Discipline course -1

Semester -1
Paper – Physics
Lesson- GRAVITATION AND CENTRAL FORCE
MOTION – Lesson 3
Lesson Developer: DR.GEETANJALI SETHI
College /Department: DEPT. OF PHYSICS,
ST.STEPHEN’S COLLEGE University of Delhi

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 LESSON-3

Table of Contents

1. Two Body Problem

2. Kepler’s Laws
3. Summary
4. Multiple choice questions

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Objective

 Two body problem

 Reduction of a two-body problem to one body problem
 Properties of a central force
 Energy diagrams
 Kelplers’ Laws: Statements and proofs

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3.1 TWO BODY PROBLEM
• It can be shown that behavior of a system of two masses, m1 and m2
interacting through gravitational force (or any inverse square law force) can
be reduced to a one body with reduced mass μ = (m1m2)/(m1+m2).

Consider an isolated system of particles interacting via inverse square law

force, F(r) such that F(r) < 0.

Denotes the location of center of mass

Figure 3.1

Let us write the equations of motion for the two masses

(3.1)

(3.2)

Now the position of center of mass of the system is given by,

(3.3)

Since it is an isolated system

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 (3.4)

Solution to Equation (3.4) is

(3.5)

We can always choose our coordinate system in such a way that

R0cm =0 and Vcm=0 (3.6)

Rearranging equation (3.1) and (3.2) and then subtracting equation (3.2)
from (3.1), we get

(3.7)
or
(3.8)
where (3.8 a)

• Equation (3.8) is like equation of motion of a mass μ.

• We cannot do such a thing for three or more body problems
• Now if we know the solution to Equation (3.8), we can solve for r1 and r2.
Substituting Equation (3.8a) in Equation (3.3) we can obtain the values for r1
and r2.

(3.9)

3.2 GENERAL PROPERTIES OF CENTRAL FORCE MOTION

We shall now discuss some properties of a central force using conservation laws.

3.2.1 Motion is confined to a plane

As F(r) is a radial force, it can exert no torque r x F(r) = 0. i.e.

Angular momentum is constant.

(3.10)

Now as r is always perpendicular to L and L is always in a plane, r is also fixed in

a plane.

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Since motion is confined to a plane, we can always choose the plane to be x-y
plane. Using plane polar coordinate to define x-y plane we have

where

Defining the unit vectors in (r,θ) coordinate system using the above
transformations we have

Differentiating r wrt time we get

Substituting this in Equation (3.8) one obtains, in plane polar coordinates, the
equations of motion to be

Figure 3.2

(3.11)

(3.12)

3.2.2 The Energy and Angular Momentum are Constants of Motion

We have already shown that direction of angular momentum is constant. Now
we will demonstrate that there are two more constants of motion: magnitude of

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angular momentum |L|= l and total energy, E. The angular momentum
magnitude of μ is given by,

Figure 3.3

(3.13)

The total energy of μ is

(3.14)

Where we know that

(3.15)

Where, U(ra) can be chosen arbitrarily. Substituting for in Equation (3.14)

using Equation (3.13), the value of total energy comes out to be

(3.16)

This will look like energy equation for one body, having mass µ if we define

(3.17)

Then,

(3.18)

Ueff(r) is called the effective potential energy. The term l2/2μr2 is called the
centrifugal potential energy. We can solve Equation (3.18) for r.

(3.19)

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 Or,

(3.20)

Here (r0,θ0,t0) are the initial position (both radial and angular) and time
coordinates and (r,θ,t) are the position and time coordinates after some
arbitrary time. It is difficult to solve this equation. It can be solved only
numerically. We can also find θ as a function of t using equation (3.13).

(3.21)

Once we know r as a function of t, we can integrate this equation and determine

θ.

(3.22)

We can also find the orbit of the particle, i.e. r as a function of θ, by dividing
Equation (3.21) by (3.19).

We obtain

(3.23)

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 Hence we have obtained a complete solution to the equation of motion.

???

Q Show that Kepler’s Second Law is a direct consequence of conservation of Angular

Momentum.

Ans

3.2.3 The Law of Equal Areas.

o Kepler’s second Law announced in year 1609.
o The area swept out by the radius vector from the sun to the planet in a
given time is the same for any location of the planet in its orbit.
o It is a direct consequence of the fact that Angular Momentum is
conserved in a Central force.
o We have already seen that gravitational force cannot exert a torque
and hence both magnitude and direction of Angular Momentum are


Brain Feed
The following link helps you study the orbit of a planet. We can adjust the value of g
and study the effect of gravity on the orbit of the planet.
http://phet.colorado.edu/en/simulation/gravity-and-orbits

Embed an image that will launch the simulation when clicked

<div style="position: relative; width: 300px; height: 226px;"><a

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style="text-decoration: none;"><img src="http://phet.colorado.edu/sims/gravity-and-
orbits/gravity-and-orbits-screenshot.png" alt="Gravity and Orbits" style="border: none;"
width="300" height="226"/><div style="position: absolute; width: 200px; height: 80px; left:
50px; top: 73px; background-color: #FFF; opacity: 0.6; filter: alpha(opacity =
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73px;"><tr><td style="text-align: center; color: #000; font-size: 24px; font-family:
Arial,sans-serif;">Click to Run</td></tr></table></a></div>
Use this HTML code to display a screenshot with the words "Click to Run".

CR E DIT S
Third-party
Design Team
Libraries
Noah Podolefsky (lead designer) piccolo2d
Emily Moore (lead)
Kathy Perkins, Trish Loeblein
Sam Reid (lead developer), Jon Olson (developer)
Chris Malley (developer),Institute
John Blancoof(developer)
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
 conserved.
o Figure (3.4) shows area swept by earth during a month in two
different seasons (not to scale).

Figure 3.4

Let us work in plane polar coordinates. Consider position of the particle at t

and t+Δt. See Figure (3.5)

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Figure 3.5

For small values of Δθ, the area ΔA is approximately equal to the area of the triangle
with base r+Δr and altitude rΔθ, as shown,

Figure 3.6

The rate at which area is swept is given by

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 (3.24)

Here the second term on RHS in the above equation has been neglected, as it is
insignificant in comparison with the first term on RHS. Here represents the areal
velocity of the planet.

Now

Its Angular Momentum is

(3.25)

Combining Equations (3.24) and (3.25)

(3.26)

Since Lz is constant dA/dt is also a constant

Figure 3.7

3.3 THE ENERGY EQUATION AND ENERGY DIAGRAM

The energy of a two-body system can be written in two forms.

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• The first equation looks nice, however v is itself a function of r and θ.
• It is difficult to analyze.
• However the second equation is only a function of r and looks like energy
equation of a one-body problem.

Now let us apply energy diagrams to planetary motion problem. The gravitational
force and potential are

With reference U(∞) =0, we can write

(3.27)

• For small value of r, the centrifugal potential term dominates.

• For large value of r, the gravitational potential term dominates.
• Figure 3.8 is a plot of Equation (3.27).
• The nature of the motion is determined by the total energy term, but the
motion is restricted to regions where kinetic energy, K=E-Ueff≥0.

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 Figure 3.8

Discussion of motion
1. E>0: The centrifugal barrier keeps the two masses apart. For large values
R is unbounded but must have a minimum value if l≠0.
2. E=0: The motion is similar to case 1 but on the boundary between
unbounded and bounded motion.
3. E<0: For both large and small r, the motion is bounded.
4. E=Emin: Then bodies remain at a fixed distance from each other for a
unique value of r.
5. There is one possibility, l=0. There is no centrifugal force. The bodies
move along a straight line on a collision course.

3.4 Kepler’s Laws of Planetary Motion

• Kepler’s Three Law’s of planetary motion were formulated to describe the
motion of planets around sun.
• Johannes Kepler formulated his first two laws in 1609, while analyzing
astronomical observations of Tycho Brahe.
• In 1619 Kepler discovered his third law.

First Law:

The orbit of every planet is an ellipse with sun at one of its foci. See Figure 3.9.

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 Figure 3.9

Second Law:

• A line that connects planet to the sun sweeps out equal areas in equal
intervals of time. In other words the areal velocity of the planet is constant.
We have already discussed the second law in detail

Third Law:
• It is known as the law of periods.
• The square of the period of any planet is proportional to the cube of the semi
major axis of its orbit.
• , where M is the mass of the planet
• The law is a consequence of Newton’s Law of Gravitation.

Proof of Kepler’s Laws:

First Law:

Equation (3.27) gives the energy equation for planetary motion

(3.27a)

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And hence using the equation of motion of a planet in an orbit given by Equation
(3.23) and substituting the above equation we have

(3.28)

Solving the integral gives (the value of the above integral can be obtained from the
list of standard integrals),

Rearranging the terms to get a solution for r we get,

(3.29)

By convention we choose θ0=-∏/2. We define

(3.30)

And

(3.31)

r0 physically represents the radius of the circular orbit for given values of l, μ and C
and dimensionless parameter, ε represents shape of the orbit and is known as
eccentricity of the orbit. In terms of these parameters, we can write Equation (3.29)
as,

(3.32)

Using the Cartesian coordinates defined after Equation (3.10), Equation (3.32) can
be written as

. (3.33)

For 0≤ε<1, the above equation reduces to the form

(3.34)

where and

This is equation of an ellipse. Using Equation (3.31) we have the value of E given by

(3.35)

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When ε=0 then the energy is given by

(3.36)

and Equation (3.33) reduces to

(3.37)

which is the equation of a circle.

When ε=1 then Equation (3.33) becomes

(3.37)

This equation represents the equation of a parabola and the energy in this case is
E=0.

When ε>1, Equation (3.33) has the form

(3.38)

which is the equation of a hyperbola. Here the energy E>0.

Second Law:

We have already proved it.

Third Law:

Substituting Equation (3.27a) in Equation (3.20) we obtain

(3.39)

The integral is a standard integral. For bounded system i.e. E<0, the solution to the
integral is

(3.40)

When t-t0=T, i.e. the planet has traversed a complete period then r=r0. The first
term on the right hand side goes to zero and in second term the arcsin term for a
complete revolution gives 2π. The equation then gives us,

Or

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 (3.41)

Where A=C/(-E).

Hence proved.

Brain Feed
Data supporting Kepler’s Laws

Eccentricity of various planets

Planet ε

Mercury .206

Venus .0068

Earth .0167

Mars .0934

Jupiter .0485

Saturn .0556

Uranus .0472

Neptune .0086

Pluto .25



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 
Brain Feed

Data supporting third law*

Semimajor
Period T2/a3
Planet axis
T (y) (10-34y2/m3)
(1010m)

Mercury 5.79 0.241 2.99

Venus 10.8 0.615 3.00

Earth 15.0 1 2.96

Mars 22.8 1.88 2.98

Jupiter 77.8 11.9 3.01

Saturn 143 29.5 2.98

Uranus 287 84 2.98

Neptune 450 165 2.99

Pluto 590 248 2.99



*Halliday, Resnik and Walker.

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SUMMARY:

1. Solved the two body problem by reducing it to one body problem. Defined
reduced mass of a system,μ

2. Showed that angular momentum and energy are constants of motion.

3. Discussed motion using energy diagrams
4. Stated and proved Kepler’s Laws of planetary motion

Multiple choice questions

1. For an elliptical orbit as seen from the sun which of the following remain
constant
i. Speed
ii. Kinetic energy
iii. Angular speed
iv. Angular momentum

2. The time period of satellite around earth is independent of

i. The mass of the satellite
ii. Radius of the orbit
iii. None of them
iv. Both of them

3. If for a planet in an elliptical path around the sun the times required to sweep
areas A and B are tA and tB, then if A=B,
i. tA < tB
ii. tA > tB
iii. tA = tB
iv. None of the above

4. If the ratio of masses of two satellites A and B is 2, then

i. Speeds of A and B are equal
ii. Potential energy of earth + A is same as potential energy of earth +B
iii. The kinetic energy of A and B are same
iv. The potential energy of earth + A is same as potential energy of earth + B.

5. Consider a planet moving in an elliptical orbit around the sun. The work done
by planet in the gravitational field of sun
i. Is zero in some parts of the orbit
ii. Is zero in one complete revolution
iii. Is zero in no part of the motion

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 6. When a planet comes nearer to the sun its speed
i. Increases
ii. Decreases
iii. Remains constant
iv. None of the above

7. Kepler’s second law regarding constancy of arial velocity of a planet is a

consequence of the law of conservation of
i. Energy
ii. Angular momentum
iii. Linear momentum
iv. None of these

8. The period of a geostationary satellite is

i. 24 hours
ii. 12 hours
iii. 6 hours
iv. 9 hours

9. If the gravitational force between two objects were proportional to 1/R

(and not as 1/R2) where R is separation between them, then a particle in
circular orbit under such a force would have its orbital speed v proportional to
i. 1/R2
ii. Constant
iii. 1/R
iv. R

10. The planet mercury is revolving in an elliptical orbit around the sun as
shown in figure. The kinetic energy of mercury will be greater at

i. A
ii. B
iii. C
iv. D

Key:

1 iv 2i 3 iii 4i 5i 6i 7 ii 8i 9 ii 10

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REFERENCES

1. An Introduction to Mechanics by Kleppner and Kolenkow. Tata McGraw Hill

publication.
2. Introduction to Classical Mechanics by David Morin. Dover publication.

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