eve
ntsdama
geofthe
r
oad
sbytrac
ks.

we
igh
tofsol
id 7
. Abloc
kofcopperofden
sit
y9g/m3 mea
c sur
es5c
mby3c
mby2c
m.
Mi
nimu
mPr
ess
ure=
Maxi
mumAre
a Gi
ventha
tgi
s10N/kg,
deter
min
e:

Fa
ctor
sAffec
tin
gPr
ess
urei
nSol
ids

1
. Wei
ghtoft
hes
oli
d(for
ce)
a
) Th
ema
ximu
mpr
ess
ure
 I
ftheare
aofc on
tac
tbe
tweens
oli
dan
dsu
rfa
cei
scon
sta
nt,
We igh
t
p
res
sur
eincr
eas
eswit
hwe
igh
t. Ma
ximu
mpr
ess
ure=
Mi
nimu
ma r
ea
2. Ar
eaofc
ont
actoft
hes
oli
dwi
ths
urfa
ce. Vg
Ma
ximu
mpr
ess
ure=
Mi
nimumar
ea
 Thesmall
erthear
ea,th
eh i
ghert
hep r
ess
ureifsameforc
ei s
app
lie
d.Ther
efor
epres
sureca
nbered
ucedbyin
cre
asin
gtheare
a kg
ofcont
act.
9
m
(
000 3×30×1 )
0-6m3×1
0N/
kg
= 2
6×10-4m
Ex
amp
les
m2
=4500N/
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b
) Th
emi
nimu
mpr
ess
uret
hati
tca
nex
ertonah
ori
zon
tals
urfa
ce.

1
. Abloc
kofasoapston
eofd i
mensi
on4mb y2mb
y3mi
s48kga
ndi
s Wei
ght,
W
Mi
nimu
mpr
ess
ure=
ma
detores
tonasmoot
hhor
izont
alsur
fac
e Max
imumare
a

2. Ca
lcu
lat
eth
emi
nimu
mpr
ess
urei
tex
ert
sont
hes
urfa
ce. 2.
7N
= 2
1 0-4m
5×1
3. Ca
lcu
lat
eth
ema
ximu
mpr
ess
urei
twi
llex
ertont
hes
urfa
ce
2.7
N
= =1 m2
800N/
0.
0015m2

8. I
tisp
ain
fuli
fon
etr
iest
oli
ftah
eavyl
oadb
yat
hins
tri
ng.

Ther
eisas
mal
lareaofcont
actwit
hthefin
ger
swhenat
hinstr
ingi
s
us
ed.Asar
esu
lt,
morepr
e s
surei
sgene
rat
edandth
isi
spa
infu
l.

Ex
erc
ise 2. De
nsi
tyoft
heL
iqu
id

1
. Ap i
cku pcar
ryi
ngstonesweig
hs40,000N.Theweig
htiseveny  Pr
l ess
ureinli
qui
dsinc
reas
e swit
hdensityoftheli
quid
.
s
preadacr
ossthe4types.Th
eareaofcon
tactofea
chtir
ewitht
he
g
roundi 05m2.
s0. Ca
lcul
atethepres
sur
eexer
tedbyeac
htireont
he  Consi
dert woid
enti
calcy
l i
nde
rsfill
edwi t
hwa te
r(ofdens
ity
g
round. 1000kg/m3)a
ndgly
ceri
ne(ofdens
ity1260kg/m3)
respec
tive
ly.
2. Athumbisu
sedtopu
shathu
mbp ini
ntoapi
eceofwood.
Expl
ainin  Pr
essu
reatpoi
ntBisg
reat
erth
anp
res
sur
eatpoi
ntAbec
aus
e
t
ermsofp r
ess
urewhyth
ep res
sureonwoodisgrea
terth
ant h
e gl
yce
rin
ei sdens
erthanwat
erandthe
ref
oreexer
tsmor
e
p
ress
ureont
hethu
mb.
p
res
sur
eth
anwa
ter
.
2
3. Anelep h
antofmass2800kgh asfeetofa ver
agea r
eaof200c m.A
vult
ureofma ss12kgwa l
ksbesidetheelepha
ntonamu ddyar
ea,th
e
averageareaofthefeetofthevult
ureis2.0cm2.Whic
honeisli
kel
y
tosink?Expl
ainy
ouranswers
howinganynecessar
yc a
lcu
lat
ion
s.

4. Agir
lstan
din
gu p
righ
texert
sap r
essur
eof1 5000N/m2onthefl
oor.
Gi
venth
atthetota
lareaofcon
tactofshoesandt
hefl
oori 02m2.
s0.

a
) Det
ermi
net
hema
ssoft
heg
irl
.

b
) Deter
mineth
epr
ess
ures
hewou
ldex
ertont
hefl
oori
fsh
est
ood
ononefoot
.

5. Abloc
kofc op
perofdensi
ty8.
9g/m3 mea
c su
res10cm×6c
m×4c
m.
-
1
Gi
ventha
tth
eforceofgr
avit
yis1
0Nkg ,d
eter
mine:

a
) Th
ema
ximu
mpr
ess
ure. ToDemon
str
ateVa
ria
tionofPr
ess
urewi
thDep
thofL
iqu
ids

b
) Th
emi
nimu
mpr
ess
uret
hati
tca
nex
ertonah
ori
zon
tals
urfa
ce.  Cons
ideratal
lti
nwithhol
esA,BandCequ
all
ysp
ace
donon
e
si
dealongaver
tic
all
ineassh
ownb
elow.

 Whenth
etinisfil
ledwit
hwater
,th
ewa t
erje
tsoutoft
he
Pr
ess
urei
nLi
qui
ds h
oleswi
tht
hatfromhol
eAt h
rownfar
the
stfol
lowe
dbyth
at
f
romhol
eBandla
s t
lyfr
omhol
eC.
Fa
ctor
sAffec
tin
gPr
ess
urei
nLi
qui
ds
 Thi
smean
st h
atpre
ssureofwateratAisgrea
tert
hanp
res
sure
1
. Dep
thoft
heL
iqu
id
atBandp r
essu
reatBi sg r
eatertha
np r
essu
reatC.Hen
ce,
 Pr
ess
urei
nli
qui
dsi
ncr
eas
eswi
thd
ept
h. Pre
ssu
reinli
qui
dsinc
reaseswit
hd e
pth.

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 Thi
sisthere
asonast
owh ywal
lsofad a
ma rethi
ckeratth
e
bot
tomtha
natthet
opass
hownbelow.Thi
ckwallsa
tthebott
om
ofthed
amwiths
tan
dhi
ghpr
e s
sur
ed u
et owate
ratthebott
om.

 Pres
sureinc
rea
sin
gwithdep
thofliq
uidex
plai
nswhyad i
verat
th
eb ottomoftheseaexpe
rien
cesmorepr
essur
ed u
et omore
weig
htofwa te
rabovehi
mthanadi
vernea
rthetop/sur
faceof
th
es ea
.

ToDemon
str
ateVa
ria
tionofPr
ess
urewi
thDep
tha
ndDen
sit
yof
Li
qui
ds

 Consi
deratra
nspar
entgl
assves
selfi
ll
edwi
thwatera
nda
thi
stl
efunn
elconn
ectedt
oau-t
ubefi
ll
edwi
thcol
ore
dwate
r
tosomel
eveldi
ppedin
toi
t.

 I
ti sobser
vedt h
a tthedeeperthefunne
lg oesbe
low t
he
su
rfaceofwa ter
,t h
eg r
eate
rt hediff
erenc
ei nle
velsof
wateri
nthetwolimbsoftheu-t
ube,h
.Thi
sisd u
etoinc
rea
se
i
npressu
rewithd
ep t
h.

 Wh e
ng ly
ceri
neisuse
dinpla
ceofwa teritisobser
vedthata
t  Thepre
ssur
ep ,e
xerte
da ttheb ott
om( bas
e)oft hecontai
ner
th
es amedeptht
hed i
ffer
enc
ei nle
ve l
s,hisgreat
ertha
nwh e
n byth
ewe i
ghtoft
heliq
uidabovei ti
sg i
venby :
waterisuse
d.Th
isisbeca
useg l
ycer
inisdenserth
anwateran
d
th
ereforeitispre
ssur
ea tsamedepthish i
gherthant
hatof F w(wei
ghtofli
quid)
P= =
water. A A(
cross
-secti
onare
a ofth
e con
tai
ner
)

Bu
tw= Ah
g

Wh
ereAh=vol
umeoft
hel
iqu
id

Ahg
∴P=
A

P=hg
.Th
isi
sth
efl
uidp
res
sur
efor
mul
a.

 Fromthef
ormul
aiti
sc l
earthtp
a r
ess
ureinflu
idsdoesn
ot
depen
donc r
oss
-sec
tionare
aofthec on
tai
nerhol
din
gthe
li
qui
d.

Ex
amp
les
ToDemons
tra
tet
hatPr
ess
urea
tEq
ualDep
th,Ac
tsEq
ual
lyi
nAl
l
Di
rec
tion
s

 Con
side
ratinwit
htwos
imi
larh
ole
soni
tss
idea
tsa
meh
eig
ht 1
.
) Adiverwor
kin
gu n
derwat
eris1
5mb el
owt h
es u
rfa
ceofthesea
.
ass
hownal
ongs
ide. Ca
lcul
ateth
ep r
essur
edu
et owa
terexp
eri
encedbyth
edi
ver(t
ake
g
=10N/
kg)
andd
ens
ityofs
eawa
tert
obeeq
ualt
o1.
03g
/cm3.
 Wh e
nt hetini
sfi
ll
edwithwater
,itisobs
ervedtha
twater
t
ravelsoutoft
heh
olese
qualh
ori
zont
aldi
sta
ncesfr
omthec
an. P=hg

Pa
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The
refor
ep r
ess
uree
xer
teda
teq
uald
ept
hiss
amei
nal
l =1
5m×1
030k
g/m3×1
0N/
kg
di
rect
ion
s.
=1 m2
54500N/

2.
) Th
efi
gur
ebel
ows
howsal
iqu
idi
nap
ail
.

Fl
uidPr
ess
ureFor
mul
a

 Con
side
rac onta
ine
rwithc
ross
-sect
ionare
a,A,fi
ll
edwi
tha
l
iqu
idofde
ns i
ty,,tot
hehei
ght
,h,
asshownal
ong
sid
e.

I
fth
eliq
uidhasaden
sityof0.
79g/m3,
c det
ermi
net
hep
res
sur
eex
ert
ed
a
tth
ebottomofth
epailbyt
hel
iqu
id.

o P=hg

=0.
45m×7
90k
g/m3×1
0N/
kg

m2
=3555N/

b
) S
ugg
es tareasonwh
ypa
ilma
nufa
ctu
resp
refert
hes
hap
esh
own
t
oothersh
a p
es

Toreduc
et h
eheig
htofthepa
ilb
utmain
tai
nth
ecap
aci
ty.
Thi
s
re
ducesthepre
ssu
reexe
rtedbyt
heli
qui
datth
ebot
tomofth
e
pai
l.

3.
) Calc
ulat
et h
ep r
essu
reexert
edb
y76mmc
olu
mnofmer
cur
ygi
ven
th
atitsden
sityi
s13.
6g/
cm3

o p=hg

kg
o =0.
76m×1
3600 3×1
0N/
kg
m

o =1 m2
03360N/

4.
) Ac olumnofgl
y c
eri
n8.20mhigh,acol
u mnofseawa ter10.
08mhi
gh,a
columnofmercur
y0.76mhig
ha ndcolu
mnoffr eshwa ter10.
34mh i
gh
exertthesamepress
ureatthebottomofac on t
ainer.Arra
nget
hese
substa
n c
esindecr
easin
gorderoftheirdensi
ties.

Me
rcu
ry,
gly
cer
ine
,se
awa
ter
,fr
eshwa
ter

Pa
ge|
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com

Pasc
al’
sPr
inc
ipl
e(Th
ePr
inc
ipl
eofTr
ans
mis
sionofPr
ess
urei
n  Pres
sur
eex
ert
edont
hel
iqu
idb
ypi
ston
,Sd
uet
ofor
ce,
FS,i
s
Li
qui
ds) PS.

 Pasc
al’
spr
inc
ipl
esta
testh
atpr
essur
eappl
iedaton
epa
rtina F
li
qui
distr
ans
mitt
edequ
all
ytoallot
herp
artsofth
een
lar
ged PS= S
AS
li
qui
d.
 ByPasc
al’
spri
nci
pleth
ispre
ssu
rePSi
seq
ualt
opr
ess
urePL
Demon
str
ati
ngPa
sca
l’
sPr
inc
ipl
e ex
ert
edbyli
qui
donpis
ton,
L.
 Cons
ide
raliq
uidun
derpr
ess
ured
uet
ofor
ce,F,a
cti
ngont
he PS=PL
pl
ung
erass
hownbe
low.
Fs FL
 Not
e:Th
ehol
esa
reofe
qua
ldi
ame
ter
. =
As AL

Ex
amp
les

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1
. Thefigu
reb elowshowstwoma
ssespla
cedonli
ghtpis
tons
.The
pi
stonsareh el
dstati
ona
rybyt
heliq
uidwhos
edensi
ty0.8g/
cm3.
Deter
min
et h
efor c
eF.

 Wh enth
ep l
u n
gerispus
he di
n,wate
rs qui
rtsoutofthehol
es
wit
he qu
alf orc
e.Thisshowsthatpres
suregenera
tedbythe
pi
stononthewa t
eristr
ansmi
ttedequa
llytoalloth
erpar
tsof
th
eliqu
id.

Ap
pli
cat
ion
sofPa
sca
l’
sPr
inc
ipl
e
F F( i
.
e.w=mg
)
 Pa
sca
l’
sPrin
cip
leisapp
liedint
hewor
kin
goft
heh
ydr
aul
ic o hg+ B = A
AB AA
ma
chi
nes
.Th
esemac
hin
esin
clud
e:
60×10N kg FB
) Hy
a dr
auli
cp r
essusedt
ocomp
res
ste
xti
lep
rod
uct
sli
ke o
0.0008m2
=1
.
8m×800 3×1
0N/
Kg+
00025m2
0.
m
bl
anke
tsforpac
kin
g.
N FB
) Hy
b dra
uli
cli
ftu
sedt
ohoi
stc
arsi
nga
rag
es. o 7
50000 2 =1 m2+
440N/
m 0.
00025

( )
) Hy
c dra
uli
cbr
akes
yst
emu
sedf
orb
rak
ingi
nca
rs. N N
o FB = 7
50000 2-
1 00025m2
440 2 0.
m m
Pr
ess
ureTr
ans
mis
sioni
nHy
dra
uli
cMa
chi
nes
=1
87.
1
4N
 Noteth
atp
res
sur
eats
amel
eve
lint
hel
iqu
idi
sth
esa
mea
sse
en
ear
li
er.

 Consi
dertheh
ydr
aul
icmach
inebel
ow con
sis
tin
gofasmal 2. Th
l ear
eaoft hel
arg
es yrin
geinanexper
imentis1 m2a
8c n
dth
atof
2
pi
ston,S,a
ndalar
gepis
ton,L,ofcr
oss-sect
iona
ssh
own th
esm a
lle
r on
eis3.0cm .Aforceof2 Nis a
ppli
edo nth
esmal
ler
al
ongsid
e. pi
ston
.Fin
d t
hefor
ceproducedonth
e l
argerpi
ston
.

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Fs FL Pr
oper
tiesoft
heHy
dra
uli
cBr
akeFl
uid
o =
As AL
(
a) I
tsh
oul
dnotc
orr
odep
art
soft
hes
yst
em
2N FL
o 2= (
b) I
tsh
oul
dbeh
igh
lyi
ncomp
res
sib
le
0.
0003m 0. 8m2
001

2N×0. 8m2
001 (
c) I
tsh
oul
dha
veal
owf
ree
zin
gpoi
nta
ndh
ighb
oil
ingp
oin
t.
FL= =1
2N
0003m2
0.
At
mos
pher
icPr
ess
ure
4. Th
edi
agr
amb
elows
howsau
-tu
befi
ll
edt
wol
iqu
ids
,xa
ndy
.Ift
he
d
ens
ityofl
iqu
idyi
s1.
00g
/cm3,
det
ermi
net
hed
ens
ityofl
iqu
idx
.  Thi
sist h
ep res
sureexe
rte
dont
hee
art
h’ss
urf
aceb
yth
e
col
umnofaira
roundi
t.

ToDemon
strat
eEx
ist
enc
eofAt
mos
pher
icPr
ess
ure(
Cru
shi
ngCa
n
Exp
eri
ment)

 Consi
derat
inconta
ine
rwithsomewaterini
t.Th
ec ont
ain
eri
s
o h g=h
x x
g
y y hea
tedforsometi
mewh i
leop
e nandcl
osedafte
rwi t
hdra
win
g
hea
tin
g.Col
dwa t
eristh
enpou
re doni
timmedi
atel
y.
N kg
o 0.
40m× x×1
0 =0.
30m×1
000 3×1
0N/
kg
kg m

4.
0Nm N
o × =3000 2
kg x m

k
g
o x
=7
50 3
m

Hy
dra
uli
cBr
akeS
yst
em

 Theh
ydra
uli
cbrak
esyst
emusesth
eprin
cipleoftr
ans
mis
sionof
pr
ess
urei
nliq
uid
s(Pa
scal
’sp
rin
cip
le)
initsoper
ati
on.

 I
tisob
ser
vedt
hatt
hec
ont
ain
erc
rus
hesi
nwa
rdswh
enc
old
wate
rispour
e doni
t.Thi
sisbe c
auses te
amf r
omb oil
ingwate
r
dr
ivesouttheairi
nsi
det h
ec onta
inerandap a
rti
a lvacu
umis
cr
eatedwhenthecontai
neriscooled.Thehigh
era tmosph
eri
c
pr
essur
efromtheouts
idecrus
h e
st h
ec onta
ine
rinwa r
ds.

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Ex
amp
le

Aseadiveri
s18mbelowthesu
rfac
eofs eawat
er.
Ifthed
ensi
tyofsea
wateri
s1.
03g/m3a
c ndgis10N/kg,det
ermin
ethetot
alpr
ess
ureonh
im.
(
Takeatmosp
her
icp
ressur
epa=103000N/m2)
.

Tot
alp
res
sur
e=hg+Pa

kg N
=1
8m×1
030 3×1
0 +1 m2
03000N/
m k g

m2
=288400N/
Mod
eofOp
era
tionofHy
dra
uli
cBr
akeS
yst
em

 Wh e nasma l
lf orceisappli
edonth ebrakepedal
, i
tp ush
est h
e
pis
t onoft hema stercyli
nderin
ward s
.Thisprod
uce sap r
essur
e
thatise q
uallytransmit
tedtothepis t
onsintheslavecylind
ers.
Thep ressu
reg enerate
saf orcewhichp u
shesthepistonsoft h
e
sla
vec yl
inderou t
wa r
ds.Thepist
on sthenpushtheb r
akes h
oes
andt h
ereforet heb rake li
ning outwards
.Th eb rakel i
nin
g
touchesandst opsrotat
ingwheeldr
u m.

 Theretu
rnspr
ingre
tur
nstheb
rak
es hoesi
ntoth
eiror
igi
nal
pos
iti
onaft
erfor
ceonb
rak
eped
alhasb
e e
nre
move
d.

Mea
sur
emen
tofPr
ess
ure 2) Thed i
agra
mb elow show amercur
yma nometer
.Somed r
yg asis
presenti nthec losed s
pace.Ift hea tmosp
her
i cpr
essureis
1
) U-
Tub
eMon
omet
er 105000N/ m2an
dd ens
ityofmerc
ury13600kg/m3,
deter
min
ep r
essu
re
ofth egas(
takeg=10N/kg)
.
 I
tisu
se ome
dt asu
reg
asp
res
sur
e.

 I
tcon
sis
tsofu
-tu
bef
ill
edwi
ths
uit
abl
eli
qui
dtos
omel
eve
l.

 Con
sid
eru-t
ubema
nome
terb
elowi
nwh
ichon
eli
mbi
scon
nec
ted
tog
assup
ply.

o hg+Pg=Pa

kg N
o 0.
25m×1
3600 3×1
0 +Pg=1 m2
05000N/
m kg

o m2+Pg=1
34000N/ m2
05000N/

N N
o Pg=1
05000 2-
34000 2
m m
 Aan
dBareatth
esamehor
izon
tall
eve
lan
dth
ere
for
epr
ess
ure
o =7
1 m2
000N/
a
tAise
qualt
opres
sur
eatB.

 Pr
ess
urea
tAi
sdu
etot
heg
as,
pgwhi
lep
res
sur
eatBi
sdu
eto
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t
hec
olu
mnofl
iqu
ida
nda
tmos
phe
ricp
res
sur
e. 2) Mer
cur
yBa
romet
er

Pr
ess
urea
tA,
PA =Pr
ess
urea
tB,
PB  I
tisu
se ome
dt asu
rea
tmos
phe
ricp
res
sur
e.

Pg=hg+Pa  I
templ
oysthefac
tt ha
tat
mos
phe
ricp
res
sur
esu
ppor
tsa
c
olu
mnofl
iqu
idi
natub
e.
 Wh
ere i
sth
ede
nsi
tyofl
iqu
idi
nth
eu-
tub
e.
Con
str
uct
ionofMer
cur
yBa
romet
er

 I
tisma
deofat
hic
k-wa
lle
dgl
asst
ubeofa
bou
t1ml
ongs
eal
ed
Ex
amp
les a
toneend
.
1
) Thehei
ght
,hofawa
terma
nomet
eri
s20c
mwh
enu
sedt
omea
sur
e  Th
etu
bei
sth
enf
ill
edc
are
ful
lywi
thme
rcu
ryt
oth
etop
.
pr
ess
u r
eofag
as.
 Anyb
ubb
lesofai
rint
hetu
beareremove
dbyc
los
ingt
heop
en
e
ndan
dinve
rti
ngt
hetub
eseve
rall
y.

 Th
etu
bei
sth
eni
nve
rte
din
toad
ishf
ill
edwi
thme
rcu
ry.

 Mercur
yispre
ferr
edi
nth
econs
tru
cti
onofb
arome
tert
oot
her
l
iqu
idsbeca
useisve
t r
yhi
ghden
sit
y.

a
) Deter
minet hep
res
sur
edu
etog
as,I
fat
mos
pher
icp
res
sur
eis
103000N/m2.

o Pg=hg+Pa

o =0.
20m×1
000k
g/m3×1
0N/
kg+1 m2
03000N/

o =1 m2
05000N/

b
) Wha
twou l
dbet
heh
eig
hti
fth
eli
qui
dus
edi
sgl
ycer
inofd
ens
ity
1
.
26g/
cm3

o Pg=hg+Pa

N
o 1
05000 2 =h
×1260k
g/m3×1
0N/
kg+1 m2
03000N/
m

o 1 m2=1
05000N/ m3×h+1
2600N/ m2
03000N/

o m2=1
2000N/ m3×h
2600N/

m2
2000N/
h= =0.
1
6m
1 m3
2600N/

Pa
ge|
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ats
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Us
ingMer
cur
yBa
romet
er

 Thehei
ghth,of th
e me
rcu
ryc
olu
mni
sth
e me
asu
re of
at
mos
pher
icp
res
sur
e.

 Th
ecol
umnofme
rcu
ryh
,ats
eal
eve
lis7
6cmHg
.I
nSIu
niti
tis
:

Pa=hg

0.
76m×1
3600k
g/m3×1
0N/
kg=1 m2
03360N/ S
iph
on
 Th eatmosph
ericpre
ss ur
eats ealeveli
sc a
l l
edon ea
tmosph
ere  Sip
honisus
edtotrans
ferli
qui
dfromonecon
tain
ertoan
other
.
orstan
dardat
mosphericpre
s s
ure(76c
mHgor1 03360N/m2)
 Theuseofsip
hontotran
sferl
iqu
idduetopr
essur
edif
ferenc
e
Exa
mples
iscal
ledsi
phoni
ng.Consi
dert
hes i
phon
ingar
ran
gemen
ts h
own
1
) As t
uden
tinaplac
ewh erethemerc
urybar
ometerrea
ds75cmwan
ted bel
ow.
tomakea
nal
coholb
arometer
.Ifal
coh
olha
sad ens
ityof800kg
/m3,
whati
sth
emi
nimuml
engthofthet
ubeth
atc
oul
db eused
?

Pa=h g=h
Hg Hg al a
l
g

0.
75m×1
3600kg/
m3×1
0N/
kg=h
al
×800kg/
m3×1
0N/
kg

10200
h = =1
2.
75m
al 8000

2) Theb a
rometri
ch ei
ghtinat ownis70cmmer c
ury.Giventhatthe
sta
ndardatmospher
icpres
sureis76c
mmer cu
rya ndthed en
sit
yof
mercu
ryis13600kgm3,
/ d
etermi
neth
ealti
tud
eoft hetown.(
Densi
tyof
3
ai
ris1.
25kg/m).
 Pr
ess
ureatA ise qu
a lt
opr
ess
urea
tB a
ndi
tist
he
(
Note:St
and
ardp
res
sur
erefer
stot
hea
tmos
pher
icp
res
sur
eats
ea at
mosp
her
icp
res
sur
e,Pa
l
evel)
.
 Pr
essu
reatcisequaltop r
ess
urea
tBp
lusp
res
sur
edu
eto
Pd
iff
ere
nce=Pa
tse
ale
vel
-Pa
ttown
wat
ercol
umn,
h,i
.
e.PC =PB +hg
(
h -h n)
l Hgt
Hgs
× Hg×g=h
ai
× ir×g
r a
 Pr
essur
edi
ffer
enceb
etwe
e nBan
dC( i
.
e.PC-PB =hg)i
swha
t
(
0.
76-
0.
70)
m×1
3600kg/
m3×1
0N/
kg=h
ai
r
×1
.
25kg/
m3×1
0N/
kg make
sthel
iqu
idtofl
owfromth
eu p
percont
ainert
oth
elower
on
e.
8160
h = =652.
8m(
Thi
sist
hea
lti
tud
eoft
het
own
)
ar 1
i 2.
50 Con
dit
ion
sun
derwh
ichS
iph
onWor
ks
3) Thefi
gur
ebelowshowsaper
sons
ucki
ngwa
teru
sin
gas
tra
w.Ex
pla
in a
) Thetu
bemustbefil
ledwi
tht
hel
iqu
idf
irs
t.Th
isc
rea
tesa
howsu
cki
ngismad
ep os
sib
le. pr
ess
ured
iff
e r
enc
e.

b
) Ther
emu s
tbead
iff
ere
ncei
nle
vel
sofl
iqu
idi
nth
etwo
con
tain
ers
.

c
) Theendofthetub
emu
str
ema
inb
elowt
hel
iqu
ids
urf
aceoft
he
up
p e
rconta
iner
.
Whenonesuckspre
ssu
reins
idet
hes t
rawred
uce
sbelowtheatmos
phe
ric Ex
amp
le
p
res
sur
e .
Thepres
sur
ediff
eren
cecau
seswat
ertogoi
ntoth
es t
rawandr
ise
u
ptothemout
h. Th
efigu
reb
elows
howsh
owt
oemp
tywa
terfr
omal
arg
eta
nki
ntoal
ow
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Tes
tin
gth
eVa
cuu
mint
heBa
romet
er l
yin
gta
nku
sin
gru
bbert
ubi
ng.

 Thevac
uumistestedbytil
tin
gt hetub
e .I
fthet ubeisful
ly
fi
ll
edthenthespac
ei savacuumbutift h
et u
bei snotful
ly
fi
ll
edthe
nthespac
eisnotavacuum;i
thassomeairoccu
pyi
ngit
an
dthe
refor
e,th
ebaromet
erisfau
lty.

2) Th
eBi
cyc
lePu
mp

 Thel
eat
herwa
shera
ctsa
sb hava
ot lvea
ndp
ist
oni
nsi
det
he
pu
mpbar
rel
.

 Whenthepumphand
leisdrawnouta sshown,a
irinth
eb ar
rel
a
) Expl
a i
nwh ythetub
emustbefi
lledwi
thwaterb
eforeth
eemp t
yin
g e
xpand
sa n
di t
sp ress
ure re
ducesb elow th
e a
tmosp
heri
c
proc
esss t
art
s. p
res
sure.Airfrom out
sid
et hep umpt henflowspastt h
e
l
eat
herwa s
heri
ntothebar
rel.
Att h
es ametime,t
hehi
gherair
Toc
reatepre
ssur
ed i
ffer
enc
ebe
tweenCandDth
iswil
lle
adtocon
tin
uous p
res
sureinthet
yrecl
osesthetyr
eva l
ve.
f
lowofwa
terf
romt
heu
ppe
rta
nkt
oth
elowe
rta
nk.
 Whenthepumpha
ndl
eispu
shedi
n,t
heai
risf
orc
edi
ntot
he
b
) S
oonaft
erthetankbegi
nst oempt
yth
eloweren
dismomen
tar
il
y t
yret
hroug
ht h
ety
reval
vewhi
chn
owope
ns.
b
loc
kedbyp
lac
ingafi
ngeratendD.
Note:Ther
eisanin
cre
aseintemp
era
tur
eoft h
ep u
mpbar
rel
I
. Det
ermi
nep
res
sur
edi
ffer
enc
ebet
weenp
oin
tAa
ndD.
du
ringpu
mpingt
hisi
sbeca
useofth
eworkdon
eincompr
ess
ing
o PAD=hg ai
r.

kg N
o PAD=2m×1
000 3×1
0
m k g
3) Th
eLi
ftPu
mp
m2
o PAD=20000N/

I
I. whatwil
lbet
hepres
sur
eexper
ien
cedbyt
hefin
g era
tpoi
ntD.
(ta
ke
den
sit
yofwater
=1000kgm3a
/ ndpa
=100,
000N/m2

o PD=Patm+hg

N N2
o PD=1
00000 2 +20000
m m

o 20000Nm-2
=1

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Ap
pli
cat
ion
sofPr
ess
urei
nLi
qui
dsa
ndGa
ses

1
) AS
yri
nge

 Wh e
nt h
ep i
stonisp ul
ledupwards(du
rin
gu p
stroke),sp
aceis
cr
eatedinthebarrelthusloweri
ngthep r
essu
rei nsi
deb e
low
at
mospher
icpress
ure.Thehigh
era t
mosphe
ricpr
essureacti
ngon  Tostar
tthepump
,wate
rispou
redont
opofth
epist
onsot
hat
th
eliqu
idpus
hestheliqui
dintothebar
rel
. goodairt
igh
tseali
smader
oundthep
ist
ona
ndinval
vePthe
pumpi
soperat
edbymea
nsofaleve
r
 Dur
ingad owns troke,thep res
sureinsi
deincreasesa b
ove
at
mospher
icpr
e s
sureandtheliq
uidisex
pell
edfromthebarrel
. Upstr
oke

 Whenth epl
ung
ermovesupduri
ngtheupstr
oke,val
veRc loses
d
uet oitsweig
htandpress
ureofwa te
raboveit.Atthes a
me
t
ime,airab
oveva l
vee x
pandsanditspres
sureredu
c e
sb el
ow
a
tmospheri
cpress
ure.
Theatmosphe
ricpre
ssureonthewaterin
t
hewe llbel
owt huspus
heswa t
eru ptop a
stva l
vei n
tot he
b
arr
e l
.

 Thep
lung
eri
smovedu
pan
ddown
hil
lth
esp
aceb
etwe
enRa
nd
Si
sfi
lle
dwit
hwate
r.

Downs
troke

 Dur
ingdownst
rok
e,val
veSc
los
esd
uet
oit
swe
igh
tan
d
pr
essur
eofwa
terab
ovei
t.

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L
imi
tat
ion
soft
heL
iftPu
mp Ex
erc
iseona
ppl
ica
tion
sofp
res
sur
e

 I
np r
acti
cal,t
hepossi
bleh
eigh
tofwat
ert
hatc
anb
era
ise
dby (
a) Th
efi
gur
ebel
ows
howsal
iftp
ump
t
hispumpisle
sst
h a
n10mbeca
useof

i
)Lo
watmos
phe
ricp
res
sur
einp
lac
esh
igha
bove
s
eal
eve
l,

i
i)L
eak
agea
tth
eva
lve
san
dpi
ston
s

4) Th
eFor
cePu
mp

Th
isp
umpi
sus
edt
ora
isewa
tert
ohe
igh
tsofmor
eth
an1
0m.
Ex
pla
inwh
y,wh
ent
hep
ist
oni
s;

(
b) Pu
lledu
pwa
rds
,va
lveAop
enswh
ileva
lveBc
los
es.

(
c) Pu
shedd
own
war
ds,
val
veAc
los
eswh
ileva
lveBop
ens

(
d) Aft
ers
ever
als
trokes
,wa
terr
isesa
bovet
hep
ist
ona
ssh
ownb
elow.

S
tat
ehowwa
teri
sremovedfr
omt
hec
yli
ndert
hrou
ght
hes
pou
t.

(
e) Ali
ftpumpcanli
ftwa t
erupt oamaxi
mumhei
ghtof10m.det
ermi ne
t
hema x
imumh ei
ghttowh icht hepu
mpc anrai
sep a
raffi
n.
(ta ke
d
ensi
tyofpar
affinas800kgm-3a
ndden
sit
yofwatera
s1000kg m-3)
Up
str
oke
(
f) S
tat
eonefac
tort
hatd
eter
min
est
heh
eig
htt
owh
ichafor
cep
ump
 Duri
ngupst
roke,a
irabovethevalveFe xp
andsanditspre
ssur
e c
anli
ftwa
ter
.
redu
cesbelowatmospher
icpress
ure.Theatmospher
icpre
ssur
e
onwateri
nt h
ewe l
lpushe
swa t
erupp a
stvalveFintoth
eb a
rre
l.
Press
ureabovevalveGi sa
tmospheri
c.Hence,t
hisval
ved oe
s
notopeni
nthiss
troke.

Downs
troke

 Durin
gt h
edownstrok
e,thevalveFc l
oses
.Inc
r ea
seinp r
essur
e
duetowa te
rinthebar
relopensvalveGandf orceswaterint
o
chamberSsotha
ta swaterfil
lsthechamb
er,airistr
a p
peda n
d
compress
edattheupperpar
t.Dur
ingthenex
tup str
oke,valveG
closesandthecompress
eda irexpan
dsensur
i n
gac onti
nuou
s
flow.

Ad
van
tag
eofFor
cePu
mpovert
hel
iftp
ump

a
)Ite
nab
lesac
ont
inu
ousf
lowofwa
ter
.
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b
) Thehei
ghttowh
ichi
tca
nra
ised
oesn
otd
epe
ndon
at
mos
pheri
c.

Fa
ctor
sAffec
tin
gWor
kin
goft
heFor
cePu
mp

a
) Amou
ntoff
orc
eap
pli
edd
uri
ngt
hed
owns
trok
e.

 Abi
li
tyofth
epumpan
ditswor
kingpar
tst
owi
ths
tan
dpr
ess
ure
oft
hecol
umnofwat
erinch
amberc.

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Revi
sionEx
erc
ise 1
5. Th
efi
gur
ebel
ows
howsah
ydr
aul
icp
res
s

1
. Apistonwhos
ed i
ameteris1
.4mispus
hedint
oac y
lin
derc
ontai
nin
ga
fl
uid
,Ifthepr
essurep
r od
ucedinth
ecyli
nderis4.
0x105pa,
Calcu
lat
e
th
efor c
eappl
iedonthepist
on.

2. Anoctopusi
sresti
ngintheocean
.Iftheoc
topusisatadepthof47m
ins
eawhosewaterhasadensi
tyof1200kg/m3,
c a
lcul
ateth
ep r
essu
re
exp
eri
encedbytheoctop
us(Takeatmos
pher
icpressu
re=1.
0125x105
Pa)

3. Expl
ainwhyifairg et
si nthebr
akes
yst
em wou
ldr
edu
cet
he
effi
cien
cyoft
heb
rakes.(
2mar
ks)

4. Aconc
reteb
loc
kofma
ss50kgr
est
sont
hes
urfa
ceoft
het
abl
eas
s
hownbel
ow. Thetwop i
stonsareofar
eas0mm2a
1 nd20mm2r
espec
tivel
y.Aforc
eof
100Nisappliedonthes
mall
erpi
ston
,fin
dtheloa
dthatcanb
elift
edon
thel
argerpistoni
f:

a
. Th
epi
stonh
asn
egl
igi
blewei
ghta
ndn
ofr
ict
ion
alfor
cesex
ist
.

b
. Thepi
stonshaven
egl
igi
blewei
ghta
ndfr
ict
ion
al1
0Na
nd40N
res
pect
ively
.

Thesma
llerp
ist
onhastheweig
ht5Nthelar
gerp
ist
onh
asawei
ght
of10Nandth
efric
tion
alfor
cesar
eneg
lig
ibl
e.
Wha
tisthema
ximu
mpr
ess
uret
hatc
anb
eex
ert
edont
heb
enc
hby
t
heb
lock?

5. Aholeofarea4.
0cm²att
hebot
tomofatank5mdeepiscl
osedwi
tha
cor
k.Determin
et h
eforc
eont h
ec or
kwhenthetankisfil
ledwi
th
water
.(Ta
keg=1 0msˉ
²an
ddensi
tyofwat
er=1000kgmˉ³)
.

6. Amea sur
ingcy
l i
nderofhei
ght25cmisfill
edtoaheigh
tof15cmwith
waterandtherestisoccupi
edbyker os
ene.Determi
nethep r
essu
re
ac
tingonitsbase(densi
tyofwa ter=1gcmˉ³dens
ityofkerosen
e=
0.
8gcmˉ³andatmospher
icpr
essur
e=1 03,
000pa).

7
. S
tat
eon
ead
van
tag
eofh
ydr
aul
icb
rakesovermec
han
ica
lbr
akes
.

8. Expl
ainwh
yaladywear
ings
har
pheel
eds
hoesi
snotl
ikel
ytos
kidona
sl
ipper
ymudd
yroad.

9. Wh
ydoesa
tmos
pher
icp
res
sur
edec
rea
set
owa
rdsh
igh
era
lti
tud
e?

1
0. S
howt
hatPr
ess
urei
nfl
uid
sisg
ivenb
yP=hg

1
1. Giveareas
onwh
ynos
ebl
eed
ingi
sli
kel
ytooc
cura
tth
etopofa
mount
ain
.

1
2. Ablockofgl
assofd
ens
ity2.
5g/
cm3h
asdi
men
sions8cmby1
0c mby
15c
m.I tispl
acedononeofi t
sfacesonah ori
zon
tals
urfac
e.
Calcu
late:
-

a
) Th
ewei
ghtoft
heb
loc
k

b
) Th
egr
eat
estp
res
sur
eitc
anex
ertont
heh
ori
zon
tals
urfa
ce.

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c
) Th
elea
stp
res
sur
eitc
anex
ertont
heh
ori
zon
tals
urfa
ce.

1
3.Therea
dingofamer cu
rybarometeris75.
58c ma tt
heb as
eofa
moun
tai
na nd66.37
cma tthes u
mmit.Cal
cul
atet h
eheig
h toft h
e
moun
tai
n(Dens
ityofmer
cur
y=1 3.
6g/m3a
nddens
ityofai
r=1
.25kgm3
/

1
4.I
nah y
draul
icbr
ake,t
hema s
terp i
stonhasanareaof4mm2 a
ndt
he
2
wheelpi
stoneac
hhasanar
eaof4c m. Fi
ndt
heforcesap
pli
edtot
he
wheelwhenafor
ceof10Nisapp
liedont h
emast
erpist
on.

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Ch
apt
erFi
ve PARTI
CUL
ATENATUREOFMATTER

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I
ntr
odu
cti
on

 Ma
tte
risa
nyt
hin
gth
atoc
cup
iess
pac
ean
dha
sma
ss.

 Mat
teri
snotcon
tin
uousbu
titismad
eupofe
ver
yti
nyp
art
icl
es
h
enc
epar
tic
ipa
tenatu
reofmatt
er.

 Pa
rti
cul
aten
atu
reofmatte
rthe
ref
orer
efe
rst
oth
eex
ist
enc
eof
ma
tteri
nver
yti
nypar
tic
les.

Ex
per
imen
ttod
emon
str
atet
hatMa
tteri
sma
deu
pofTi
nyPa
rti
cles

i
) Us
eofaPi
eceofPa
per
 Thecha
lkdustisobser
vedtobeincon
sta
ntran
d ommoti
on.
 Ap ie
ceofp ap
erc anbecutconti
nuou
slyunti
lwhent h
es ma
ll Thi
sisduet
ot h
ec on
tin
uousc
oll
isi
onofch
alkdustpa
rti
cle
s
pi
ecescann
otbec u
tintopi
ecesan
yf u
rth
er.Th
issug
geststha
tthe wit
ht h
ewa termolecu
leswhic
ha r
einconti
nuousran
dom
sh
eetofp aperismadeoft i
nypiec
esofp aper
.Henc
ema tt
eris moti
on.
madeupoftin
yp ar
tic
les.
ToDemons
tra
teBr
own
ianmot
ioni
nGa
ses(
TheS
mokeCel
l
Ex
per
imen
t)

 Con
sid
ert
hes
etu
pbe
lowf
ort
hes
mok
ece
lle
xpe
rime
nt.

i
i) Di
lut
ingPot
ass
iumPer
man
gan
ateS
olu
tion

 Theproc
essofd i
lut
ingpur
plepotas
siu
mman
gan
ese(
VII
)ca
n
con
tin
ueunt
ilt
hes
oluti
ona
ppearsc
olor
les
s.

 Thi
ssugge
ststh
atthepa
rti
cle
sofp otas
siu
mp er
manga
nateare
sp
readevenl
yinwatera
nde ac
hd i
lut
ionproc
essspreadthem
fu
rthe
r.Th
isisapr
ooftha
tma t
teri
sma deupoftin
yp ar
tic
les
whi
chcanb
esepa
rat
ed.
 Note:Thesmokei
sint
rodu
cedin
tothesmokecel
lbybur
nin
g
Expl
a i
nwh yitispossi
blet
od i
ssol
vesuga
rinwa
terwithou
tanynotic
ea b
le thestr
awa n
dlett
ingt
hesmokefil
lthesmokec
ellfr
omt h
e
in
creases in vol
ume of water.Thesugarpa
rti
cles oc
cup
yt h
es mal
l othe
re nd
.Smokeisusedher
ebecaues
s mokeparti
cle
sa r
e
in
termole
cularspa
c e
sofwa te
rmolecu
les
.Thi
sbeha
viourofsuga
rs u
gge s
ts li
ghtandbri
ght
.
t
hatma
tte
risma
deu
pofve
ryt
inyp
art
icl
es.
 Theconver gin
glensisusedtof ocus/concentr
ateconve r
ge
Br
own
ianmot
ion thelig
h ttot hesmok ecel
lt here
byi l
lumina
tingthesmok e.
Themi croscopea ss
iststheob servers e
et hei l
lumi
nated
 Br owni
anmotionreferst otherandommovementofliq
uidandgas smokep art
iclescl
earl
y .
part
icl
es.
 Thebri
g htspecksareobser
ve dmovingrandomlyinth
es moke
ToDemonstr
ateBrownianmot ioninLi
quids cel
l.Theb r
ightspecksarethesmokep ar
t i
cleswhic
hs c
a tt
er
/reflectlightshin
ingonth e
m. Theymover a n
domlydu eto
 Con sid
ertheset-upa l
on gsi
d ei
nwh i
c hc
halkdusti
ssprin
kledon cont
inuousc ol
lis
ionwithinvisi
bleairparti
cleswhicharein
th
es ur
faceofwa t
eri nth ebeake
ra n
dt h
eb ea
kercover
edu s
inga cont
inuousrandommot i
on.
tr
a n
spar
entli
d.Theb e
h aviourofchalkdus
tist h
enobser
vedwith
th
eh el
pofah an
dlensa ss hownbel
ow.

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Th
eKi
net
icTh
eor
yofMa
tter Ex
amp
le

 Theabovee
xperi
ment
sonBr owni
anmotionconst
itu
tet
hek
ine
tic Usi
ngab l
ockdi
agramandcor
rectter
min
ologyshowhowonest
ateof
th
eoryofma t
terwhichsta
t e
st h
atma tte
ri smadeu
poftiny matt
erchan
gestoth
e ot
herwhenth
e t
empera
tur
e isch
ang
ed.
Defi
neal
l
par
tic
leswh
ichar
eincont
inu
ousrandommotion
. te
rminol
ogi
esuse
d.

i
) Melti
ng-i
stheproc
essb
ywh
ichas
oli
dch
ang
est
oal
iqu
ida
t
Ar
ran
gemen
tofPa
rti
clesi
nMa
tter
fi
xedtemper
atu
re.

S
oli
ds i
i) Evap
orati
on -isthepr
oce
ssb
ywh
ichal
iqu
idc
han
gest
oa
gasata
nytemp
era
tur
e.
 Par
tic
lesar
ec l
ose
lyp
ack
edt
oge
the
rina
nor
gan
ize
dma
nne
ran
din
fi
xedposi
tion
. i
ii
) Con
den
sat
ion -istheproc
essb
ywh
ichag
asc
han
gest
oa
l
iqu
ida
tfi
xedte
mp e
ratu
re.
 Parti
cle
sinsol
iddonotmo veran
domlybuti
nst
eadvib
rateab
out
thei
rf i
xedpos
iti
ons(vibr
ator
ymot i
on)bec
aus
eofve rystr
ong iv) Fre
ezi
ng -i
sthep
roc
essb
ywh
ichal
iqu
idc
han
gest
oa
in
termol
ecul
arforc
e(c ohes
iveforce)
.Th
isexpl
ain
swh ysoli
ds sol
ida
tfix
edt
emp
era
tur
e.
havefixe
dvolu
meandde f
ini
teshape
. v) S
ubl
ima
tion -isthepr
oces
sbywhic
has ol
idc
han
gest
oga
s
d
ire
ctl
ywith
outpa
ssin
gthel
iqu
ids
tate.

vi
) Depos
iti
on -i st
heproces
sbywhic
hag a
sch
ang
est
osol
id
di
rect
lywit
hou
tpas
sin
gt h
eliqu
ids
tate.

Di
ffu
sion

 Di ffus
ionreferstotheprocessb ywhi
chpart
icl
ess
pread
L
iqu
ids from regi
onofh i
ghc once
ntr
a t
iont oar egi
onoflow
concen
trati
on.Noti
ceabl
ed i
ffusiontake
sp l
aceinl
iqu
ids
 Part
icle
sinliq
u i
dsarenotclos
elyfixe
dasinsoli
dsbutmove andgasesduetoth
eircont
inu
ousrandommoti
on.
abou
tr an
doml
y ( Br
ownia
n mot i
on)
. Thi
s is beca
use the
in
termol
ecul
arforc
esinl
iqui
dsar
ewe a
kerth
ant
hoseins
oli
ds. Demonst
rati
ngDiffusi
oninLiq
uids

 Thesamereasone x
plai
nswh yliqu
idshaven ofix
edshapebt  Con
u si
derth
esetu pbelowusedtoinvest
iga
tedif
fusionin
ass
umethesha
p eoftheconta
iner
. l
iqui
ds.Con
cent
ra t
edco p
per(
II)su
lpha
te(bl
uei
n col
ou r
)is
car
eful
lyandslowlyintr
oduc
edi n
tot h
eb e
ake
rt hr
ougha
 Theint
ermol
ecula
rf orc
ei nliq
uidsisstrong
erthani
ng a
sesa fu
nneltoob
tai
nt wola
ye r
s.
re
asonastowhyli
q u
idshavefix
edvolumebutgas
esdon
’t
.

Ga
ses

 Par
ticl
esingasesa
ref ur
the
rapartan
dh aveanincr
easedr
and
om
moti
oncompar
edtoli
q u
idpar
tic
les.  Af t
ersometime,i
tisobser
ve dth a
tt h
eb ound
arybetween
thetwoliqu
idsdis
appear
sa ndah omogenouspalebl
ue
 Thi
si sbeca
useofve r
ywe akinter
molecul
arforcesingases
mixtu
reisobtai
ned.
Thisisbecausethereisag r
eaterrat
eof
par
tic
lesasc ompa
redt oliqu
idsands oli
ds.Thes a
mereason
movementofwa t
erparti
clesfromt hewat erl
ayert
oc oppe
r
exp
lain
swhygaseshavenodefi
nit
eshapeandvolu
me.
(
II)su
lpha
telayer.
Atthes a
met imet her
ei sgr
eater
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movementofcoppe
r(I
I)s
ulp
ha t
ep a
rti
cle
sfr
omt
hec
opp
er
(
II)
sulp
hatela
y e
rtothewaterla
yer.

 Note:
Ifhotli
qui
dsa
reused,
forma
tionofthemi
xtur
ewillb
e
fa
sterbe
causeth
epar
tic
lesmovefasterd
uetoin
creas
ed
ki
neti
cenerg
y.

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Demon
str
ati
ngDi
ffu
sioni
nGa
ses (
b) Ont
hed
iag
ram,
showt
heob
ser
vat
ion

 Con
sid
ert
hes
etu
pbe
lowu
sedt
ode
mon
str
ated
iff
usi n (
oni c)I
ftheexperi
mentwa
sp er
formedatah i
ght
emper
atur
ewil
lyou
g
ase
s e
xpe
ct i
t totak
elonge
r orshor
terti
metofor
mw hi
tede
posi
t?
Ex
pla
in.

Sh
ort
erti
me.
Thisi
sbeca
useanincr
eas
eintemp
erat
urein
crea
ses
t
hekin
eti
cene
rgyofth
ep a
rti
cle
soft h
eg a
sesan
dhencein
crea
sed
ra
teofdiff
usionofth
egases
.

Di
ffu
siont
hrou
ghPor
ousMa
ter
ial
s

 Whenth
ec a
rdboar
disremovedandthetwoja
rspre
s s
edt og
eth
er,
i
tisobs
ervedthatahomogenou
sp a
lebrownmix
tureformsinth
e
t
woj ar
s. Thisisb ec
a u
seb r
omineg assp
readsintog asjar
c
onta
ini
ngairatagrea
terrate.
Att hesamet
imeairspr
e ad
sint
o
g
asjarc
ontain
ingbr
omi
nea tagr
eaterra
te.

 Not
e:Di
ffu
sioni
nga
sesi
sfa
ste
rth
ani
nli
qui
dsb
eca
use
:

(
a) Ga
sesh
avel
owd
ens
ity
.

(
b) Ga
sesh
aveh
ighk
ine
tice
ner
gy.

(
c) Ga
sesve
rywe
akc
ohe
sivef
orc
es.

Ra
tesofDi
ffu
sionofGa
ses  In
iti
all
y,hydrogeng asd i
ffusesint
ot hep orouspotsa ta
faste
rratethanairdiffus
ingout.
Asar e s
ult,ai
rbubbl
esout
 Differen
tg a
sesh aved i
ffer
entrat
esofd i
ffusi
ondependi
ngon ofwa t
erasshowni nfigu
rei).
t
heird
ensit
yorrelativemas
ses.
 Wh enthegassupplyisstoppedhydr
og engasd i
ffuseoutof
 Ag aswithahighe
rd ensi
tyhashe
avierp
arti
cle
sandther
eforei
ts thepotthrou
g hthe fi
neho l
esata fast
e rr
ate tha
n ai
rge t
s
r
ateofdiffu
sionislowerth
anthegaswit
hlowerden
sit
y. backin
to th
e pot.Thisdecrea
sesthe g
as pr
e s
s u
reinthepot
andasaresulttheh i
gheratmosph
ericpressu
rea ct
ingonthe
Ex
amp
le watersur
faceintheb eakertopush
eswa terupthetubeasin
fi
g u
reii)
.
 I
nth
efi
gur
ebel
ow,
ammon
iag
asa
ndh
ydr
och
lor
ica
cidg
asd
iffu
sea
ndr
eac
t.
Note:Thebe
akeri
sus
e dtocon
f i
netheh
ydrog
eng a
sar
oun
d
th
ep orou
spot.
Iti
sobviou
sthatairi
sden
sertha
nhydr
oge
n
gas
.

(
a)S
tat
ean
dex
pla
int
heob
ser
vat
ionma
dea
fters
omet
ime.

 Awh
ited
epos
iti
sfor
medn
eart
hec
ott
onwools
oak
edi
ncon
cen
tra
tedi
n

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hy
droc
hlor
ica
cid
.Th
eammon
iagasi
slessd
ens
eandha
slig
htpa
rti
cle
sth
usi
t
wil
ldi
ffus
efast
ert
hant
hehyd
roch
lor
icga
swhic
hisde
nse.

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Revi
sionEx
erc
ise

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1
. Wh
ati
sma
tter
?

2. Wit
hthea
idofadia
gra
m,desc
rib
eanexper
imen
tth
aty
ouwou
ldu
set
o
s
howth
atmat
teri
smadeupoftin
ypar
tic
les.

3. Dur
ingacl
assd
isc
u s
sion
,Emmanu
elob
ser
vedt
hatBr
own
ianmot
ionwa
s
on
lyexhi
bit
edbysmal
lpart
icl
es.

(
a)I
sth
isob
ser
vat
ionc
orr
ect
?

(
b) Ex
pla
iny
oura
nsweri
n(a
)ab
ove.

4. S
tat
eth
eki
net
ict
heor
yofma
tter
.

5. Dist
ingu
ishb
etweent
het
hrees
tat
esofma
tteri
nter
msoft
he
in
termol
ecul
arfor
ces
.

6. Wh
atfa
ctord
eter
min
est
hes
tat
eofma
tter
?

7
. Ex
pla
inwh
ysol
idsa
ren
otc
omp
res
sib
lewh
ileg
asesa
re.

8. Defi
neBr
own
ianmot
ion
.

9. Dur
ingBrown
ianmoti
onexp
eri
ment,
thesmokep
arti
clesmu
stbes
mal
l
an
dlight
.Exp
lainwh
yitisn
ecess
arytha
tthepar
tic
lesbel
igh
t.

1
0.Smokei
sint
rod
ucedi
ntos
mokec
ellwh
ichi
sth
envi
ewedu
ndera
micr
osc
ope.

(
a) Wh
atd
oyouob
ser
vet
hrou
ght
hemi
cros
cop
e?

(
b) Wh
atc
onc
lus
ionc
anb
edr
awnfr
omt
hisob
ser
vat
ion
?

1
1. Temp
era
tur
eaffec
tsBr
own
ianmot
ion
.Ex
pla
in.

1
2. L
ycopodiu
mp owderi
slig
htlyspr
inkledonaclea
nwaters
urfac
ei na
l
argetr
ay.Aredhotneedl
eisplun
g edintot
hecent
reofthewater
s
urfac
e.Stat
ea n
dexplai
nwh a
tisob ser
ved.

1
3. Defi
ned
iffu
sion
.

1
4.Des
cri
bea
nex
per
imen
ttod
emon
str
atet
hep
roc
essofd
iffu
sioni
n;

(
i) L
iqu
ids

(
ii
) Ga
ses
.

1
5. Na
mea
ndex
pla
int
hefa
ctor
sth
ata
ffec
tth
era
teofd
iffu
sioni
nga
ses
.

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Ch
apt
erS
ix THERMALEXPANS
ION

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ge|
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ats
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Defi
nit
ion Th
ermomet
ricL
iqu
ids

 Ther
malex
pan
sionr
efe
rst
oin
cre
asei
nvol
umeofab
odywh
en  The
yin
clu
de:
he
ated.
a) Merc
ury

b
) Al
coh
ol
Temp
era
tur
e
c) Oilofcr
eosot
e
 Tempera
turei
sthed
egre
e(e
xte
nt)ofh
otn
essorc
old
nes
sofa
bodyonsomec
hos
ensc
ale
. Pr
oper
tiesofaGoodTher
momet
ricL
iqu
id

 Temper
atur
eisme as
uredusingat h
ermomete
ra n
ditisabas
ic a
)Its
hou
ldn
otwetgl
ass
.
qu
anti
tywhoseSIun
itistheKelvi
n.
b
)Its
hou
lde
xpan
duni
formly(r
egu
lar
ly)
.
0
 Degr
eeCe l
siu
s( C)isanoth
eru n
itinwhic
ht e
mpera
tur
esc
anbe
meas
ured. c
)Its
hou
ldb
eagoodcon
d u
c t
orofhea
t.

 Te
mpe
rat
ur sas
ei cal
arq
uan
tit
y. d
)Its
hou
ldb
evi
sib
le.

Th
ermomet
ers e
)Its
hou
ldh
aveh
ighb
oil
ingp
oin
t.

 Athe
rmomete
risa
ninst
rume
ntuse
dt omeas
uret
empe
rat
ure.
There f
)Itshou
ldh
avelowfre
ezi
ngpoin
t.
a
remanyty
pesofth
ermomet
ers
,eachdes
igne
dforas
peci
ficus
e.
 Not
e:Waterc
a n
notb
eusedasath
ermome
terl
iqu
idb
eca
use
:
L
iqu
id-
in-
Gla
ssTh
ermomet
er(
CommonTh
ermomet
er)
(
a)I
twe
tsg
las
s,
 Th
eliqu
idcommonl
yusedinali
qui
d–i
n–g
las
sth
ermome
teri
s
(
b)I
tex
pan
dsi
rr
egu
lar
ly(
anoma
lou
sly
),
me
rcu
ry.Al
coholc
anal
sobeus
ed.
(
c)I
tisaba
dcond
uct
orofheat
,
 Note:A li
qui
du se
dint
her
mome
teri
scommon
lyk
nowna
s
th
ermome
tri
cli
qui
d. (
d)I
tisi
nvi
sib
le(
col
our
les
s),
Fea
tur
esofaL
iqu
id–
In–Gl
assTh
ermomet
er (
e)I
tha
sar
ela
tive
lyh
ighf
ree
zin
gpoi
nt.

Compar
isonb
etweenMer
cur
yan
dAl
coh
ola
sTh
ermomet
ric
Li
qui
ds

Mer
cur
y Al
coh
ol
(
a)
ABu
lb I
thasahi
ghb
oil
ingp
oin
t I
th asal
ow b
oil
ingp
oin
t
0
(
357C)
. (
780C)
.
 Conta
insthet
hermometr
icli
qui
d.Itisthnwa
i ll
edtoin
creas
e
sen
sit
ivit
yofth
et h
ermomet
er(i
.
e.a
llowq
uickt
ran
sfe
rofhea
t). Ith
asar e
lat
ive
lyhi
ghe
r I
tha salowme
lti
ngp
oin
t(-
0 0
mel
tin
gpoi
nt(
–39C). 1
15C) .
(
b) Ca
pil
lar
yBor
e
I
ti sag ood t
her
malI
t is a poor t
her
mal
 I
tal
lowsth
eli
qui
dint
heb
ulbt
ori
sea
ndf
allwh
ent
emp
era
tur
e
c
han
ges. c
ond
uct
or. c
ond
uct
or.

 I
thasasmal
ldiame
tertoinc
rea
sei
tsacc
ura
cys
oth
atas
mal
l I
tex
pan
dsr
egu
lar
ly. I
tsexpans
ioni
ssl
igh
tly
c
han
geint
emper
atur
ecanea
sil
ybeme
asu
red
. i
rr
egu
lar
.

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(
c) Gl
assS
tem I
tdoe
snotwe
tgl
ass
. I
twe
tsg
las
s.

 I
tismadeu
pofthi
ckglas
stos t
ren
gth
ent
het
her
mome
tera
nd I
tisop
aqu
ean
dsi
lve
ry. I
t i s tran
spar
ent and
t
her
efor
epr
ote
ctt
heli
qui
dins
ide
. t
here
fore h as to b e
 Thi
ckgla
ssa
lsoa
ctsa
sama
gni
fyi
ngg
las
stoma
gni
fyt
hel
iqu
id c
olour
edtomakei
tvis
ibl
e.
th
read
.
 Not
es

I
. Alcoholthermomete
risthebe stforuseinverycol
d
condi
tionsbecaus
eitsfr
eezi
ngp oi
ntisver
ylow(-
150c
1 )
butcannotbeusedinaveryh
ight e
mpera
tur
ebeca
useit
s
boil
ingpoin
tisrel
ati
vel
ylow(780C).

I
I. Merc
uryther
mometer
sisb e
stforuseinhi
ghtemper
atu
re
0
b
ecaus
eofi t
sh i
ghboili
ngp oi
nts(357c)bu
tc a
nnotbe
u
sedinver
ylowt empera
turebecau
seithasarela
tive
ly
0
h
ighfr
eez
ingpoi
nt(-
39 c)
.

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Ca
lib
rat
ingL
iqu
id-
in–
Gla
ssTh
ermomet
er 1
) Anu n
c al
ibr
atedmer
curyther
mometerisatt
achedtoac ms cal
e
whi
chr ead
s14c mi
npuremelt
ingi
ceand30cminstea
m.I
fitr ea
ds
 At
her
mome
terh
ast
woma
inf
ixe
dpoi
nts
: 10cminfreezin
gmixt
ure,wha
tisthetemp
eratu
reofthefreezi
ng
mix
ture?
I
. Th
eup
perf
ixe
dpoi
nt(
1000c
)
o I
nme
lti
ngi
ce,
14c
mcor
res
pon
d o00C
st
0
I
I. Th
elowe
rfi
xedp
oin
t(c
)
o I
nst
eam,
30c
mcor
res
pon
dst
o1000C
 Theupperfi
xedp oi
ntismar
kedbyput
tin
gt h
ebul
boft he
o ∴1000C-00Ccor
res
pond
sto30cm-
14c
m
th
ermomet
erinste
a mofwat
erboi
li
nga
ts t
and
arda
tmos
phe
ric
pr
essur
eof76cmHg. 000Cc
o 1 or
res
pond
s16cmlen
gth

 Thelowerfi
xedpoi
ntisma r
kedb
ypu
tti
ngt
heb
ulboft
he 1c
m×1000C
th
ermome
teri
npu
remel
tin
gic
e. o 1c
mcor
res
pon
dst
o 250C
=6.
16cm

 Ther
ang
eb et
weenu
pperf
ixe
dp oi
ntandl
owe
rfi
xedp
oin
tiss
ub o Temper
atu
reoft
hef
ree
zin
gmi
xtu
rei
s:
0
di
vid
edint
oequa
ldi
vis
ion
sof1 Ceac
h.
00C+(
10-1
4) 250C=-
×6. 250C
TheCel
siu
s(Cen
tig
rad
e)a
ndKel
vin(
Ther
mod
yna
micTemp
era
tur
e)
Sc
ale

 Th
eCe lsi
ussca
lehasf i
xedpoi
ntsat00Ca n
d1000Cwhil
et e 2) Afau
h l
tyther
mometerr
eads18℃ a
ti c
ep oin
ta n
d80℃ ats
tea
m
p
oin
t.Det
ermi
nethecor
rec
ttemper
atur
ewh enitr
ead
s60℃.
Ke
lvinsc
aleh
asfixe
dp oin
tsa
t273Kf orp
uremel
tin
gicea
nd373
Kforst
eamorpur
eboil
ingwat
eratst
andar
datmos
pheri
cpr
essu
re. o Aticepoi
nt,
180Ccorr
esp
ondstoac
tual
ly00C

 Te
mper
atu
reonCel
siu
ssc
alea
ndKe
lvi
nsc
alea
rer
ela
tedb
y: o Ats
tea
mpoi
nt800Cc
, orr
esp
ond
stoa
ctu
all
y1000C
T(
K)= (
℃)+273.
o 800C-
( 180C)
cor
res
pon
dst
oac
tua
lly(
1000C-
00C)
Ab
sol
uteZer
oTemp
era
tur
e
o 620Cf
aul
tyc
orr
esp
ond
stoa
ctu
all
y1000C
 Thi
sisthel
owestte
mpera
tur
eonKel
vins
cal
einwh
icht
hee
ner
gy 0
ofthep
arti
cle
sinamat
eri
ali
szer
o. 0 1 000C
C×1
o 1Cf
aul
tyc
orr
esp
ond
stoa
ctu
all
y 0 60C
=1
.
62C
0
 I
tsva
lu sz
ei e
roKe
lvi
n(-
273C)
.
o Cor
rec
tte
mpe
rat
urewh
enf
aul
tyon
ere
ads600Ci
s:

0℃ +(
60-
18)
×1.
6℃ =67
.2℃

Ex
erc
ise

1
) Afaul
tymer
curyth
ermomet err
eads15℃ whendipp
edintomelt
ing
i
ceand95℃ wheninsteama tnor
mala t
mospher
icpres
sure.
Wh at
wou
ldthi
sth
ermometerreadwhendip
p edin
toaliqu
idat25℃

2) Whenma r
kin
gt h
efixedpointsonat h
ermometeritisob
served
t
hatat0℃ t h
emerc
urythreadisoflen
gt h2cmand9cmat100℃.
Ex
amp
les Whattemper
atur
ewouldc
or r
espondt
oal engt
hof4c m?

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3) Conver
teach of t
he fol
lowi
ng fr
om Cel
siu
sto Kel
vin(
Hin
t:u
se Cl
ini
calTh
ermomet
er
T(
K)= (℃)+273.
)
 I
tisaspe
cialt
ypeoft
her
momet
eruse
dformea
suri
ngh
uman
a 200C
) - bod
ytemper
atur
ewhos
etempe
ratu
reran
geisab t350C-
ou
430C.
T=-
20+27
3=253K

) 00C
b

T=0+27
3=27
3K

c 00C
) 1
 Thetub
ehasaconst
rict
ionwhi
chbr
eak
sth
eme
rcu
ryt
hre
ad
T=1
0+27
3=283K fort
emper
atu
rere
adingtobet
aken
.

d
) -
2730C  Afte
rthet
her
momet
erhasb
eenr
eadth
emerc
uryi
sre
tur
ned
tob
ulbb
yali
ght
lys
haki
ngth
ethe
rmome
ter
.
T=-
273+27
3=0K
 Met
hyl
ate
dsp
iri
tisu
sedt
ost
eri
li
zet
het
her
mome
tera
fte
r
4) Con
ver
t each of t
he fol
lowi
ng fr
om Kel
vi o 0C (
nt Hin
t:u
se
(
℃)=T(K)
-27
3.)
u
se.

a
) 0K  Note:c l
ini
calthe
rmometercann
otbes ter
ili
zedb yb
oil
ing
waterbecaus
eitwillbr
eaksi
ncetheboi
li
ngpointofwat
eris
=0-
273=-
2730C fa
ra bovethetempera
tur
eran
geoft h
ethermometer
.

b
) 1
67K
0
=1
67-
273=-
106C

c
) 283K

=283-
273=1
0℃

d
) 3450K

=3450-
273=31
77℃

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S
ix’
sMa
ximu
man
dMi
nimu
mTh
ermomet
er

 Thi
sther
momet
errec
ord
sthemaximu
ma ndmi
nimu
mt e
mpera
tur
e
re
ache
dinapl
aced
uri
ngasp
eci
fie
dp er
iodoft
ime,
sayada
y.

Ob se
rva t
ion:Wh entheb a l
lish eat
e d
,itd oe snotpass
throu
g htheringbutwhe nitisleftontheri
ngf orsomet
imes
i
tp assesthrough.Exp
lanation:Whenheated
,theb al
lexp
ands
andsoc annotgot hr
ought herin
g.Wh eniti
slef tonth
er i
ng
forsomet imet hetemperatureoftheballdecr
e as
esandthe
ballcontr
ac t
s.Att hes amet i
met h
eringabsorbssomeheat
fromt heb al
li tstempe r
atureincr
easesands oi texp
ands
all
owi ngtheballtopassthrough.

2. Th
eBa
ran
dGa
ugeEx
per
imen
t

Qu
est
ion
Mod
eofOp
era
tionoft
heS
ix’
sTh
ermomet
er I
nth
efi
gur
ebel
ow,
atr
oomt
emp
era
tur
e,t
heb
arfi
tsi
ntot
heg
aug
e.
 Whentemper
atu
reri
ses,th
ea l
coholinbu
lbRe xpan
dsandpu
shes
t
hemercur
yuptherightli
mboft heu-tube.Themerc
urypu
shes
i
nde
xYu pwar
ds.
Thelowerendofthi
sindexindi
cat
esthema
ximu
m
t
emper
aturer
each
edduri
ngthespe
c i
fiedper
iod.

 Wh e
nt emperat
uref all
s,thea l
coholinb u
lbR c ont
ract
sa nd
mer
curyispull
edb a
ck ,ri
singupintheleftli
mb.Th ei
ndexXi s
th
ereforepus
hedupwa r
ds.Duri
ngcont
ract
ionofalcohol
,th
eindex
Yisleftbehi
ndinthea l
coholbythefal
li
ngme r
cur
y .Th
eminimu
m
te
mperatur
eisreadfromthelowerendofinde
xX.

Torese
ttheth
ermomet
er,amagn
eti
sus
edt
ore
tur
nth
est
eel
(
a) Ex
pla
inwh
atwou
ldh
app
enwh
ent
heb
ari
shea
teda
ndy
out
ryt
o
in
dic
estot
hemer
curys
urfac
es.
fi
titi
nth
ega
uge.
Ex
pan
siona
ndCon
tra
cti
onofS
oli
ds Th
eba
rdoe
snotf
iti
ntot
heg
aug
ebe
cau
sei
tex
pan
dswh
enh
eat
ed.
 Wh ensol
idsar
eheatedthe
yexpand(
in
creas
einsi
ze/vol
ume
)an
d (
b) Con s
ideracasewher
etheb
ariss
lig
htl
ybi
ggerth
anth
eg a
ugeat
whencool
edtheycont
rac
t(decr
eas
einsiz
e/volu
me).Mas
softh
e roomt emper
atur
e.Ex
pla
inwha
tyouwilld
ot omaketh
eb arfi
t
sol
iddoesnotch
angewhenitc
ontr
act
sorexpan
ds. i
n tothegaug
e.

 Den
sityofthesol
idi
ncr
eas
eswhenth
ebodyisc
ool
ed(b
eca
use He
att
heg
aug
esot
hati
tex
pan
dsa
ndt
heb
arwi
llf
it.
vol
umed e
creas
es)an
ditd ec
rea
seswhe
nt h
ebodyishea
ted
(
beca
usevolu
meinc
rea
ses
).

Ex
per
imen
tst
oDemon
str
ateEx
pan
siona
ndCon
tra
cti
onofS
oli
ds Comp
ari
ngEx
pan
siona
ndCon
tra
cti
onofDi
ffer
entMet
als

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ats
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1
. Th
eBa
lla
ndRi
ngEx
per
imen
t Qu
est
ion

 Theba
llandri
ngexp
eri
menta
ppar
atu
sar
ea ssh
owninthef
igu
re Anexperi
mentwass
ett
ocomp
aret
heex
pan
sionofd
iffer
entmet
als
be
low.Thebal
lju
stpass
esthr
oug
hther
ingatroomte
mper
atu
re assh
ow nbe
low.
an
dpress
ure.

Ex
amp
le

Th
efi
gur
ebel
ows
howsab
imet
all
ics
tri
patar
oomt
emp
era
tur
e(250C)
(
a) Ex
pla
inh
owt
heex
per
imen
twor
ks

o Wh enthemetalba
risheateditexp
andsa
ndpush
e st
hepivote
dp oi
nter
andtherea
dingistakenonthescal
e.Meta
lbar
soft hes
a mesi
zemade
ofd i
fferen
tma teri
alsareatta
chedtotheclamponea tatimea n
d
heate
df orthes amel e
ngthoft i
me.There
adingsont hescal
ea r
e i
) Dr
awt h
es ameb
imet
all
ics
tri
pwh t900c
ena .Ex
pla
int
he
re
c or
dedandcompared. ob
ser
vation
.

(
b) Wh
atp
rec
aut
ion
ssh
oul
dbet
akent
oen
sur
efa
irr
esu
lt

i
) Th
eme
tal
ssh
oul
dbeofs
amel
eng
tha
ndd
iame
ter
.

i
i) Th
eme
tal
ssh
oul
dbeh
eat
edu
sin
gsa
meb
urn
er.

Th
eme
tals
hou
ldb
ehe
ate
dfors
amel
eng
thoft
ime
.
Whente
mpe
ratu
reincr
easesab
overoom t
emp
era
tur
eal
umi
num
e
xpa
ndsa
tafas
terr
atetha
ncop
per.

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ge|
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ats
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L
inea
rEx
pan
sivi
ty i
i) Dr
awt h
eb imet
all
ics
tri
p wh
en a
t-250C.Ex
pla
int
he
ob
ser
vat
ion
.
 Li
nearexpa
nsivi
tyisthetend
encyofamater
ialtoex
pandwhen
he
ated.Dif
f e
rentmater
ial
shavediff
ere
ntlin
earexpa
nsi
vit
ies
mean
ingthatthei
rrat
esofe xpa
nsi
onorcon
tract
iona
renotthe
sa
mee xc
eptaf e
wma t
erial
s.

 Th
eu ni
tofli
nea
rexpa
nsi
vit
yisme
asu
re np
di erKel
vin
.Th
e
fo
llowi
nga
res
omeex
ampl
es; Whentempe
rat
uredecr
easesbe
low r
oom t
emp
era
tur
eal
umi
num
c
ont
rac
tsatafast
err
ateth
ancop
per
.

Ma
ter
ial L
inea
rEx
pan
sivi
t K-1)
y(
Ap
pli
cat
ion
sofEx
pan
siona
ndCon
tra
cti
onofS
oli
ds
Al
umi
num 26x
10-6
1
) Ex
pan
sionj
oin
tsi
nSt
eamPi
pes
Br
ass 1
9x0-6
1
 Pipescar
ryi
ngsteamaref it
tedwithloopsore x
pans i
on
Cop
per 1
6.
8x1
0 -
6 joi
ntstoal
lowforexpa
nsionwhens
teamispassi
ngthrough
theman
dcontr
acti
onwhentheyar
ecoole
d.Wi t
houtth
el oop
I
ron 1
2x0-6
1 thefor
ceofe xp
ansi
onandcontr
act
ionwillca
usebreakage
ofthepi
pes.
Con
cre
te 1
1x0-6
1

S
tee
l 1
1x0-6
1

Th
eBi
met
all
icS
tri
p

 Bimetal
li
cs tr
ipismadeb yriveti
ngt og
ethertwometa
lsof
di
f fer
entl
inea
rexp
ansi
viti
es.
Th emeta
lwhichexp
and
satahi
ghe
r
ra
t ewhenhe
atedc
ontr
actsfas
terwhencooled.

 Considerab i
metall
ics tr
ipma deofi rona n
db rassatr oom
temperatur
ea n
dp ressu
reinf i
gure(a)bel
ow.Brasshasah ig he
r
l
ineare xp
ansi
vitythanir
ona n
dtherefor
eexpandsatafasterrate
th
a niron.Whenthestripisheate
dt oat e
mperatu
regrea
t e
rt h
an
ro
omt emper
atur
ei tbendstoward
si r
onass h
owninf i
gur
e(b )and
whent hestr
ipiscooled,i
tbendstoward
sb r
assasshowninfig ur
e
(
c)below.

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2. Fi
xin
gofRa
ilwa
yLi
ne 5. I
nst
all
ati
onofTel
eph
one/El
ect
ricWi
res

 Rail
waylin
esareconst
ruct
edinsec
tionswihe
t xpan
siongapsand  The
ya r
el oos
elyfixe
dtoallowf orcontr
acti
on.
Telep
hone
thesec
tion
sheldtog
etherbyf
ish
plates
.Thebol
thol
esinthera
ils orel
ectr
icwiresap
peart
obes hor
terandtauti
nthemorn
ing
.
areovaltoal
lowf r
eee xp
ans
ionandcontr
acti
onofrail
sa sthe Whenitishot,
thewir
esapp
ea rl
ongerandsl
acken
ed.
bolt
smovefre
e l
yinthehol
es.

 A mod
ernmet
hodofall
owin
gf ore
xpans
ionandcont
rac
tioni
n
r
ail
waysi
stopl
anes
lan
tther
ail
ssotha
ttheyove
rla
p.

6. Th
eBi
met
all
icMet
alAp
pli
cat
ion

 Oneoft hemostcommonappli
cati
onofabimeta
lli
cs tr
ipi s
inthei nthet h
ermosta
t.A thermos
tatisad e vi
cef or
3. Fixi
ngofSteelBr
idg
es mai
ntai
n i
ngas t
eadyt e
mperat
ure.Thether
mostats hown
bel
owi suse
df orcon
trol
lin
gthetemper
atu
reofa nir
onb ox.
 Inbri
dgesmadeofsteelg
irder
s,on
ee n
disfi
xedan
dt h
eoth
ere
nd A h e
aterc ir
cuitisc onnec
tedt hr
oughthee le
ctrical
p l
acedonr
oller
stoal
lowf ore
xpans
ionan
dcont
rac
tion. ter
minal
s.

4. Ri
vet
s
 I
ft h
ei r
onb oxbecomestooh otthebimeta
lli
cstri
pb en
ds
 Thickme t
alp l
atesins hi
psandotherstr
uctu
resarejoi
ned
c
urvi
nga wayf r
om thel owerc on
tact.Thisbreak
st he
toget
herbyme an
sofrivets.
Ariveti
sfit
tedwhenhotan
dthen
c
ontact
sa nds wi
tchesofft h
eh eat
er.Wh enitcools
,the
hammer
e dflat
.Onc ooli
ngitcont
rac
tspull
ingthetwopla
tes
b
imetal
li
cs t r
ipbendsclosingu ptheg apb et
we enthe
fir
mlytogeth
er.
c
ontact
sa n
dt heh
eateri
ss wit
c h
edonagain
.

 I
ft h
ei ronb ox i
sr equi
redtob e veryhot(i.
e.hig
h
t
emper
ature
),t
hesetti
ngknobisa
djust
edtopus
hthemet
alK
s
ucht h
att h
ec ontact
sa r
et ig
htt oge
ther
.For low
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t
empera
tur
erang
ethead
jus
tin
gkn
obi
sre
lea
seds
oth
att
he
p
osi
tionKisl
owere
d.

 The
rmost
atisalsouse
dtoc ont
rolthetempe
rat
ureof
el
ectr
iccook
ers
,ele
ctr
ich
eat
e r
sf orwar
min
grooms,a
nd
fr
idge
s.

Ex
pan
siona
ndCon
tra
cti
onofL
iqu
ids

ToDemon
str
ateEx
pan
sionofL
iqu
ids

 Cons
ide
rth
efl
askb
elow f
ill
edwi
thc
olor
edwa
tera
ssh
own
be
low.

Effec
tsofAn
oma
lou
sEx
pan
sionofWa
ter

1
) S
upp
ortAq
uat
icL
ifei
nPol
arCou
ntr
iesDu
rin
gWi
nter

 Dur
ingwinte
rwa t
erfr
eezer
sintoic
e.I
ceb ein
glessden
se
th
anwa t
erfloat
sonwate
r.Si
nceic
eisap oorcond
uct
orof
hea
t,itins
ulat
esthewat
erbelowagai
nstheatlosstoai
r
ab
oveit.

 Whenthefla
skish
eat
editisob
serve
dth
atwa
teri
nth
egl
ass
t
ubefa
llss
lig
htl
yan
dthens
tar
tsr
isi
ng.

 Thein
iti
alfal
lofthewaterleve
linthetub
ei sd
uetoexp
ansi
on
ofthefla
skwhichget
sh e
a t
edfirs
t.Thewaters
tar
tsexp
andi
ng
whenhea
tf i
nal
lyre
achesitanditri
sesupthetu
besin
celi
qui
ds
2) An
oma
lou
sex
pan
sionofwa
terl
ead
stof
orma
tionofi
ce
Pa
ge|
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e
xpa
ndf
ast
ert
hans
oli
ds. b
agswh
ichp
oseag
rea
tda
nge
rtos
hip
s.

 Note:Dif
fer
entl
iqu
idse xp
andd
iff
ere
ntl
y(i
.
e.t
heyh
ave 3) I
tcaus
esweath
erin
gofrockssi
ncewhenwat
ertra
ppedi
n
di
ffer
entr
ate
sofe
xpan
sion
) f
ree
zes;i
tex
pandsthu
sbr
eak
ingr
ocksi
ntosma
llp
ieces
.

 Iftheabovee xper
imentwa srep
eatedusin
ga lc
oholandthen 4) I
tc a
usesb
urs
tin
gofwa
terp
ipe
swh
enwa
terf
ree
zer
sin
methy
lat
e dsp
iritfort h
es amelengt
hoft imeandu s
ingsame t
hem.
hea
ter,i
twouldh a
veb eennote
dt h
atme t
hyl
a t
edspir
itexp
ands
mostfol
lowe
db yalcoh
olandfin
all
ywa t
er. Ex
pans
ionofGa
ses

An
oma
lou
sEx
pan
sionofWa
ter Ex
per
imen
ttoDemon
str
ateEx
pan
siona
ndCon
tra
cti
onofGa
ses

 Anomal
ousex
pans
ionofwateri
sde
fin
edasth
eunu
sualbeh
a or  Con
vi si
dert
hesetu
pbelowwhichcanb
eus
edt
ode
mon
str
ate
ofwa t
erinwhi
chitc on
tra
ctswh
enhea
tedandexp
a n
dswhen exp
ansi
onandc
ont
rac
tionofg
as e
s.
cool
edbet
ween0and40C.

 Cons
iderhea
t i
ngicefrom-80Cunt
ilitchan
gestowa te
ran
dits
te
mpera
t u
rei ncr
easest o 80C.A p lot of volu
me ver
ses
te
mpera
t u
reforthewaterisasinfi
gure(a
)whil
ed e
nsit
yver
ses
te
mpera
t u
reisasinfi
gure(
b)bel
ow.

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 Whenthefla
skiswarmed,
itisobser
vedthatthel
evelofwater 7) Thefi
gur
ebelowrep
res
ent
sab
imet
all
ics
tri
pofmet
alsXa
ndYa
t
c
olu
mni ns
idethegla
s stub
ed ropsind
ica
tingtha
tth eairh
as roomt
emper
atur
e
e
xpand
ed.Wh e
nthefl
a s
kiswarmedfur
ther
,somebu
bbl
esarese
en
a
ttheendofthet
ubei
nwa tera
sa i
resca
pesfromth
eflask
.

 Whenthefl
askisc
oole
d, wa
terle
ve sob
li se
rve
dtori
seu
pthe
g
las
st ub
ebecau
setheairin
sid
et heflas
kcont
rac
tst
ocrea
te Th
efi
gur
ebel
ows
howsi
tss
hap
ewh
end
ipp
edi
ntoc
rus
hedi
ce
s
pace.

Ex
amp
les

1
) Thefigur
ebelow sh
owsab
eamb
ala
ncema
deou
tofc
onc
ret
ean
d
rei
nfor
cedwi
thsteel
S
ketchadia
gra
minthesp
acegi
venbel
owtoshowthesha
pewh
ent
he
s
tri
pishea
tedtoat
emper
atu
reabovether
oomtemp
era
ture

Usead
iag
ramt
oex
pla
int
heb
eha
viou
roft
hes
hap
eoft
heb
eamwh
enh
eat
ed
up
.

8) Givear easonwh yacon cr

eteb eamrein
for cedwithsteeldoesn ot
crackwh ensubj
ectedt oChan g
esintemp era
t u
re.
Theb ea
me xpandslinear
ly .Thebeamr emainss t
rai
ghtbu tlongerthanbefor
e Bothc on c
reteandsteelhaves ameratesofe xpansi
on.Theirvalue
heat
ing.Bothconcreteands teelha
ves ameratesofe xpansion
.Theirva
lueof oflinearexpans
ivityi
s1 1x
10-6K
li
nearexpan
sivityis11x0-6K
1
9) Aq u
a t
ica nimal
sa ndp lant
sa r
eob servedt os ur
vivei nfr ozen
2) S tatetwol iq
u i
dswh ichareusedi nthermometer.AlcoholandMe rc
u r
y. ponds.Explai
nthisobservation.
Wa terf r
eezesandt heicef ormedf loat
si nwa t
erb ec
a useits
3) Wi thareason,statewh i
choft h
et woliquidsin3( a)aboveisusedto densityi sles
st hant hatofwa t
e r
,i nsu
latin
gwa terbe low it
.
measur
et emperatur
ei na r
easwh eretemperatur
esare: Tempe ratu
resincrea
s esd ownt hep on db e
causeofa nomalous
(
i)Below-400C a lcohol
,b ecau
seitha salowf reez
ingpointof– 1
15oC. expansionofwater.

(
ii
)1500C,
mer
cur
y,b
eca
usei
tha
sah
ighb
oil
ingp
oin o
tof357C,

4) Wh a
td oy ouu nd
ersta
ndbyth
es ta
tement‘
lowerfixedpoi
nt’ona
t
emperatur
es c
ale?
Thisisthet
e mper
atur
eofpu
reme
lti
ngicea
tsta
ndard
/nor
mala
tmosphe
ric
press
u r
e;

5) Nametwoa d
aptati
on sth
atc
anb
ema
det
oamerc
uryther
momet
ert o
makei
tmoresensi
tive.
Usi
ngath
inwall
edbulb Us
inganar
rowercap
ill
ary
tu
be

6) Th
efigur
eb el
ows h
owsabimet
all
icstr
ipmad
eofb ra
ssa n
diron
.A
ma
rbl
eispl
acedatendAoft
hebi
metal
li
cstr
ipass
hownbel
ow:-

St
ateandexpl
ainwh
atwi
llb
eob
ser
vedwh
ent
heb
imet
all
ics
tri
pis
s
trongl
ycool
ed

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ge|
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Oncooli
ng,t
hebra
sscon
tra
ctsmor
eth
aniron,
h e
n c
eb e
comeshor
tert
hanir
on
an
dformsupwar
dscur
ve,mak
ingt
hema
rbl
et orollandset
tlea
tthecent
reof
th
ecurve.

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ge|
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Revi
sionEx
erc
ise Expl
ainh
owr i
seint
emp
era
tur
eca
usest
hep
oin
tert
omovei
n
th
ed i
rec
tionsh
own.

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ge|
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ats
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1
. Onepr
opertyofaliqui
dt h
atisconsi
deredwhi
leconstr
ucti
ngaliqu
idin 9. I
nthes
etupshowninfigur
ebel
ow,iti
sobservedtha
tth
elevelof
gl
asst
hermometeristhattheli
qui
dexpa n
dsmoretha
nt h
eg l
assforthe wat
eri
nit
ial
lydrop
sb efor
esta
rti
ngtori
se.Expla
in.
sa
metemperatur
ec h
ange.Stat
ea n
yothertwoproper
tiesoftheliqu
ids
th
atar
econsidered
.

2. Gi
veareas
onwhyacon
c r
etebeamr
ein
for
cedwi
ths
teeld
oesn
otc
rac
k
wh
ensu
bjectedt
och
angeintemp
era
tur
e

3. Expl
ainwh
yaglassc
onta
inerwit
hthic
kwa ll
sismor
elikel
ytoc
rac
k
th
anonewit
hat
hinwal
lwhenaveryh
otliq
uidisp
our
edin
toit.

4. Fi
gur
ebel
ows
howsac
irc
uitd
iag
ramforc
ont
rol
li
ngt
het
emp
era
tur
eof
ar
oom.

1
0.Givear eas
onwh
ywa
teri
snots
uit
abl
eli
qui
dforu
sei
na
th
ermometer
.

1
1. Thetemper
atur
eofwa terinamea su
rin
gcyli
nderislower
edfrom
i
) S
tat
ean
dex
pla
int
hep
urp
oseoft
heb
imet
all
ics
tri
p. ab
out200ct o00c.
Sketchag r
a phofvolu
mea gai
nsttemper
atur
e
as
sumingth
atwaterdoesnotfreeze.
i
i) Des
crib
ehowt h
ec i
rcu
itcon
trol
sth
etemp
era
tur
ewh
ent
he
swi
tchSiscl
osed. 1
2. Figu
r ebel
owshowsafl askfil
ledwit
hwater
.Thefla
skisfit
ted
withac orkt
hroughwh i
chat ubeisi
nser
ted
.Wh enthefl
askis
5. Fi
gur
ebel
owshowsafi
realar
mcir
cui
t.
cooledt h
ewa terlevelris
ess li
ght
lyandthenfall
ssteadi
ly.
Expl
a in
.

Ex
pla
inh
owt
hea
lar
mfu
nct
ion
s

6. Fi
gur
eb elow sh
owsab imet
all
ics t
ripatroom t
emp
era
tur
e.Br
ass
ex
pandsmoret
hanin
varwh
enheatedequa
lly
.

1
3.Acl
ini
calth
ermometerh
asac on
stri
ctioni
nth
ebor
eju
sta
bove
t
heb
ulb.
Sta
tetheuseofthi
sconst
ric
tion.
S
ketchth
eb i
metal
li
cst
ripa
fterb
ein
gcool
eds
ever
ald
egr
ees
1
4.Fi
gur
ebel
ows
howsa
nal
umi
numt
ubet
igh
tlys
tuc
kinas
teelt
ube.
b
elowroomt
emper
atu
re

7
. Fi
gur
ebel
ows
howsab
imet
all
ict
her
momet
er.

Expl
a i
nh owthetwotubesc anbesepar
atedbya pp
lyin
ga
temperat
u r
echan
geatthesamejunc
tiongi
venthatalumi
num
expa
n dsmoret
hanst
eelfort
h esa
metemperat
urer
ise.

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ge|
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8. Figu
rebel
owshowsafl
atbott
omedfla
skc on
tain
ingsomewat
er.I
tis 1
5. Inanexp
erimenttoin
vesti
gat
etheu n
usua
lexpansi
onofwatera
heat
eddir
ect
lywit
haveryh
otfla
me.Expl
ainwhythefla
skisl
ikel
yto fix
edma ssofwa terat00C washeatedunt
ilitstemp
era
t u
re
cra
ck. rea
ched200C.Ont heaxispr
ovid
ed,sketchag r
aphofden
s i
ty
agai
nstt
emp er
atu
reofthewat
erfrom00cto200C.

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ge|
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ats
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Ch
apt
erS
eve
n HEATTRANS
FER

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ge|
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Defi
nit
ionofHea
t  Wood

 He
ati
saf
ormo
fen
erg
ywh
ichf
lowsf
romap
oin
tofh
igh
er  Ai
r
t
emp
era
tur
etoa
not
herp
oin
tofl
owt
emp
era
tur
e.
 Wa
ter
Di
ffer
enc
esb
etweenHea
tan
dTemp
era
tur
e
 Ru
bbe
r
HEAT TEMPERATURE
 Pl
ast
ic
For
mofe ner
gytha
tf l
ows Degree of h otne
ss or
due to t
emper
atur
e cold
ne s
sofab od
yi ns
ome  Gl
ass
di
ffer
enc
e. chosensca
le. Ex
amp
le

Th
eflowofheatcan
notb
e Canbemeasu
redaccu
rat
ely Thefi
gur
ebel
ows howspi
ecesofwooda ndi
ronofequallen
gthand
me
asu
redp
rec
ise
ly. us
ingat
her
momete
r. di
amet
ermai
nta
inedincon
tactbyasheetofp a
per.A fl
ameist h
en
pa
ssed over t
he pa
p er severa
l t
imes.
S
Iun
ita
ndj
oul
es(
J)
. S
Iun
iti
sKe
lvi
n(k
).

Mod
esofHea
tTr
ans
fer S
tat
ean
dex
pla
int
heob
ser
vat
ionma
de:

 Th er
earethr
eemod
esofh
eatt
ran
sfe
r:c
ond
uct
ion
,con
vec
tion Thepap
ergetsbl
ackedonthereg i
oncover
ingthewoodenr
od.
Thisis
an
dradi
ati
on. bec
aus
ewoodisapoorcond
uctorofh e
atan
dtherefor
edoesn
otcon
duct
hea
tf r
omt h
ep ape
ra ndtherefor
et hepaperburn
s.Ir
onisag ood
Con
ducti
on con
duc
torofhea
tandcondu
ctsheatawayfr
omt h
ep ap
er.

 Con duc
tionisth
et r
ansf
e rofhe
atwi
thi
nanob
jec
twi
thou
tte Fa
h c
tor
sAffec ti
ngTherma
lCond
uct
ivit
y
movementofth
eo b
jectasawhol
e.
1. Nat
ureofMa ter
ial
s
Mechani
smsofHeatConduct
ion
 Na t
ureofmateri
almea
nswha
tthemate
ria
lisma
deof
.
(
a) Vib
rati
onofmolecu
les
 Considert
hesetupbel
ow.
(
b) Thr
oughfreee
lectr
ons

Cl
ass
ifi
cat
ionofMa
ter
ial
sInTer
msofCon
duc
tion

 Mate
ria
lsca
nbecl
ass
ifi
eda
sgoodorp
oorc
ond
uct
orsi
nte
rmsof
h
eatcon
duc
tion
.

(
a) GoodCon
duc
tor
s

Goodc
ond
uct
orsa
rema
ter
ial
sth
atc
ana
llowh
eatt
opa
sst
hrou
ght
hem
e.
g.

 Cop
per
 I
tisobser
vedtha
tth
ewaxa t
tache
dtocopperd
ropsfi
rst
 S
ilve
r f
ollowedbyth
atona
lumi
num,
ironl
eadandt
hatofwooddid
n
otd r
opsin
cewoodi
sapoorcondu
ctor
.
 Al
umi
niu
m
Pr
eca
uti
ons
 Br
ass
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 Me
rcu
ry (
a) Rod
sofs
amed
iame
tert
obeu
sed
.

 I
ron (
b) Rod
seq
uall
eng
tht
obeu
sed
.

 Zi
nc (
c) Wa
xoft
hes
ames
izet
obeu
sed
.

 Ti
n

 L
eade
tc.

(
b) PoorCon
duc
tor
s(I
nsu
lat
ors
)

 Thes
ea rema
teri
alswh
ichd
onotr
ead
ilya
llow h
eatt
opa
ss
th
rought
heme.
g.

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ge|
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2. Th
eTh
ickn
ess
/Di
amet
er/Cr
ossS
ect
ionAr
eaoft
heCon
duc
tor  I
tisobse
rvedthatwa
xonrodBdrop
pedfi
rst
.Th
erefor
e,
t
her
malconduc
tivi
tyi
ncr
eas
eswi
thdecr
eas
einleng
thof
 Con
sid
ert
hes
etu
pbe
low; t
hecon
ductor
.

Pr
eca
uti
ons

(
a) Rod
spl
ace
date
qua
ldi
sta
ncef
romh
eats
our
ce.

(
b) Rodsofs
amemater
ialused
.
 Itisobser
vedthatthewaxonth
ethic
keri
ronroddropsfir
st.Thi
s
isbecausemoreheatflowsthr
oug
hat hi
ckerconduc
t orperuni
t (
c) Wa xoft
hesa
mes i
zeu s
ed.
time.
(
d) Rodsofs
amethi
cknessused
.
 Therefore
,condu
c t
ivit
yofc on
duct
orsin
creaseswitht h
ickne
ss
oft h
ec on
duct
or. L
aggin
g
Pr
eca
uti
ons  La
ggin
gre
ferstoth
ecove
rin
gofagoodc
ondu
c t
orofhea
t
wit
ha ni
nsul
ati
ngmat
eri
altore
duceheatlossthr
oug
h
(
a) Eq
ualt
imeofe
xpos
ureoft
her
odst
ohe
at. su
rfac
eeffe
cts.
(
b) Eq
uall
eng
tha
ndt
ypeofr
odsu
sed
.  Con
sid
ert
hes
etu
pbe
low;
(
c)S
ames
izeofwa
xus
ed.

(
d) Rod
spl
ace
date
qua
ldi
sta
nce
sfr
omt
heh
eats
our
ce.

3. Temp
era
tur
eDi
ffer
enc
e

 Con
sid
ert
hes
etu
psAa
ndBb
elow.

 Plotsoft
empera
tureva
ria
tionfromtheh
ote
ndtot
hecol
d
endwithl
agg
ingandwit
houtlag
gingonsa
meaxe
swi
llb
eas
foll
ows;

 I
tisobserve
dt ha
twaxi nsetupBd r
oppedfi
rstbec
aus
eof
g
reat
ertemperat
uredif
fere
ntthaninA.Th er
efor
e,heati
s
t
ran
sfer
redfast
erwhe
ntemper
atu
redi
ffere
ncei
sgrea
ter
.
Ap
pli
cat
ion
sofL
agg
ing

 I
ronpipe
sc ar
ryi
ngs t
eamf r
omb oi
ler
sorste
amwellsar
e
Pr
eca
uti
ons c
overedwithth
ickasb
estosmat
eria
lwhic
hisa
nin
sul
atort
o
r
educ
eh eatl
ossfromste
am.
(
a) Th
erod
sofe
qua
ldi
ame
teru
sed
.
Th
erma
lcon
duc
tivi
tyI
nLi
qui
ds
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(
b) Rod
sofe
qua
lle
ngt
hus
ed.  L
iqu
idsa
reg
ene
ral
lyp
oorc
ond
uct
orsofh
eat
.

(
c) Wa
xofs
ames
izeu
sed
.

(
d) Wa
xpl
ace
date
qua
ldi
sta
ncef
romon
een
doft
her
odi
nea
chc
ase
.

(
e)Rod
sofs
amema
ter
ialu
sed
.

5. L
eng
thoft
heCon
duc
tor

 Con
sid
ert
hes
etu
pbe
low;

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ToDemon
str
atet
hatWa
teri
saPoorCon
duc
tor Ap
pli
cat
ion
sofGooda
ndPoorCon
duc
tor
sofHea
t

Ex
per
imen
t1 (
a) Cookinguten
sil
sa n
db oi
lersarema d
eofme ta
lsthatcon
duct
heatra
p i
dlywhil
et he
irhand l
esaremadeofinsul
ators(
poor
 Consi
derthesetu
pbe
lowf
ord
emon
str
ati
ngt
hatwa
teri
sap
oor condu
ctors)
.
con
ductorofh
eat.
(
b) Mod er
nb u
ild
ingsaremadeofd oubl
ewa l
lswithanin
sula
tor
 bet
we enthewallstominimizeh e
atlossfromthehouseand
the
reforemaint
ainstabl
ete mperat
ure.

(
c) Fir
ef i
ghter
sputons
uit
smadeofasb
estoswhic
hisapoor
cond
uctorofhe
attok
eepth
emsafewhi
leput
tin
gofffi
re.

(
d)Bir
dsf l
apthei
rwi n
gsafte
rg e
tti
ngwettoi
ntr
oduceair
pocke
tswithi
nt h
eirfea
ther
sthishe
lpst
omin
imiz
eh e
at
los
sfromth
eirbodi
es.

 Aftersometime
sitisobs
ervedt
hatwate
ra tthet
opoft h
etube (
e)I
nexper
imentsi
nvol
vingheat
ingl
iqui
dsingla
ssvess
el.Th
e
boi
lswhiletheicer
emain
edunme
lted
.Wa te
risap oorc
onduc
tor ves
seli
s pl
acedonaw i
regau
ge b
ecaus
e th
e g
aug
e i
sa good
ofheat
. Gla
ssusedformaki
ngtes
ttubei
sa ls
oap oorc
onduc
tor c
onduc
tor ofhe
at i
t t
here
forespre
ads t
heheattoa l
arg
e
ofheat
. a
reaofthevess
el.

Con
vec
tion

Ex
per
ime
nt2  Convec
tionisth
epr
oce
ssb
ywh
ichh
eati
str
ans
fer
red
th
roug
hf l
uid
s.
 Anoth
ere xp
eri
men
ttha
nc anb
eusedtos
howt
hatwa
teri
sap
oor
con
ductorofhe
ati
sasshownbel
ow. ToDemon
str
ateCon
vec
tioni
nLi
qui
ds

Ex
per
imen
t1

 Cons
iderth
ed i
agr
ambel
owinwhichpot
ass
iumper
man
gana
te
cr
ysta
lisputatonecor
neri
nab e
a k
ercon
tai
nin
gwatera
nd
th
ebeakerhea
tedatt
hatpoi
nt.

 I sob
ti s er
vedthatthewa xc
oat
ingonbea
kercon
tai
nin
gme r
cury
melt
edwh i
lethatonbeakerc
ont
ain
ingwat
erdi
dnotmelt.Th
isis
beca
useme r
cur
yi sagoodcon
duc
torofhe
atwhi
lewaterisapoor
 Aftersomet
ime,i
tisobs
ervedthatapur
plecolor
ationr
ise
s
cond
uctorheat
.
upfr
omp otas
siu
mp er
manga
nateformi
ngac i
rcu
larloop.
Thi
s
Th
ermalConducti
vityinGases i
s d
ue t
o cr
eati
onofconvect
ioncur
ren
tsinwater.

 Gase
sa r
epoorcon
duc
tor
sofh
eat
.Th
ese
tupb
elowc
anb
eus
e o Ex
dt p
erimen
t2
su
pportth
isfac
t.
Consi
derth
ese
tupb
elow

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 I
tisob
serve
dt h
atthematc
hs t
ickh
eldwi
thi
ntheunbu
rntgas
r
egi
ondoe
sn otgeti
gni
tedbec
ausega
sisapoorcon
ductorof
h
eat
.

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ge|
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 Itis observedt ha
tt hepurpl
ec ol
our
ati
on of pot
ass
ium 2. En
gin
eCool ingSy
stem
per
mangan
a t
emove sinthean
ti-cloc
kwisedir
ect
ioni
nt h
etube
.
Thi
sisd uet ocreationofconvecti
onc u
rre
ntbyheatwhose  Engin
ec ooli
ngisenh
anc
edb
ybot
hcon
duc
tiona
ndc
onve
cti
on
di
rect
ionisant
i-
clockwise pr
oces
se s.

Con
vec
tioni
nGa
ses

 Con
sid
ert
hes
etu
psh
ownb
elow.

 Themetalsur
facec ondu
ctsa wa
yh e
atf r
ome n
gin
e.Th
is
he
atsupt h
ewa ters e
ttingupconvect
ioncu
rre
ntswhi
ch
ci
rcu
lat
esasshowninthediag
ram.

 Iti sobservedthatthes mokeissuckedi n

tot heb oxthr
ough  Thehotwa terisp umpedintot h
er adiat
orwh ichhasthin
c
himneyPa ndexit
st h
roug
hc h
imne
yQ. Thisisd u
et oc on
vect
ion coppe
rf i
nsthatconductawayheatfromt h
ewa te
r.
c
urren
tswhicharesetupwhenthea
iri
ntheb oxisheated.
 Thefinsaema
r deofc opperbecau
sei tisthebestcondu
ctor
APPLI
CATI ONSOFCONVECTI ONI NFLUIDS ofheat.The
ya repaintedbla
ckb ec
aus eablacksurfa
ceisa
goodabsor
berofh e
at.
1
. Ven ti
lat
ion
 Fastfl
owingairpastfinsspeed
supt hecoolin
gprocess.
 Ve nti
lat
ionrefe
rstothesuppl
yoffres
ha i
rt otheroom.

3. Domes
ticHotWa
terS
yst
em

 Wa r
ma irex
haledbytheocc
upantsoftheroomris
esandget
sout
t
hroughventi
lat
orssi
nceiti
slessdense.
Freshcol
dai
rf l
owsin
to
t
heroomt hr
oughwindowsanddoors.
Thiswayconvec
tioncu
rren
t
i
ssetu pan
dthereisa
lwayssup
plyoff r
eshair
.

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ge|
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ats
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 Hotwaterri
sesupbec
aus
eoft helowe
rin
gofi t
sden
sitywhen App
lica
tionofTher
malRa
dia
tion
hea
ted.
1
. S ol
arHeater
 Coldwatermovedownfromthecoldwatert
anktotheboi
ler
bec
aus
ei ti
srel
ati
vel
yhea
vier
.

 Theexp
ans
ionpi
pehasanou
tle
tfore
xce
sswa
tert
hatc
oul
dha
ve
re
sul
tedfr
omoverh
eati
ng

 Th
ep i
pet
hatc
onvey
sth
ehotwa
tera
ndt
hec
yli
nde
rael
r a
ggedt
o
mi
nimi
zeh
eatl
osses
.

Th
erma
lRa
dia
tion

 Ther
malradi
ati
onistheproc
essbywhi
chh e
atistr
ans
fer
red
thr
oughvacuu
m.Inthe
rmalradi
ati
ont
here
foremat
terisnot
in
volvedi
ntra
nsfe
rofhea
t

 I
tisth
roughth
ispr
oces
sofr a
dia
tiont
hatr
adi
anth
eatr
eac
hes
t
heea
rth’
ssur
facef
romthes
un.

 Thehi
gherthetemp
era
tur
eofab
odyt
hemor
eth
eamou
ntof
th
erma
lra
d i
ati
on.

Ab
sor
pti
ona
ndEmi
ssi
onofRa
dia
ntHea
t

 Agoodabs
orbero
fr ad
ianthe
ati
sa l
soagoodemi
tterofrad
iant
h
eatwhi
leapoorabs
orberofr
adi
anthea
tisal
soapooremi
tterof
t
heheat
.

 Con
sid
ert
hes
etu
pbe
low.

 Copperpi
p eisus
edbec
ausei
tisag oodcond
uctorofh
eat
an
dwi llcond
ucthea
tintoth
ewa t
eri n
sideth
ep ip
e.I
tis
pa
int
e dbl
ackcol
ouri
sagoodabs
orb
erofh e
at.

 Thegla
sscoverall
owr a
dia
ntheatfr
omthesuntop
ass
th
rou
ghandp
reven
tstheweake
ren
ergye
mit
teda
fter
.

 Thebl
ackcop
percol
lect
orabs
orb
shea
tene
rgyandc
ond
uct
s
itt
ocoppe
rpipe
swhicht
ran
smiti
ttot
hewate
r.

 Thei
nsu
lat
ingma
ter
ialp
reve
ntsh
eatf
romb
ein
glos
tfr
om
th
epi
pe.

 Thecopp
erpip
eiscoil
eds
eve
ral
lyt
oin
cre
ases
urf
acea
rea
fora
bsor
pti
onofhe
a t
.

 I
tisob
ser
vedt
hatwa
terl
eve
linl
imbAr
ise
supwh
ilet
hati
nli
mb

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Bfall
s.Thi
sisbeca
useboi
li
ngt u
beBr ecei
vesmoreheattha
n
b
oil
ingtub
eAwa r
mingth
eairins
ideitmore
.Theairex
pandsan
d
t
her
eforepus
hesd
ownthewateri
nlimbB.Asares
ultwate
rlevel
i
nli
mbAr i
ses.

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ats
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2. Th
ermosFl
ask 6. Housesinhotare
ashavethei
rwallsandroofspai
ntedwit
h
br
ightcolour
storefl
ectawayheatwhil
et hosei
ncolda
rea
s
havewa l
lsa n
droofspaint
eds i
lver
yb r
igh ttore
flec
tas
muchheatasposs
ibl
ebacktothehous
e.

7
. Kett
le,
cooki
ngpan
sandi
ronboxe
shavepol
ish
eds
urf
ace
sto
re
duceheatl
osst
hrou
ght
h e
rmalr
adi
ati
on

Revi
sionEx
erc
ise

1. Twos imil
arop ent
inswithequ
a lamount
sofwa t
erat800c
wereleftt ocool.I
ft i
nAi ssh i
nyandt i
nBi sblac
kened,
sketchonthes ameaxesthegraphsoftemp er
atur
ea g
ains
t
timeforthetwot i
ns.
2. Thefigurebelowshowsab oxwithtwog la
sstubesAa ndB
 Thestop
perru
bberpadandru
bberringpadpreven
theatl
oss projecti
ngfromt hetopofar ectang
ularwoodenboxwi t
h
th
rou
ghcond
uct
ionsi
ncer
ubb
eri
sap oorcon
duc
torofhea
t removablegla
s sfr
ont.

 S
ilveredwallpr
eventshe
atl os
sthr
oughra
diati
ons
inc
eth
e
s
hinnysur
fac
eisapoorr
adi
atoran
demi
tte
rofhea
t.

 Vacuu
mp r
eventhe
atlosst
hrou
ghcond
ucti
ona dc
n on
vect
ion
si
ncethet
womodesofhe
attr
ans
ferr
equi
remat
eria
lmedi
umfor
tr
ansf
erofhe
at.

 S
hockabs
orberprevent
sb r
eak
ingoft
heg
las
swa
llsd
uet
o
p
res
sur
efromtheou
t s
ide.
(
i) Wha
twillbethedir
ect
ionofth
es mokethr
ough
 Vacu
umsealpr
eve
ntsairf
romreoccu
pyin
gt heva
cuu
m.I
tis
t
heb
ox?
th
rou
ght
hevac
uumsea
lth
ata
irwa
ss u
ckedout.
(
ii
) Wha
tconcl
usi
onca
nbemadefr
omtheobser
vati
on?

(
ii
i) Wh yaretheven
til
ati
onsforaroommad
eh i
ghup
3. Gr
eenHouseEffect(
HeatTra
p) theroof?
3. S
tud
yt hesetupbel
owanduseittoans
wertheques
tion
s
 Greenhous
ee ffec
ti saphen
omenoninwh
ichhea
tisall
owedto t
hatfol
lows:
pa
ssthr
oughatran
s p
are
ntmater
ialbu
tdoesnotp
ene
trat
etothe
ou
tsi
de.Th
iswayheataccu
mul
atesint
hegr
eenhou
secon
tin
uou
sly
.

 Gr
eenhous
esareu
sedtop
rovi
dea
ppr
opr
iat
econ
dit
ion
sinp
lan
ts
es
peci
all
yinc
oldar
eas
.

4. S
ola
rCon
cen
tra
tor
s

(
a) Whatdoesth
eex peri
menti
ll
ust
rates?
(
b) Whattwofactorss h
oul
doneconsid
erwh ensel
ect
ing
t
herodtobeused
?
(
c)Stat
et h
eobservation
smadeint
hisexper
iment
.

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4. Ex
p l
aint
heGr
een
hous
eeffec
t.
5. Nametwoexa
mpl
esofgr
eenh
ous
ega
ses
.

 Conca
ver efl
ecto
risusedt orefl
ectrad
ian
th eatfr
omthes
un
i
ntoac ommonpoi
nt(
focus
).Temper
atur
eatthisp
ointi
sver
yhi
gh
th
ereforetheconce
ntr
atedh ea
tc anbeusedforpur
pos
esli
ke
hea
tin
gwa ter
.

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ats
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1
. Thediag
rambelowsh
owsth
eessen
tia
lfeatur
esofasol
ar
heat
ingpanel
.Asmal
lel
ect
ricp
umpcir
cul
atesth
eli
quid
thr
oughthepip
es.

S
tat
ebr
iefl
ywh
y:

i
. Th
epi
pesa
ndmet
alp
lat
esa
reb
lac
ken
ed.

i
i. Th
erei
sama
ter
ialfi
breg
las
sont
hep
anel
.

2. Th
efi
gur
ebel
ows
howsa
nel
ect
rici
ron
.

Twomet
alp
lat
esAa
ndBa
rer
ivet
edt
ofor
mab
imet
als
tri
pasu
sed
ab
ove.

(
i) Wh
ichmet
alex
pan
dsmor
e

(
ii
) Ex
pla
inh
owt
heel
ect
rici
ronwor
kswh
ent
hep
oweri
son

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ats
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Ch
apt
erEi
ght EL
ECTROS
TATI
CSI
I
ntr
odu
cti
on Ex
erc
ise

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ats
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 El ectros ta ticsi sab ranc hofp hysicst hatd ea

lswi ths t ati
c 1. Twob alloon sinfla t
edwi tha iraret iedwi thstr
ingsandh eld
electricitywh ichi san on-movi nge lec tr
icc hargeont hes urface 1met rea pa rt.
Bot hba l
l oonsa rerub bedwi thfu r
.Wh yd ot he
ofa nob je ct. balloonsmovea pa rtwh enbrou ghtc loset ogether?
 Al ls ubs tanc esa rema deofa toms. At omsh avet hreesu b
-a tomic 2. Fore ac hs ituationb el ows tatewh ethert heforceb etween
particlesn a me l
y : themi sr epu l
siveora tt ractive.
 Pr oton s
 Ne utr
on s
 El ectrons
 Pr oton sh aveap ositivec harg e.Ele ctr
onsh avean e ga ti
ve
charge .Ne utron sd on oth avea nyc harg e(i
.e.th
e yaren eutr
a l
).
TypesofCh a rges
 Pos it i
vec harge (
s )
.Th esec h a
r ge(s
)a reob tainedwh ena na tom
l
os esa ne le ctron (
s).
 Ne g ativec ha r
g e(s).Thes ec harge(s)a r
eob tainedwh ena na tom
gai
n sa ne le ctron(s)
 Th eS Iu nitofc ha rgei sthec ou l
omb ,
C.
 Ac harg eda tom( pos iti
ve l
yorn e gati
ve ly)isca ll
eda nion .
 Ab od yt ha th asn e itheran e g
a tivec ha r
gen orap os i
tivec h ar
ge a) Con duc t
or sa ndIns ulators.
contain sa ne qualn umb erofp rotonsa nde lectrons(Ne u
t r
ala tom). S ubs t
an ceswh ichd on ota l
lowe le c
t ronst op a
ssthroughthe m
Wh e nt he sec h arge sa ree quali nn u
mb er,ab od yise l
ec tri
c all
y arec al
l edin sul
at ors.
neutral.  S ubs t
an ceswh icha llowe lectronstop asse asil
ythroughthe m
El
ec t
rostaticCh argesofaMa terial arec alledc onduc tors.Th er easonswh yt hey(metals)conduct
 Ah ar dr ubb err odg ainsmi lli
onsofe lectronswh eni tisr ubbed easilyi sb e causewi thina nyme tals omee lectr
onsa ren ot
withawoolc lot h.Th ec lothl osese l
ect r
on st ot h
er oda nd atta c
he dtos pecifica tomsb utaref reet owa nderabout.
become sp os i
tive lyc harged.Th er u bb
e rb ecome sn ega t
ive l
y  I fy ouwe r
et ohol dame talroda ndr ubi twi t
hwoolwou l
di t
charge d. bec harge d?NO Howe veri fy ouf itp olythenehandleon to
 Wh e ng lassr odi srubb edwi thf ur,thef urlose selectr
on stot he theme t alrodi tc anb ec h
arg edb yru bbingit.Wee xplainthis
glassr od .Gla ssr odb ecome sn eg ati
ve lycha r
ge dandf urbe comes bys ayingt hatt hep olyt henei sanin sulatora n
dwi l
lnota l
low
positive lyc ha r
g ed . elec t
ronst omovet hrou ghitona lon gitss ur
face.Wh ena n
 Ab od yi ss aidt ob ep ositive l
yc hargedifi th asa ne xcessof insulatorisr ubbed ,thee l
e ctronswh icharet r
ansferr
edc ome
positivec har gesori th asl osts omee le c
trons. froma tomsont h es urf ace.Th eme talsb ecomec har
g edb y
 Ab od yi ss aidt ob en egat i
ve l
yc hargedi fith asa ne xces sof elec t
ronsf romt h ewool .Bu tift heme t alisd i
rectlyhe l
d,
electron si .
e .I fi tha sga in
eds omee lectrons. thes e e l
ec tr
on si mme diately ‘ l
e a k’a wayt ot hee arth
 Th ef ol lowi ngma terialsbe come sn ega ti
velyc h a
rgedb yf ri
c ti
on throught heh andont heb od ywh e rea swh ent h
eh andlei s
whenr u bbed : insulatedt heyr ema inont h eme talb ec ausetheycannotp ass
 Pol ythe ne throught hei nsulatingh a n
dle.
 Mos tp lastics Char
gingMet hod s
 Eb on ite Thefollowingme thodsa reu sedtoc ha r
g ema terial
s:
 Th ef ollowi n go nt heot he rh a
n db ecome sp os yi
tivelyc harged (
a )I nd uction
whenr u bbed : (
b ) Con t act
 Ac et ate (
c )S epa r
at i
on
 Pe rspe x
 Gl as s
 Fu r
Th
eBa s i
cL a wofEl ect rosta ti
cs
 I tstat est ha tlik ec ha rgesr e pe l
,un likec hargesa ttrac t.

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ats
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(
a)I n
duct
ion (
b) Conta
ctme t
hod
Cha
rgin
gpolyst
yrenebal
lnegati
velybyi
ndu
cti
on  S u
spendthepoly
styr
eneb
allcoa
tedwi
tha
lumi
niu
musin
gdr
y
 S us
pendthepolys
tyren
eb a
llcoat
edwitha
lumi
niu
mu s
ingdr
ysil
k si
lkthr
ead.
thr
ead
.  Br i
ngacharg
e dgl
assr
odclos
etobutn
ott
ouchi
ngth
e
 Br i
ngaposi
tivel
yc h
argedgl
assrodcl
osetobu
tn ott
ouch
ingt
he su
spendedbal
l.
sus
pendedba
ll.

Note:
Theposi
tivecha
rgesar
erepel
ledwh
ilet
henega
tivech
arg
esare  Br
ingach
argedgl
assr
odi
ncon
tac
twi
tht
heb
all
,rol
li
ngi
t
at
trac
tedtoth
er od
. overt
hesur
face
.
 Tou cht
hesideoftheba
llawa
yf r
omthegl
assr
odwi t
hth
efing
er.

Note:El
ectron
sflowf r
omtheea
rthtone
utr
aliz
ethepos
iti
vechar
ge  Wi
thd
rawt
hec
har
gedr
od.
ont
h ebal
l.
 Wh il
eh ol
din
gt h
eglas
srodneart
hebal
l,wi
thd
rawthefi
nge
rand
thenthegl
assrod.

Notes
a) Wh enap ositi
ver odi sroll
e dont h
eb al
l,someoft he
Note:Th er emain
ingn egati
vec har
ge sre
dis
tri
but
et h
e ms
elves negat
ivechargesindu
cedi nthebal
lareneut
ral
izedbysome
uni
formlyont heball. posi
tivechargesonth
er od.
 Wh e
nab odyisc h
argedbyindu
cti
on,ita
cqu
ire
sthech
arge
st h
at b) Wh entherodis wi
thd
raw n,
theposi
tivecha
rgesredi
str
ibu
te
areop p
ositetothein
ducin
gc h
arge
. themsel
vesalloverthesurfac
e ofth
e r
od.
c) Wh enab od yisc har
ge dbyc ont
actme t
hod,ita cq
uir
es
Question: char
gesthatare s
imi
lartotheonesonthecha
rgin
g r
od.
Expl
ainbyu seofd iagra
msh owt heabovemat
eri
alcanbechar
ged Questi
on:Expl
ainhowama teri
alischar
gednegati
velyby
pos
itivelybyindu
ctionmethod. con
tactmethod

(
c)Separ
ationMethod
 Placetwos phe
resA andBtog
ethers
othatt
heyforma
sin
glecondu
ctor.
 Bri
ngac ha
rgedp ol
yth
ener
odclos
et ob
utnottou
chin
g
spher
eA.

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ats
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 Movespher
eBa waysoast
obrea
kthec
ont
act,wh
ilehold
ingte  I
h tcon s
istse ssentiall
yofame talc a
p( br
a s
s)andr od(boast
)
ch
arg
edrodinpos
iti
on. atwh ichisc onnectedap ieceofve rythinme t
a lfoilcal
led
thele af( sometimesg oldfoi l
,alumin u
m)s upportedwi t
ha
pie
c eofi nsulatin
gma te r
ial(
c oul
db ec ork,cel
luloseacetate
)
whichf ormsp artofab oxwi thg l
asss l
ides .
 Themet alc asi
ngp rote c
tst helea ffromt hee f f
ectoft he
dra
ug ht.
 Theg lasswi ndowi stransparentforob servati
ont obema de.
 Ther odiss upportedb yap lu
gofg oodi ns
u l
atorswh i
chstops
char
g esg ive nt othec apf r
oms preadingt ot heca s
ea nd
hencele a
k i
n gawa y.
 Withd
rawt hechar
gedrodan
dt es
tthetwos ph
e r
esu si
nga
 Thec api sc ir
cu l
art oe nsu
reu ni
f ormd is
t r
ibut
ionofc ha
rge
n
egati
vel
yc h
arge
drodfort
hepr
esen
cea
ndtyp
eofc har
geineac
h
onit.
s
pher
e.
 Ear
thi
ng-
Proc
essoflosi
ngch
argestoorgai
nin
gchar
ges
fr
om theear
ththr
oughacondu
ctor
.Rep
res
entedb
yt he
sy
mbol:

Ch
argingaGol dLeafEl ec t
rosc opeb yCon tact
 Ane lec
troscopei sc hargedn egati ve lyb yb ri
n g
in gac harged
polythenes tri
pu ptot hee l
e ctr
os c op ea ndr olli tove rthe
electroscopec ap.Th en e gativelyc hargedp ol ythener od
repelsthen egativec hargewh ichs p readsont hep la teandthe
Exer cis
e
leaf,ma ki
ngt hemr epele achot herh en celea fd ive rgen
ce.If
Wh enac har
gedr odish eldc losetoamet a ls phereplac
edona n
thep rocessi sr epeateds eve ralt ime st hel e a
fd i
vergence
ins
u lat
eds tand
,t hechar
g ed i
s tr
ibut
ionont hes p her
eisa ss h
own
wi l
lk eepsincreasinguntilitr eache st hema ximump oint
.This
below.
wa yt hee l
e c
tros copei ss aidt oh aveb e enc hargedb y
con t
a ct
.
 Th eme t
alc ap,l
e afa n
dr odwi llthe ref orer emaind ive r
ged.
 I nd ampwe ather,thisp r
oce ssma yb ed ifficult.Iti shelpedif
ar azorbladeisc e l
lot apedont ot hec aps ot hati tp r
ojects
ove rthee dge.Th er azore dgewi llt h enb ef oundt oga t
her
thec har
gemor er eadilythant hec apa lone.
 Toc harg
ea ne lectroscopep ositi ve ly,ac hargec ell
ulose
(
a) Wh atisthesi
gnofc h
a rg
eont herod
? ace t
a t
es tripisr ubbeda l
on gt hee d geoft h ec ap .Elect
rons
(
b) Descri
beas i
mplemet hodtoc har
gether od. area cceptedf romt hec apt ot hes t ri
pwh ichme anst hatthe
(
c) Expl
ainwh ythefars i
d eoft hemetalsp herehasap os
iti
ve capa ndleafg ai
nan etpositivec ha rg e.
cha
rge.  Th eleafth er
efor ed i
ve r
ge sag ai
n.
(
d)Wh ath a
ppenstot hec har
gesont hemet alspher
e,ift h
e
cha
rgedrodismoveda wayfromt hesphere? Ch
argingaGol dLeafEl ec t
rosc opePos i ti
vel yb yI n
d uc ti
on
TheGol dL eafEl ectrosc op e  Tou chthec apoft h
ee lectroscop ewi thy ourf inge rtoe n
sure
thatitisf ull
yd ischarged.
 Br ingac hargedr od( -)closet ot h ec apoft heu nc
harged
electroscope .
 Wh i
lether odre mainsinitsp osition ,toucht hec a p.
 Wi t
hdrawt hefi ngerandsu bsequen tlyr emo vet her od .
Obs
er vations
 Wh enthec harg
e drod( -)i
sb roughtc loset ot hec a p,theleaf
rises.
 Wh enthec apist ouchedwh ilet her odi si npos i
t ion,theleaf
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d
ive
rge
nced
ecr
eas
es.

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 Wh e nt hef ingeri swi thdrawna n dt het he nth er od,t hel eaf

diverge s.
Expl
anation Char
ge on Ch ar
ge Effe
ctonlea
f
Wh e nth er odi sb roug htc loset ot hec a p,
e lect r
onsa rer epell
e dto el
ectr
osc
ope b roughtn e
ar di
verge
nce
thep latea ndt hele afma kingt hele aft od ive rge. thecap
Wh e nt hec a pi st ouch ed, electronsf lowt ot hee ar
t ht hr
ou ghthe + + In
cre
ase
body. - - In
cre
ase
Wh e nt hee art hcon nec tioni sb rok enb yr emovi ngt hef i
n gerand + - Decr
eas
e
ther od,t hep os i
tivec ha rgesr edis tri
b u
te son t
ot hel ea fa n
dt he - + Decr
eas
e
plate.Th el ea fa sar esultd ive r
g esa n dthee lectroscop eb ecomes +or
- Un c
harge
d Decr
eas
e
positive l
yc ha rged. body
UsesofEl ect ros cop e
1. De tect i
ngt hep r
es enceofc hargeonab ody
 Ch arg edb od i
e sb roug htn eart hec apwi llc auset hel eaft o Ch
argesinAir
rise( d i
ve rg
e ).Ift hel eafd oe sn’
td iverget heb odyi s Ai
rcanbecharge dby:
u ncharg ed .  He ating
2. Me as uri
ngt h ei n
su latingp rop er
tie sofa nob je ct
(mate r
ia l
)  Ra diations
 Ch arg et hee lec trosc opea ndb ringt heob jectt ot het opof Appl
icat
ionsofEl ectros
tati
cCharg
es
t hee le c troscop ea nde artht h ee lec t
r oscop e.Th er atea t
 El ectrostati
csprec
ipi
tat
ors
wh icht hel eaff a l
li st heme as ureoft hec ondu c
t i
nga bili
t yof
 Fi ngerp ri
nti
ng
t heob je ct .
 S prayp ain
tin
g
3.Tomeas uret heq uantityofc h argeonac hargedb od y
 p hotoc opyi
ng
 I fab od yb eingt es tedh a slittlec h
arg eoni tt hel ea foft he
e l
e ctro sc opewi lld iverg eal ittlea ndi ft heb od yh asmu ch
Da
ngerofElectr
ostat
ics
c hargeoni tthel ea fwi lldive rgemor e.
 Ru b
bingliqu
idmolecul
esc a
nb ec har
ged.Ift h
el iqu
idi s
4.tes
tingt hes ignofc hargeonac harg edb ody
i
nflammab
le,i
tcanspar
kande x
plode.
Itisadvi
sabl
et ostore
 I fac ha rgedb od yi sb roug htn eart hec apofac harged
fu
elsinmetalca
nssothatanychar
gesge n
erat
edc on
tin
u al
ly
e l
e ctro sc ope, thel eafo ft hee lec t
ros cop ewi l
ld i
ve rgemor e
l
eakou t
.Thisisthereasonbehin
dt hep r
esenc
eofl oose
ift heb od ya ndt hee le ctroscop eh a
ves imilarcha r
g esa ndthe
ch
aininta
nkerscar
ryi
ngin
flammabl
eliqu
ids.
lea fd ive rgen cewi lld e cr
e asei ft het woh aved iffe ren
t
c harge s.
Testi
ngforc ha rges As
sig
nme
nt
a) Ch a
rg ea ne l ectrosc op en eg ati
ve ly .Br i
ngan ega t
ive lyc harged 1.A n
ylond
ressst
ick
sont
heb
odya
ndc
rac
kle
s
polythe nes tripc loset ot h
ec ap. Not icet ha tth ele afd ive r
ges whenre
moved.
Exp
lai
n.
further.
b) Bringu pap os i
tivec harg ec e l
lulos ea ceta tes tripc loset ot he
2.
Youaregi
venaposi
tivel
ycha
rgede
lect
roscop
e
samen egat ive lyc harge de l
ec tr
os cop e .
Not ic et hatt h
i stimet he
leafc ollap se s(dec r
e asei nd iverge nce .
) an
dacharg
edbody
.Explai
nhowyouwil
ldete
rmin
e
c) Placey ou rh andona nyu n
c hargedme talc los et ot h ec harged th
etyp
eoft h
echar
geonthecha
rgedb
ody.
electros cop e .Noti cea gaint hatt hel eafc olla pses.
 Not et ha tt h er es u
ltsi ne xp er
ime nt s(b )a n d(c)we r
et hes ame 3.Youar
ep r
ovid
edwi t
hthefol
lowi
ng:
polythen
e
hencet hec ol lapsingoft h el eafi sn ote vide ncef ort hep resence rod,d
ust
erandau n
charge
delec
tros
cope.Exp
lai
n
ofac harge db ody. Wec a nth er
e fores tatet herulef ort estinga howyouwil
lcha
rgetheele
ctr
osc
openeg
at i
vel
y.
chargea sf ol lows:
1) Ifthel eafofc hargee l
e ctros c
op ed ivergesf urtherwh e nab ody
broughtc los et othec a pt hent hatb od yisc harg ed.
2) Thes i
g noft hec harg eont heb od yi st hes amea st hatont he
electros cop e .
 I ncr
e asei nd ive r
ge ncei st heon lys urewa yoft estingt hes i
g nof
chargeonab od y.Not et hatc hargin gb yc onta ctisn otas urewa y

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b
uti
ndu
cti
oni
s.

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Ch
apt
erNi
ne CEL
LSANDS
IMPL
ECI
RCUI
TS
I
ntr
odu
cti
on Not
es

 Electr
icalener
gyi susedforlig
htin
g,Heat
ingandoper
ati
ng a) Acir
cuitth
atal
lowsc h
arg
est omovei
nac ompl
etepa
th
el
ectr
onicdevi
cessuchasT.
V,comput
ers
,hi
ghspeedt
rai
nsetc. wh
entheswi
tchi
sclos
edissai
dtobeacl
osedci
rcu
it.
Thi
sener
g yi
scarr
iedt
hrou
ghcon
ductor
sli
kewir
es.
b
) Acir
cui
tt h
atd oesnotall
owc h
argest
omovei nacompl
ete
El
ectr
icCurr
ent p
athsuc
hac ir
cuitissai
dtobeanopen(b
rokencir
cui
t)
.Open
c
irc
uitca
na l
sob easaresu
ltofloos
econnect
ionofwir
es.
 El
ect
ricc
urre
ntistherateofflowofc
har
ge(
flowofc
har
gep
er
un
itt
ime)
.SIun
itist
hea mper
e(A) c
) Forcl
ari
tya
ndneatn
ess
,sy
mbol
sar
eus
edi
nre
pre
sen
tin
gan
ele
ctr
ica
lci
rcu
it.
 Fr
omthedefi
nit
ionabove,

Cha
rge,
Q
Cu
rre
nt,
I=
Ti
me,t

Q
I= ,Q=I
t
t

Ex
amp
le

Cal
cula
tet h
ea moun
tofc ur
rentflowi
ngthrou
ghab
ulbi
f360
cou
lombsofcha
rgefl
owst
hrou
g hi
tin3.
5min
utes. Di
rec
tionoft
heFl
owofEl
ect
ricCu
rren
t
S
olu
tion  Conven
tiona
lly
,theflowofc u
rre
ntisfr
omt h
eposi
tive
ter
mina
lt oth
en e
gat
ivete
rmin
alofthec
ell
.Iti
sopp
osite
Q tothedi
rect
ionoffl
owofele
ctron
s.
I=
t
 Theinstr
ume
ntformeasu
rin
ge l
ect
ricc
urr
entiscal
leda
n
360 ammeterwhil
ee l
ect
riccur
ren
tf l
ow iscont
rol
ledbya
I=
3.
5x60 vari
abler
esi
stor
.
=1
.
714A

Ty
pesofEl
ect
ricCu
rren
t

) Di
a rec
tcu
rren
t(d
.c)
–wh
ichf
lowsi
non
edi
rec
tionon
ly

) Al
b t
erna
tin
gcu
rren
t(a
.c)–wh
ichr
eve
rse
sdi
rec
tionwi
thag
ive
n
fr
eque
ncy

S
imp
leEl
ect
ricCi
rcu
its

 Asimpl
eel
ect
ricc
irc
uitc
ons
istofac
ell
,ab
ulba
ndc
onn
ect
ing
wi
res.

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Devi
ce S
ymb
ol

Ce
ll

Ba
tte
ry

S
wit
ch

Bu
lb/
fil
ame
ntl
amp

Wir
escros
sin
gwi
th
n
oconn
ecti
on

Wir
escros
sin
gwi
th
c
onn
ect
ion

Fi
xedr
esi
stor

Pot
ent
iald
ivi
der

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ge|
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Thet ableb e
low shows Cel
lsi
nPa
ral
lel
some of t h
ee l
ect
rica
l
 Twoormor ecel
lsa r
ep la
cedsid
eb ysid
e,theposi
tive
symbol
su sedi ndra
wing
ter
min
alsjoi
nedtogethe
ra ndt
hen e
gat
ivete
rmin
alsalso
cir
cuit
s.Fu
se con
necte
dtoget
her.

Ca
pac
itor  Whe
ncel
lsar
einpa
ral
lela
rra
nge
men
tth
eire
.m.
f.
ist
hes
ame
a
sth
ee.
m.
f.ofon
ecell
.

 Cur
renti
ssu
ppl
iedf
oral
ong
ert
imei
npa
ral
lelc
onn
ect
ionof
ce
lls
.
Rh
eos
tat

Amme
ter

Note:Cel
lssh
oul
dsh
oul
dbear
ran
gedinpar
all
elonl
ywh
ent
hey
ha
vet hes
amee.
m.
fot
her
wis
eon
ewilld
rai
ntheothe
r.
Vol
tme
ter Bu
lbsi
nSer
iesa
ndPa
ral
lelCon
nec
tion

Bu
bsi
nPa
ral
lel

 Eac
hb u
lbfun
cti
onsi
nde
pen
den
tly
.Ifon
egoe
sof
f,ot
her
s
Ga
lva
nome
ter con
tin
ueli
ght
ing
.

 Ther
e’sdec
rea
sedr e
sis
tan
cea sthecur
renthas ma
ny
al
tern
ati
vel
oops(
compl
etep
ath
s)th
rou
ghwh
ichtof
low.

 Bul
bsinpara
lle
lh avethesamep
ote
nti
ald
iff
ere
nceb
ut
El
ect
romot
iveFor
ce(
E.
m.
f)a
ndPot
ent
ialDi
ffer
enc
e
di
ffer
enta
mountsofcur
ren
t.
 El
ect
romoti
ve for
ce(E.
m.
f)ref
ersto vol
tag
ea c
ros
st h
e
te
rmi
nal
sofabatte
ryi
nanope
nci
rcu
it(
whenn
ocurr
entfl
owsin
th
eci
rcui
t)
.

 Potent
ialdiffer
ence(Pd
)r e
fer
st oth
evolt
ageacr
ossthe
t
ermin
alsofab at
ter
yinaclos
edci
rcu
it(
whe
ncu
rre
nti
sflowi
ng
i
nthecir
cui
t)
. Bu
lbsi
nSer
ies

 Potentia
ld i
fferen
cea n
dE.m.fa reme asur
edinvol t
sb yan  Ifonebul
bg oesoff,
othersa
lsogooff.
in
strumentcal
ledvoltmeter
.Avol tmeterisal
waysconn
ect
edin
par
a l
lel(
acr
oss)
.  Theresi
’ ncrea
s e
dresist
ancethu
st h
eb ul
bsmig
htnotbeas
bri
ghtasthoseinpar
all
elconn
ecti
on.
 Thed iff
ere
nceb e
twee nPotent
ialdiffere
nceandE.
m.fisk
nown
aslostvolt
age e.
m.f=P. d+l os
tvolt
age  Bulb
sinserieshavethesamecur
ren
tb u
tdiff
erentp
ote
nti
al
diff
erenc
e.
l
ostvoltag
e=e .
m.f-
P.d

 Th
isvol
tag
eisl
ostb
eca
useoft
heop
pos
iti
ont
oth
efl
owof

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ge|
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c
har
geswi
thi
nth
ece
ll(
in
ter
nalr
esi
sta
nce
)

Con
nec
tin
gCel
lsi
nSer
iesa
ndPa
ral
lel

Cel
lsi
nSer
ies

 Twoormor
ecell
sareconne
ctedsuc
hthattheposi
tivet
ermi
nalof
onei
sjoi
nedt
othenegati
vetermi
nalofanoth
erone. Note:
Bulbsinpa
ral
lela
rra
nge
men
tli
ghtb
rig
hte
rth
ant
hos
ein
se
rie
sa r
rang
e me
nt.
 Twoormor
ecel
lsconn
e c
tedinser
iesmakeabatt
ery

Note:Con
necti
ngc
ell
sins
eri
esi
ncr
eas
est
hee.
m.
fan
dcu
rren
tint
he
ci
rcui
tishi
gher
.

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ge|
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Exampl
e Not
e:
Anelectr
ici
ani
nst
all
edel
ectr
icwi
ri
ngi
nahou
sean
dconn
ect
edt h
e
1
) Ma ter
ialswhos
ee l
ectr
ica
lp r
oper
tie
sfal
lbe
tweenthos
eof
bu
lbs a nd the s wi
tches as shown in th
e b elow.
C
con
duct
orsandins
ulat
orsareref
err
edtoassemi
-con
duc
tor
s
e.
g.
sil
iconan
dgermani
um.

2) S
omel i
qui
dssuchasdilu
tes u
lphu
ricaci
d,s
odi
umc hl
ori
de
s
olu
tionandpot
ass
iumh ydr
oxid
ec ond
uctel
ect
ric
ity
.They
a
rerefer
redt
oasel
e c
troly
tes.

S
our
cesofEl
ect
ric
ity

 Ma
ins
our
ces
:

 Chemic
alcell
s
(
a) Ex pl
ainwh athappenswhenswitc
h:
(
i) S1iscl
os ed.  Gener
ators
On l
ybulbB1wil
lligh
t;
(
ii
) S2isclosed.  Sol
arcell
s
BulbB1andB2ligh
tsbutwithle
ssbr
igh
tne
ssbecau
se
 Ot
hers
ourcesi
nclude:
ofincr
e aseinr
esis
tance.
(
ii
i)S
3isc losed
.
 Ther
mocouples
BulbB1B2 an
dB3 wi llallli
ghtb u
twi thmuc
hl e
ssb r
igh
tne
ss
compar
edtoa( ii)  Piez
oe l
ectri
cit
y

(
b)(
i)Usin
garedr
awndia
gra
msh
owt
heb
estp
osi
tiont
heb
ulb
s Chemica
lCells
s
h ou
ldbei
nst
all
ed.
Thesearecel
lstha
tp r
odu
cea nE.
m.
fasar
esu
ltofac
hemi
cal
re
action
s.Th
eyarecat
egor
ize
dintot
wo:

I
. Pr
ima
ryc
ell
s

 Thes
earecel
lswh
ichc
ann
otb
ere
cha
rge
dforu
sea
gai
ne.
g.
si
mplec
ell
.

S
imp
leCel
l

(i
i)Expl
ainwhyyouconsid
erthearr
ang
ementin(b)(
i)above
tobethebest.
Whenthebulb
sareconn
ectedsuchth
atth
eyareinpar
all
el,
t h
ec i
rcui
t
r
ésis
tan
cei ssig
nifi
can
tlyred
uced;andhe
ncemorecurr
entf l
ow,the
b
ulbli
ghtswithequalbr
igh
tnesssin
cetheoperat
ionvolt
a g
ei sthe
s
ame;

Pa
ge|
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Con
duc
tor
san
dIn
sul
ator
s

 Cond
uct
orsar
ema t
eri
alsthatall
ow e
lec
tri
cc u
rre
ntt
ofl
ow
th
rou
ghthe
me.
g.c
opper
,si
lve
r,gr
aphi
tea
ndalu
min
ium.

 I
nsul
ator
saremat
eri
alstha
td onotal
lowfl
owofe
lec
tri
ccu
rre
nt
t
hrou
ghtheme.
g.
plas
tic,
paperan
dr u
bber
.

Defec
tsofas
imp
lec
ell

 Polari
zati
on–a cc
umulationofb ub
b l
esa r
oundt hec oppe
r
plat
e(posi
tiveplat
e).Thisdefec
tp r
ovidesinsu
lationtothe
flowofc urren
ta nda l
sos etsups ome“ l
ocal
”c e l
lswi t
h
copperwhosee l
ectronflowt endst oopposet h
ef lowof
elect
ronsfr
omt hezincplate.
Theove ra
lleffectisincre
ase
inthein
tern
a lr
esis
tanceoft hecel
l,whichred
ucest heflow
ofcurre
nt.

 L
ocala
ction–thezi
ncpla
tei
sdepl
ete
d(eat
enawa
y)asi
t
r
eac
tswithdil
utes
ulph
uri
cac
id.
Imp
uri
tie
sinzi
ncpr
omot
e
l
oca
lact
ion.

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Wa
ysofc
orr
ect
ingPol
ari
zat
iond
efe
ct: Th
eDr
yCel
l

 Addi
tionofpot
assi
umdic
hroma
te(dep
olar
ize
r).
Ox yg
enfr
omthe
de
polari
zerc
ombi
neswi
ththehy
drog
enatomstoprod
ucewa
ter
.

 Re
movi
ngc
opp
erp
lat
ean
dbr
ush
ingof
fth
ega
sbu
bbl
es.

Wa
ysofc
orr
ect
ingL
oca
lac
tiond
efe
ct:

 Us
eofp
urez
inc
.

 Coa
tin
gzi
ncwi
thme
rcu
ry(
ama
lga
mat
ion
).

Th
eLec
lan
che’
cel
l

L
oca
lac
tiona
ndPol
ari
zat
ionh
aveb
eenmi
nimi
zedi
nth
isc
ell
.

 I
tisr
efe
rre
dt sd
oa r
yce
llb
eca
usei
thsn
a ol
iqu
id.

 Theammoni
umc h
lori
desolu
tionintheL e
cla
nch
e’c
elli
s
re
plac
edwithtea
h mmon
iumchlor
idej
ell
yorpast
ewhi
chi
s
use
dastheel
ectr
olyt
e.

 Ma
nga
nes
e(I
V)ox
idea
nda
cta
sth
ede
pol
ari
zer
.

 c
arb
onpowderincr
eas
est
hes
urf
acea
reaoft
hep
osi
tive
e
lec
trod
e(c
arbonRod)

 Thezin
ccasea ct
ingastheneg
ativeel
ect
rodeg
etsdep
let
ed
bytheammoniumchlor
ideandcha
n g
estozi
ncchl
ori
de.
Local
act
ionisst
illadefectinth
iscel
l.

 Thecellcann
otberenewedoncet
heche
mic
ala
cti
ons
top
s.A
 Thecar
bonr
od(posi
tiveter
min
al)i
ssu
rrou
nde
dwi
thma
nga
nes
e n
ewdry c
ellhasane.
m.
f ofab
out1
.5V.
(
IV)ox
idemi
xedwit
hca r
bonp
owder.
Ca
refort
hed rycel
l
 Carb
onpowderi
ncr
eas
est
hee
ffe
cti
vea
reaoft
hep
lat
esh
enc
e
re
ducedr
esi
stan
ce.  L
arg
ecur
ren
tss
hou
ldn
otb
edr
awnf
romt
hed
ryc
ellwi
thi
na
s
hor
tti
me.
 Themang
anese(
IV)oxi
deac
tsasad
epol
ari
zer(
depol
ariz
ationis
sl
owthusla
rgecur
ren
tsca
nnotb
edr
awnoutofth
iscellste
a di
ly  Th
ete
rmina
lsshou
ldn
otb
eshor
ted.
foral
ongti
me).
 Th
ecel
lsmustb
estor
edi
ndr
yplac
es.
 L
oca
lac
tioni
sst
ill
ade
fec
tint
hisc
ell
.
Us
esoft
hed
ryc
ell
s
 Thecel
lisu s
edforpur
p os
eswh er
ecurr
entisnotdra
wnf r
omit
 Dr
yce
llsa
reu
sedi
ntor
che
s,c
alc
ula
tor
san
dra
dios
.
foraverylongt
ime,l
ikeop e
rati
ngbel
lsandte
l e
phoneb
oxes.
It
ha
salongerli
fesp
anthanthesimp
lece
ll.

I
I. S
econ
dar
yCel
ls:

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 Th
esea
rer
ech
arg
eab
lec
ell
s.

 The
ya realsocall
edstora
gec el
lsa
sth
eyc
ans
tor
e
el
ectr
ica
len
ergya
sc h
emi
calene
rgy
.

 Exa
mplesaretheLead
-ac
ida
ccu
mul
ato
ran
dth
eNi
cke
l-
al
kali
neac
cumu
lat
or.

Pa
ge|
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L
ead–a
cida
ccu
mul
ator Ma
int
ena
nceoft
heAc
cumu
lat
ors

 Consistofp osit
iveandn egati
vep lat
eswh i
cha r
ema deoflead-1) Thel eveloft h
ee l
e c
trol
y t
es h
ou l
db echeckedregula
rlya nd
ant
imonyalloy. maintain
e da b
ovet h
ep lates
.Top pi
ngs hou
ldb ed oneb y
distil
ledwa te
r;NOTACI D!
 Thep lat
esa red i
ppedi nsu l
phur
ica ci
ds oluti
onwh ichisan
ele
ctrolyt
e. 2) Thea ccumulat
ors h
ouldbec h
argedwh ent h
ee .
m.fofthec e l
l
dropsb el
ow1 .
8Va ndwh e
nt h
ere l
ativede n
sityoftheac idis
 Thecapshaves mallventholeswhic
ha ll
owg ase
st oescap
e(02a
nd fallsbelow1.1
2(usi
ngah ydr
omet er
).
H2)
3) Largec urr
entsshouldnotb edrawnf r
omt heb at
teryf ora
 Ifthedensi
t yoftheacidb e
come stoolowt h
ea c
cu mu
lat
orissai
d longtime .
tobedischarged.
4) Shouldnotb eleftinadischa
rgedc ondi
tionforalongp eriod
 Iti
sc har
gedb yconnec
tingad .
csour
c easshownbelow. ass ul
p h
a t
ionmayt akeplace.
(thelead(II
)sulphat
ed eposits
ont heplateshar
d e
nu pandcannotb econvert
e dbacktol ead
(
II)oxidea n
dlead.
)

5) S
hor
tin
g/ove
rch
arg
ingoft
hea
ccu
mul
ators
hou
ldb
eavoi
ded
.

6) Th
ete
rmi
nal
ssh
oul
dal
way
sbek
eptc
lea
nan
dgr
eas
ed.

7
) Theaccu
mul
atorsh
ouldnotb
ed i
rec
tlypl
ace
dont heg
roun
d
du
rin
gs t
ora
ge.Itsh
ouldberes
tedonsomeins
ula
torli
kea
woodenb
loc
k.

Al
kal
ineAc
cumu
lat
ors
:

 Thisisthemostrel
iab
le,l
ongl
ast
inga
ndcos
t-ef
fect
iveofthe  Theel
ectr
olyt
einthi
scas
ei sanal
kal
ines
olu
tion
,suc
ha s
s
econda
ryc e
lls
.A 1 2V lead
-ac
idaccu
mul
atorha
ss ixce
lls pot
ass
iumhydr
oxi
de.
c
onnec
tedinser
ies
.
 Thecommon typesaren i
cke
l-c
admi
uma ndn i
cke
l-i
ron
Ca
pacit
yofa nAccu
mulat
or acc
umul
ator
s.

 Thi
sist
heamou
ntofc
urr
entt
hatc
anb
edr
awni
nag
ive
nti
mef
rom
th
ebatt
ery
.

 I
tise
xpr
ess
edi
namp
ere
-hou
rs(
Ah)
.

Ex
amp
les

1
. Abatter
yisrat
ed120AH.
Howl
ongwi
lli
twor
kifi
tst
ead
ily
s
upp
liesacur
ren
tof4A?

Ad
vant
ages of Al
kal
ine Ac
cumu
lat
ors overL
ead – Ac
id
Ac
cumu
lator
s
c
apa
cit
y=c
urr
enti
namp
ere
s×t
imei
nhou
rs
1
. L
arg
ec u
rre
ntsc
anb
edr
awnf
romt
hemove
ras
hor
tpe
riodof
1
20AH=4A×t
ime
t
ime.
120AH
t
ime= =30h
our
s 2. Th
eyr
equ
ireve
ryl
itt
lea
tte
nti
ont
oma
int
ain
.
4A
3. Th
eya
rel
igh
ter(
mor
epor
tab
le)t
hant
heL
ead–a
cid
Th
2. ec
urr
entc
apa
cit
yofa
nac
cumu
lat
ori
s40Ah
.Fi
ndt
hea
mou
ntof
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c
urr
entfl
owi
ngi
fth
eac
cumu
lat
ori
sus
edfor600mi
nut
es. a
ccu
mul
ator
s.

c
apa
cit
y=c
urr
enti
namp
ere
s×t
imei
nhou
rs 4. Theyc
anb ek
epti
nad i
scha
rgedc
ond
iti
onf
orave
ryl
ong
ti
mebefor
eth
ecel
lsa
rerui
ned.
600
40AH=I×
60

40AH
I= =4A
1
0H

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ge|
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Di
sad
van
tag
es 1
. Youa rep r
ovi
dedwithacarbat
ter
y,as witc
ha ndtwo
headl
ightsofacar
.Dra
waposs
ibl
ecir
cui
td i
agramfort
he
1
. Th
eya
reve
rye
xpe
nsi
ve. arr
angementth
atwil
lall
owt
hedri
vertos
witchonthetwo
li
ghtssimul
tan
eou
sly.
2. Th
eyh
aveal
owe
re.
m.
fpe
rce
ll.
2. (
a)Dr
awawell-
lab
ell
edd
iag
ramofad
ryc
ella
ndex
pla
in
Us
esofAc
cumu
lat
ors h
owitwor
ks.
Th
eyareus
edins h
ips
,hosp
ita
lsa
ndb
uil
din
gswh
erel
arg
ecu
rre
nts (b
)Wh a
tar
eth
edefec
tsa
ndt
her
emed
iesi
nth
ewor
kin
gof
mi
ghtb
ene
ededforemer
gen
cy. ad
rycel
l?
Di
ffer
enc
esb
etweenp
rima
rya
nds
econ
dar
ycel
ls (
c)Howa
red
ryc
ell
sma
int
ain
ed?
Pr
ima
ryc
ell
s S
econ
dar
yce
lls 3. Eigh
td r
ycell
scanb
ea r
rangedt
opr
odu
ceat
ota
le.
m.
fof
12V,ju
stli
keaca
rbat
tery.
Cann
otb
ere
cha
rge
daf
ter Ar
ere
cha
rge
abl
e
us
e a
. Wh
ati
se.
m.
fofa
nin
divi
dua
lcel
l?

S
mallcur
ren
tca
nbed
rawn L
arg
ecu
rre
ntc
anb
edr
awnf
rom b
. Whyisitp
ossi
bletosta
rttheca
rwi t
hthelea
d-a
cid
f
romth
em t
hem a
ccu
mula
tor
,bu
tnotwit
heigh
tdrycel
lsins
eri
es?

4. (
a)Dra
wt wos ep
ara
ted
iag
rams s
howi
ng al
ead
-ac
id
a
ccu
mulat
orwh
enitis
:
Revi
sionEx
erc
ise a
) Ch
arg
ing

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9. I
nter
msofelec
trons
,dist
ingu
ishb
etweeng
oodc
ond
uct
ors
,poor b
) Di
sch
arg
ing
.
c
ondu
ctor
sofelect
ric
ityandin
sul
ator
s.
(
b)Descr
ibet h
ec h
ang
est
hatc
anob
ser
vedd
uri
ngt
het
wo
1
0.(
a)Defi
nec
urr
enta
nds
tat
eit
sSIu
nit
. p
roces
sesabove.

(
b)
(i
)Ac h
arg
eof180coul
omb
sfl
owt hr
oughala y (
mpever c)Whyisi
tda
nger
oust
oli
ghtac
iga
ret
ten
earac
har
gin
gca
r
mi
nut
e.Ca
lcu
lat
eth
ecu
rren
tfl
owi
ngt
hroughth
ela
mp. b
att
ery
?

(
ii
)Cal
cul
ateth en
umb
erofel
ect
ron
sin
vol
ved(
cha
rgeof 5. (
a)Whatdoyouund
ers
tan
dbyt
het
ermc
apa
cit
yofal
ead
-
el
ect
roni
s1.
6x0-19C)
1 a
cida
ccumu
lator
?

1
1. Aba t
ter
yc i
rcula
tescharg
er ou
ndac i
rcui
tfor1.
5minu
tes.
Ifthe (
b)
Wh yisi
teffec ti
vet ocha
rgeac a
rbatt
eryoveralon
gtime
c
urrenti
sheldat2.5A,whatquan
tit
yofc harg
epass
esthewie? wi
r thaver ysma l
lcur
rentra
thertha
nab i
gcurr
entwit
hinashor
t
t
ime?
1
2.Defi n
eelectromotiveforceandd i
sti
n g
uishitfr
omp ot
enti
al
d
ifferen
ceofac ell. (
c)Ac a
rbatteryisrat
ed40Aha n
di ti
sexpectedt
os u
pplya
c
ons t
antcurrentfor1 20 mi
nutes
.Wh atist h
es tr
engt
hof
1
3.(a)Drawacir
c ui
tdiagr
amoft hr
ee-c
elltorc
h. c
urrentdel
ivered?
(
b)Wh
atd
oyouu
nder
sta
ndb
y? 6. St
ateatlea
s tfiveprec
auti
onsthatyouwou
ldt
aket
o
mai
nta
ina
ccumul
ator
sinyourl
abor
ator
y.
(
i)Op
enc
irc
uit
?
7
.Stat
et hea d
vant
agea n
dd isa
dvant
a g
e of l
ead
-ac
id
(
ii
)Cl
osedc
irc
uit
? a
ccu
mul
ator
sovert
heal
kal
inea
ccumu
lators
.
1
4.Expl
ainwh
yli
ght
sinah
ous
ear
ewi
redi
npa
ral
lela
ndn
oti
n 8. Th
efi
gur
ebel
ows
howst
hes
etu
pforas
imp
lec
ell
.
ser
ies.

1
5.(
a)Gi
vet
hreed
iffer
enc
esb
etweenp
rima
rya
nds
econ
dar
ycel
ls.

(
b)I
nmaki
ngasimplecel
l,t
het
woel
ect
rod
esu
seda
ren
otof
t
hesameki
nd.
Ex p
lain
.

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a
)Na
met
heEl
ect
rod
eAa
ndt
hes
olu
tionB

b
)St
atet
wor
eas
onswh
yth
ebu
lbg
oesoffa
fteras
hor
tti
me

1
6.Sta
teoneadvant
ageofalead-
acidaccumu
lat
oroverad
ryc
ell
1
7.Sta
teoned efectofas impl
ec ellandexpl
ainhowitca
nbe
cor
rec
ted.
1
8.Thedi
agra
mb el
owshowsas i
mplecell
:-

a
. Na
meza
nds
olu
tiony

b
. Na
mea
ndex
pla
int
hed
efec
tth
atoc
cur
satp
lat
ez

c
. Giveonemet
hodofp
reven
tin
gth
edefec
tth
atoc
cur
sat
th
ec op
perpl
ate

1
9.Expl
ainwhyeig
ht1.
5Vcel
lsa
rra
ngedi
nser
iestogiveat
otalof
12Vcannotb
eusedtos
tar
tacar.
Butca
rbatt
eryof12Vsta
rtsa
car

20.Defi
nethetermtop
pin
ga susedinsimplecel
lsan
dcir
cui
ts.
21.I)Agir
lopenedupausedupdrycellandfoundt
hefol
lowin
g:
a. Th ezi
nccasin
gwa sdepleted

b
. Th
ecel
lwa
swa
ter
y

I
I)Na
met
hec
elld
efec
t

II
I)Thr
eeid
enti
calbu
lbsa
reconnect
edinser
ieswithaba
tteryofdry
cell
s.Atfi
rstthebul
bsshi
nebrig
htlybu
tgradual
lybec
omed immer
.
Usingth
esamecel
ls,
expl
ainhowyouwouldi
ncrea
sethebri
ll
ianceof
thebul
bs

22.A c arb atter

yr equi
res toppi
ngu p wit
hd i
sti
ll
ed water
occ
a si
onally
.Explai
nwh ythi
si s nec
essar
yan
dwh ydi
sti
ll
ed
waterisused
23.St
ateon eadvanta
geof:
a
. Al ead-a
c i
daccumul
ativeoveradr
ycell

b
. Ad
ryc
elloverl
ead
-ac
ida
ccu
mul
ator

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ats
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Ch
apt
erTe
n RECTI
LINEARPROPAGATI
ONOFL
IGHT
AND
REFL
ECTI
ONATPL
ANES
URFACES

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I
ntr
odu
cti
on  Ma keas mallholeine achoft het h
reecardboardsensu
rin
g
th
a tallth
eh ol
esa r
ea tthes ameh e
ight
.
 Op ti
csisab r
anchofp hysi
cswhic
hs t
udiest hebeh
aviourofli
ght  Th el a
mpsp osi
tionedi nsuchawa ythatarayofl i
ghtpasse
s
asittravers
esvariousmedia. th
rou ghal
ltheholes.
 Op ti
calinst
rume
n t
ss uchascamer
as,microscopes,
pe r
isc
opesand  Wh ent h
ec ard
boardi sdispl
a c
edb ymovin
gi tsli
ghtl
ytot h
e
lawsg over
ningt
h ei
rwor ki
ngformama jorp ar
toft hisbr
anc
hof ones i
de,theeyewi llnots eethelamp.Th
iss h
owst ha
tlight
physic
s . tr
ave l
sinas tr
aightline.
 Lightisaformofe nerg
y .
Ligh
tregul
atesy ourdai
lylife.
Youneed
ligh
ttos eethes
ize ,
shapeandcol
ouroft hin
gsaroundyou. Ra
ysofL i
ghtandBe amofL i
ght
 Ar ayi san arr
ows treamo fl i
ghtofn egli
gibl
et hi
cknes
s
S
our
cesofL igh
t whileabeamofl ightisac oll
ectionofray
sofl igh
t.

 Ther
ea r
et wo: l
uminous(i
ncandesc
ent)andnon-lu
minou
s
 Lumi
nousob jectsarethosewh i
chproducetheirownli
g h
te.g.
sun, Ty
pesofbeams
cand
les,
e l
ect r
iclamps,gl
owingwormse tc.  Ab eami nwhi
chr
aysa
rep
ara
lle
ltoe
achot
heri
sca
lle
d
 Non-l
uminousob je
c t
sa r
et hosewhichd on’
tgivetheirownligh
t p
aral
lelbea
m.
butref
le c
tl ig
htt hatcomesf r
omal umi n
ousob j
ect.Thesea r
e
obje
cts.Examplesare:t
hemoon ,
paper,
y ouetc.
 Youcanseea nobjectclear
lyifli
ghtfromite n
tersyoureye
s.

Tr
ans
parent
,Transl
ucentandOp a
q u
eOb jects
 Transpar
entobjectsarethosewh icha l
lowl i
ghtt opa
sst h
rough
t
heme .
g.aglas
swi n
dow,clearwat e
r, t
hea i
raroundyou
.Allthese
s
ubs
t a
ncesletli
ghtpassthr
ou g
ht hem.  Abeaminwhi
cht
her
aysc
onve
rgea
tap
oin
tisc
all
eda
 Op a
q u
eob jec
tsarethosewhichca n
nota l
lowlighttopassth
rough c
onver
gen
tbea
m.
t
heme .
g.
wo ol
,steel
,Bric
k.
 Transl
ucentbodie
sa r
ethosewh i
c hletligh
tp a
sst hr
oug
ht h
em, b
ut
s
catterina l
ld i
rect
ionse .
g.lamps h
ades,frostedglass
,s ome
p
las
t i
cetc.

Re
c ti
li
ne arPropagati
onofL i
gh t
 Th isist heprope
rtyoflighttotra
ve linastr
aigh
tlin
einamediu
m
ofh omoge n
eouspropag
ationdensi
ty.
 L ightd oesnott r
avelaroundcorner
s .Theforma
tionofshad
ows
showst hatligh
ttravel
sinas tra
ightline.
Wh enanopaq
uebodyis
placedinab eamoflig
ht,as h
adowisf ormed.
Demonstratin
gRe cti
li
nearPropagati
onofL i
ght  Ab e
ami nwhic
hth
era
yss
pre
adsou
tfr
omap
oin
tisa
d
ivergen
tbea
m

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Th
ePi
nhol
eCa
mer
a

 Ap in
-hol
ec ame raisma deusi
ngasmallrecta
ngu
larboxwi t
hap i
n
holeaton ee nd,al argerecta
ngu
larh ol
ea tonee nd,al ar
ge
r
e cta
ngularholea ttheothe
rend.
 Th er ect
an g
ularh olea tthebackisc overedwithas creenof
speci
alpa perlikeg rea
seproofpaperwh i
chlet
ss omeli
g h
tp a
ss
thr
oughit(i.
e.itist r
ansl
ucen
t). ho= ob
jecthei
ght
hi=imageheig
ht
Advantage u=ob je
ctdistan
ce
 Iti sabl
et of ormf ocusedi
magesonthef i
lmofobjectsbothnea
r v=i magedis
tancefr
omp i
nhole
andfarfromt heca mera. Gi ventha
tma gn
ifi
cati
onism, t
hen
h v h v
I
mageForma t
ionb yaPi nh
oleCamera m= iorm= andso i=
h
o
u ho
u

Exa
mples
1. Ap i
nhol
ecameraofleng th15c mformsanimage3cmhighof
amans t
and
ing9minfr on toft hecamerawhatistheheig
ht
oftheman?
hi v
=
ho
u
0.03m 0. 15m
=
ho
9m
0.
03m×9m
h= =1.
8m
Th
eL en
g t
h(Si
ze)OfI mag e o
0.15m
 Th elengt
hoft h
ei magef ormedd epend
son : 2. LampAofh eig
ht6c ms tandsinfrontofap i
nholec
ameraat
a) Th edi
stanc
eoft heobje c
tf r
omt hepinh
ole ad i
stan
ceo f24c m.T hec amerascreenis8 c
mf romthe
b) Th el
engthoft hecame rabox pi
nhole.
Wh ati
stheh eightoft heimage?
hi v
=
MAGNI FICATION ho
u
 Th i
si sth
er a
tiooft heima ges i
zet otheobjectsi
zeorth
era
tio hi 0.
08m
oftheimagedis
tan c
et ot h
eob jectdista
nce. =
06m 0.
0. 24m
Imagesiz
e 0.08 m
Ma gni
f i
cation= h = ×0.06m
ob j
ectsize i 0 .24m
hi
=2m
i
magedist
ance
Ma gnific
ation=
objectdi
stan
ce

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Exer
cis
e S
had
owFor
medb
yaPoi
ntS
our
ce
1. Animag e1 00mml ongofama n2mt allispinnedont opofap i
n-
hol
ec amer a.Thed i
stan
ceofp inhol
efr omt h
es creenift h
ema n
issta
nding6c mfromthepin
hole.
2. Anob j
ec t1 mt al
lformsanimage5c mt al
lfr omth escreenofa
pin
holeca mer a.
Findthedis
tanceofth eobjectfromt h
ep inhole
oftheob jecti ftheleng
thoft heca
mer aboxis40c m.

EffectontheI mageFormedb ythePinholeCamer aOn :

(
a) Ma nypinholes
 Ea c
hp in
holewi l
lformi tsi
magere su
ltin
gi ntobri
ghte
rbutblur
red
i
mage.  Ap oin
ts ourceofli
ghtisonewhichissmal
lenoughf
ora l
l
(
b)L argep i
nhole therayso fl
ighttocomeeffec
t i
velyfromasin
glepoi
nt.
 Al a
rgeh olei se q
uivalen
tt os eve r
alh olesandwi l
lp r
oduce  Thes h
ad owi suni
for
mlya n
dt otal
lydarkalloverandis
b
righ
t e
rb u
tb l
urr
edima ge. call
ed um br
a. Th
eu mbr
ell
as hapee dg
e sont h
es ha
d ow
 Howe ver,as harpimag ecanb ep r
oducedwh er
eawi deh ol
eor showstha tl
ighttr
avel
sonas t
raightl
ine.
s
everalholeshavebee nuse
db ysimplyplacingaconver
gingle
nsin
f
rontoft h emanyholesa n
di ncontactwi ththebox.Theconvex S
had
owsFor medb yanExt
endedSourceofLight
.
l
ensb r
ingsa l
lraysfromap ointonob jecttou ni
quepointonthe
s
creen.

Thep i
n-hol ec amerac anb emod ifieda sfol l
owsi nor dertot ake
ph
otograph s:
 S h
oul db ep aintedb lackont hei nsi
det oelimi
n a
ter efl
ectionof
lig
ht.
 Tr anslu cents creent ob er eplacedb yl ight-
ti
g htl i
d wi th
photog raphicf i
lmf i
tte dont heinside.
 S houldb ec ove r
e dwi that hi
nb lackc a
rdwh i
chac t
sa sashutter.
Theexposu retimeofap in-
holec amerad ependson:  Ane xt
endedsourceofl i
ghtislargeen oug
hf orraystobe
 S izeoft hep in-
hole s
ee ntocomefrom manypoint
s.
 L ightingc onditions  Th eshadowisl a
rgera ndhasac entraldarkregionc a
lle
d
 S ensitivityoft hef il
m u
m br
a s
urrou
ndeda ri
ngo fpart
ialshadowc al
ledpe n
umbra.
 L engthoft hec ame ra
Appli
ca ti
onofex t
endedl i
ghtsources
Advantageoft hePi nholeCa meraovert heLensCa mera a)L amp sh
adesa r
eu seda thomet oprovid eamor ep l
easant
 Th ep inholec ame raisp referredt othelenscamerabe c
auseitd oes k
indofl i
ghtn
ing.
notpr od u
c ed i
stort i
on. b) Fluorescen
tt ubesa reu su
allysurroundedb yaf roste
d
Thedisadva ntagesofu singap i
nh olec a
mera: d
if f
usetoscattertheligh
t&r edu
ces hadowsh ar
pness.
a)I ttak esal ongt imef ori maget ob ef or
me dsincethea mountof
lig
htp assingthroug htheh oleiss mall
. Ecl
ipses
b)I tcann otbeu sedt ot akep hotograp h
sofmovi ngobjects. An ecl
ipseisthetotalorp art
ialdisa
ppe a
ra n
ceofs unraysa s
seenfromtheearth
.
Sh
a d
ows
 As had owi sas ha deca stbya nobje c
tb l
ockingdir
ectraysofl ight. TheSolarEcli
pseorEc l
ipseoft heSun
Thef or mat i
onofs h
a dowsd ep endsont h
ef actthatlighttrave l
s
inast raightline
Thesiz
eoft h
es ha d
owf orme dde pendson:
a)S izeofs ourcesofl ight.
b)S izeofop a queob ject.
c) Distan cebe twee ntheob jecta nds our
ceofl i
ght.

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 Therayf r
omt h
es ou
rceAOi scal
ledt ei
h ncid
entray.Th
e
 Thes
olare
cli
pseoc
cur
swh
ent
hemoonc
ome
sbe
twe
ent
hes
una
nd raythatb ou
ncesof ff rom t h
eMi r
rorO i scall
edt h
e
th
eeart
h refl
ectedray.
ONi sthenor mal
.
 Theanglebet
weeninci
d e
ntr ayandthenor
maliscal
ledAngl
e
Th
eAn
nul
arEc
lip
seoft
heS
un ofinci
dentangl
e,Ibetwee nthenor
malandtheRefl
ectedra
y
iscal
ledangl
eofreflection.

TheLawsofReflecti
on
1. Theangleofin
cidenc
eisequ
altoth
eangl
eofre
flec
tion
.
2. Thei n
ciden
tray,norma
landrefl
ecte
drayatthepoin
tof
in
c i
denceal
lli
eont h
esamepla
ne.

TypesofReflect
ion
 I
tocc
urswhenth
ed i
sta
nceofsepa
rat
ionbe
tweent
heeart
ha n
d a) Reg
ula
r orSp
ecula
rReflecti
on
t
hemooni
sg r
eat.
Theumbraoft
hemoondoesn
ottota
llycover Itoccur
sw henpara
lle
l i
nci
d e
ntraysareref
lec
tedp
ara
lle
lto
t
hesu
nedgeofth
ed a
rkdis
kofth
emoon. eac
h oth
erwhenrefl
ecti
ngsurfa
ce i
ssmoot
h.

L
una
rEc
lip
seorEc
lip
seoft
heMoon

b)I r
reg
ula
rorDi
ffu
seRefl
ecti
on
Par
all
eli
nci
den
tra
ysarer
efl
ect
edind
iff
ere
ntd
ire
cti
onsf
or

 Th ee cl
ipseoft hemoonoc cu
rswh entheearthcomesbetwe e
nthe
sunandthemoon.
 Wh ent h
el un
are cli
pseoccur
s,itlastslonger(
about1hr
)th a
nthe
solarecl
ipsebecausethemoonismu chsmall
erthantheeart
h .
 Du ringat ota
lluna recl
ipsesomel igh
tr e
achest hemoond ueto
refract
ionb ythee a
rth
’sa t
mos p
he r
e&ma kei tlookac opper
y Ima
geFormati
onbyaPlan
eMi r
ror.
colour.  Theimageofanobjectse
eninap lan
emi
rr
orisf
ormedby
ra
ysofl i
ghttr
avel
li
nginstr
aightl
ine
swh
icha
reref
lec
ted
REFLECTIONBYPL ANEMI RRORS . accor
din
gtothela
wsofrefle
ction.
 Wh enar ayofli
g htmeetsaplanemirr
oritisrefle
ction
.
 Anor dinar
ymi r
rori smadeb yd e
pos i
tin
gat h
inlayerofme t
al,
oftens i
lverp a
inta ttheb ackoft heg las
swh ichactsa sthe
reflect
ingsurfa
c e.

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Ex
erc
ise

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Fr
omt heaboved i
agr
amon ec anseethatth
eimageformedinapla
ne 1
. Fin
dth en
umb
erofi
mag
esfor
medwh
enmi
rr
orsa
rei
ncl
ined
mi
r r
orisalways: at20o
a)
Er e
ct(Upri
ght)
b)
Asf arbehi
ndthemirr
orasob je
ctisinfr
ontofit. 2. Fi
ndt
hea
ngl
ebet
weent
womi
rr
orsi
f35i
mag
esa
refor
med
c)
Vi r
tual.
Avi r
tuali
mageisone: 3. Atwhatan
glewoul
dtwomir
rorsbei
ncl
inedi
fth
enu
mberof
 wh ichcannotberece
ivedonthescree
n i
magesfor
medare(
i)1
7 (i
i)29?
 wh ichisformedbytheint
ersec
tionofvi
rtu
alr
ays. Rot
ati
onofaMi
rr
or
c)
L at
erall
yinver
tedi.
e.l
efta ppea
rsontheri
ght&vicever
sa
d)Thesamesizeasth
eob j
ect.  Whenamir
rori
srot
ate
dth
rou
gha
nan
gle t
her
efl
ect
edr
ay
t
urn
sthr
ough2 .
I
mag
eFor
mat
ioni
nPa
ral
leli
nMi
rr
ors
 Henc
e,ther
efl
ect
edrayal
waystu
rnst
hrou
ght
wic
eth
ean
gle
th
roughwhi
cht
hemir
rori
srot
ate
d.

Ex
erc
ise

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1
. A mir
rorisrot
atedthr
ougha
na n
gl 5o t
eof1 hrou
ghwh
at
a
ngledoesth
ereflec
tedra
ytu
rn?

2. Amir
rorisr
otat
edth
rou
ghacer
tai
nan
glea
ndth
erefl
ected
r
ayt u
rnedthr
ough40o wh
atang
lehadthemir
rorbeen
t
urn
ed?

3. Aninci
dentra
yma kesanan
gleof25owithth
enormal
.Ifthe
o
mirr
oristur
nedt hr
ough9 intheanti
cloc
kwisedir
ec t
ion
fromth
eh or
izon
tal,th
rou
ghwhatangl
eistherefl
ectedray
rota
ted?
 Wh ena nob je
ctisp l
ac e
db etwe entwop a
rall
elmir
rorsasshown
App
lic
a t
ionofPla
neMi
rr
ors
aboveani nfin
itenumberofi magesa r
eformed.
 Eachimag eseeninonemi rr
ora ct
sa savirt
ualobj
ectwh i
chi
nt u
rn (
a) ThePeri
scop
e
formsani mageintheothermi r
ror.
 Theimag eb e
comesf a
interbe cau
sel i
ghtener
gyisabsor
bedbythe
mirr
orate achsuccessi
ver eflecti
on.
 Then u
mb erofimagesf ormedb ytwomi r
ror
sincl
ine
da tanan
gleis
givenbyt heformul
a.
360
n= –1

 Aperi
scopeconsi
stsofap l
anemir
ror
sp a
ral
leltoon
e
a
not
herandi
ncl
ine
da ta
ngeof45ot
l othehor
izon
tal
.

 Th
eya
reu
sedt
ohe
lpon
ese
eove
ranob
sta
cle
.

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 Per
isc
opesi
nsu
bma
rin
esu
sep
ris
msi
nst
eadofp
lan
emi
rr
ors b
) Th
elen
gthoft
hec
amer
aisma
del
ong
er.
be
cause
.
c
) Thesi
ngl
ehol
eisr
epl
acedb
yfou
rpi
nhol
esc
los
e
1
. Th
esi
lve
rpa
rtoft
hemi
rr
ore
asi
lyg
etsd
ama
ged tog
eth
er.

2. Th
ickmi
rr
orsp
rod
ucemu
lti
pler
efr
act
ion
s 5. Defi
net
het
ermr
efl
ect
ionofl
igh
t.

3. Th
erei
snol
ate
rali
nve
rsi
onwi
thp
ris
ms. 6. S
tat
eth
eLa
wsofr
efl
ect
ionofl
igh
t.

7
. Th
emi
rr
orABa
ndCDa
rea
tri
ghta
ngl
est
oea
chot
her
.

(
b) Us
eofp
lan
emi
rr
orsi
nin
str
umen
tsc
ales

 Pla
nemir
ror
sa r
eof t
enusedb
ehi
ndp
oin
ter
sasi
nst
rume
ntst
o
imp
rovet
herea
dinga
ccur
acy
.

 Wh e
nt h
epoin
teri
sviewe
data
nan
glei
tsi
mag
ewi
llb
ese
en
t
hrought
hep
lanemi
rr
or.

 Theimageseenwil
lenab
lethereadertoknowthatr
eadi
ngbeing
tak
e nwil
lhaveaner
rorduetopara
llax
.Theread
erwil
lther
efore
posit
ionth
ee y
everti
cal
lysot h
attheima
g eofthep
oint
erisnot
seenandhen
ceacorr
ectre
a d
ingwil
lbetaken.
a
) Wh a
ti sth
evalueoft heangl
eofi ncid
en ceof
 Th
esp
ort
sga
lva
nome
teru
sesar
ayofl
igh
tasap
oin
teri
nst
ead
. th
erayPQont hemir
rorAB?
b
) Completet
hediagr
amt oshowt h
ep a
tht akenby
(
c) Th
eka
lei
dos
cop
e th
erayPQa ft
erreflec
tionatbothmi
rrors.

 I
tap
pli
est
hep
rin
cip
leofmi
rr
orsi
ncl
ine
data
nan
gle
. c
) Det
ermi
ne:

 I
tcon
sist
softwomir
rorsM1a
ndM2p
lac
edt
oea
chot
he t600
ra I
. An
gleofr
efl
ect
iononAB.
t
oeachoth
eri
nsi
deatub
e .
I
I. An
glei
nci
den
ceonCD.
 Thei
nst
rume
nti
sus
edb
yde
sig
ner
stoob
tai
nid
easons
yst
ema
tic
pa
tte
rns
. I
II
. An
gleofr
efl
ect
iononCD.

Revi
sionEx
erc
ise 8. I
fagir
lwa
lksa
wayfr
omap
lan
emi
rr
ora
tas
peedof2mp
er
s
econ
d,
1
. (a )S
a ll
ywen tt oMa rysal
ont oh aveherhairdressed.Thes a
lon
hadt wop ar
allelmirr
orsplacedont hewa l
lswh ic
ha re3met ers I
. I nwhatd
irec
tiondoesheri
magemove?
apart.Wh il
ewa it
ingtobea t
t endedto,s
hes atatad ista
n c
eof1
meterfr omoneoft hewa l
lsandn oti
cedthatthereweremu lti
p l
e II
. Wi t
hwhatspeeddoesheri
magemove?
ofh erinea chmirror
.Determi n
et hedist
anceb etweent het wo
9. Thefigu
rebel
owshowsmirr
orsABa ndCDi n
cli
nedatri
ght
near
es timagesformedinthet womi r
ror
s.
ang
les.ArayPOmakesanangleof30owi t
hmirrorABhas
(
b)Twop lanemirr
or sar
ep la
cedata na ng
leof600a ss hownb el
ow. A asshown.
ra
yofl i
ghtmakesana
ngeof400wi
l t
hmir
rorm1a
n dg
oest
ost
rike
mir
rorM2.Fi
ndthea
ngl
eofrefl
ect
ionofMir
rorM2

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2. Wh
ati
srec
til
inea
rpr
opa
gat
ionofl
igh
t?
(
i) S
howthep a
thoft h
er a
ya ft
errefl
ecti
onfr
om
3. Dr
awar
ayd
iag
ramt
osh
owh
owap
inh
olec
amer
afor
msa
nima
ge. b
othmi
rr
ors.
(
ii
) Whati
stheang
leofin
ciden
ceont
hemirr
orCD?

4. S
tat
ethecha
ngest
hatwou
ldoc
curi
nth
esi
zea
ndb
rig
htn
essof
t
heima
gefor
medif

) Th
a eob
jec
tdi
sta
ncei
sma
del
arg
e.

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