Data Link

Layer
(MAC)

Functions

MAC
Multiple Access
Channelization
Collision-free
Data Link Layer
protocols
Contention protocols (MAC)

Jose L. Muñoz, Juanjo Alins, Oscar Esparza, Jorge Mata

Telematics Engineering
Universitat Politècnica de Catalunya (UPC)

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 Data Link
Layer
(MAC) Outline
Functions

MAC
Multiple Access
Channelization
Collision-free
protocols
Contention protocols
1 Functions

2 MAC
Multiple Access
Channelization
Collision-free protocols
Contention protocols

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 Data Link
Layer
(MAC) Functions of the DLL I
Coaxial cable
Functions

MAC
Multiple Access
Channelization Multi-point single link
Collision-free
protocols
Contention protocols

• The Data Link Layer is the protocol layer which

transfers data between adjacent network nodes!!!.
• Two nodes are adjacent if they are connected by a
single link.
• By a single link, we consider only a physical medium
and its associated physical repeaters (which do not
interpret the meaning of the bits but they only amplify
the signal).
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 Data Link
Layer
(MAC) Functions of the DLL II
Functions • Exception: some ”data link” technologies also consider
MAC that the data link layer can to deal with multi-link
Multiple Access
Channelization communications between nodes on the same local
Collision-free
protocols
Contention protocols
area network (LAN).
Switched LAN
• The most extended example of
A B
this is “switched Ethernet”
L2 (studied in more detail later).
L1
• In switched Ethernet there are
L3 L4 nodes called “switches“ that
implement functionalities beyond
the physical signal.
L5 L6
• Switches interpret the header of
C D the frame to switch the data to
Multi-link and multi-point the appropriate link to
destination.

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 Data Link
Layer
(MAC) Functions of the DLL III
• By the moment, we will consider that the data link
Functions

MAC
layer defines only communications between nodes
Multiple Access
Channelization
at the same link.
Collision-free
protocols • The data link layer is divided in two sublayers:
Contention protocols

Logical Link Control

Media Access Control (MAC) (LLC)
• Lowest sublayer (mandatory). • Uppermost sublayer (optional).
• Defines the frame format: delimiting • LLC provides frame
frames, addressing, defining fields multiplexing, flow control and
(e.g. typically frames have a field that error control.
shows which is the type of
upper-layer PDU, etc. ).
• LLC is used in some
applications in a data link, but it
• Channel Access. is not used if the frame contains
• We need to know how to send TCP/IP.
the frame. • This is because TCP/IP
• Shared channels need provides similar end-to-end
multiple access techniques. functionalities to those that LLC
provides for the data link.

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 Data Link
Layer
(MAC) Outline
Functions

MAC
Multiple Access
Channelization
Collision-free
protocols
Contention protocols
1 Functions

2 MAC
Multiple Access
Channelization
Collision-free protocols
Contention protocols

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 Data Link
Layer
(MAC) Outline
Functions

MAC
Multiple Access
Channelization
Collision-free
protocols
Contention protocols
1 Functions

2 MAC
Multiple Access
Channelization
Collision-free protocols
Contention protocols

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 Data Link
Layer
(MAC) Channel Access I
Functions

MAC
Multiple Access
Channelization • Apart from defining the frame, a big issue that must be
Collision-free
protocols
Contention protocols
defined by the MAC is how nodes must access the
link.
• The main problem arises when there are several nodes
on the same link.
• We need to determine which node can transmit at
which time.
• This issue is known as Multiple Access (MA).
• Notice that the problem is that a collision occurs if
more than one node transmits at the same time.

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 Data Link
Layer
(MAC) Channel Access II
Functions

MAC
Multiple Access
Channelization
Collision-free
protocols
Contention protocols • The main techniques for multiple access (MA) can be
classified as:
• Multiple Access with channelization. FDMA, TDMA,
CDMA.
• Multiple Access without channelization. These can
be further divided in collision-free and contention
techniques.

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 Data Link
Layer
(MAC) Channel Access III
Functions • Collision-free algorithms. These algorithms ensure
MAC that a collision can never occur.
Multiple Access
Channelization
• Polling.
Collision-free
protocols
• Tokens (decentralized polling).
Contention protocols
• Bit-map protocol.
• Binary countdown.
• Contention algorithms. They resolve a collision after it
occurs. These algorithms execute a collision resolution
algorithm after a collision.
• Aloha.
• S-Aloha.
• Carrier Sense Multiple Access (CSMA).
• Carrier Sense Multiple Access Collision Detection
(CSMA-CD).
• Carrier Sense Multiple Access Collision Avoidance
(CSMA-CA).

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 Data Link
Layer
(MAC) Outline
Functions

MAC
Multiple Access
Channelization
Collision-free
protocols
Contention protocols
1 Functions

2 MAC
Multiple Access
Channelization
Collision-free protocols
Contention protocols

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 Data Link
Layer
(MAC) Static channelization
Functions
• Channelization is a
MAC multiple-access (MA) method.
Multiple Access
Channelization • The available capacity of the
Collision-free
protocols link is divided using a B
Contention protocols

multiplexing technique.
• Types of static channel
allocation: A Channel C->A

• Frequency Division Multiple

Access (FDMA) Channel A->C
• Time Division Multiple C
Access (TDMA)
• Code Division Multiple
Access (CDMA)
• Drawbacks: we need ”a priori“ knowledge of the
number of nodes at the link and we might have
misused link capacity.
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 Data Link
Layer
(MAC) Dynamic channelization
Functions • Dynamic channel allocation is needed when nodes are
MAC
Multiple Access
dynamic in the link.
Channelization
Collision-free
• Example: GSM mobile networks.
protocols
Contention protocols • During a call, users use a pair of user channels: an
upload user channel and a download user channel.

• We need control channels to

assign the data channels.
• We have several users using the
control channel simultaneously.
• Typically, for the MA to the Uplink
Downlink
channel
channel
control channel, we use some
MA technique without Common
Control
channelization (S-Aloha in Channel

GSM).
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 Data Link
Layer
(MAC) Outline
Functions

MAC
Multiple Access
Channelization
Collision-free
protocols
Contention protocols
1 Functions

2 MAC
Multiple Access
Channelization
Collision-free protocols
Contention protocols

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 Data Link
Layer
(MAC) Polling
Functions

MAC • There is a central node called ”master“ who

Multiple Access Master
Channelization
manages the communications.
Collision-free
protocols
Contention protocols

Master A B Master A B

Slave to Master Master to Slave

• The master node periodically asks (polls) its slaves.

• We can easily implement Quality of Service (QoS).
• For example, poll some slaves more frequently than others.
• Drawbacks:
• One node is special (the master) and communications must always
go through the master (possible bottleneck).
• The master has to know ”a priori“ the slaves present at the link.
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 Data Link
Layer
(MAC) Tokens I
Functions

MAC
Multiple Access
Tokens are a way of decentralized polling.
Channelization
Collision-free • These techniques avoid using a master node.
protocols
Contention protocols
• We have user data frames and also a special control
frame called token.
• When a node receives the token, it can transmit its data
frames.
• When the node with the token finishes its transmission,
it passes the token (sends the token frame) to another
node.
• There are two types of LAN that use this technique:
token ring and token bus.

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 Data Link
Layer
(MAC) Tokens II
Functions

MAC
Multiple Access
Channelization
Collision-free
Token
protocols
Contention protocols

Token Bus Bus topology, circular

Standard IEEE 802.4 logic path
GM

• Drawbacks of Tokens
• If token disappears (the token frame is lost), nobody
can transmit.
• If there is a token duplicity, we might have collisions.

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 Data Link
Layer
(MAC) Outline
Functions

MAC
Multiple Access
Channelization
Collision-free
protocols
Contention protocols
1 Functions

2 MAC
Multiple Access
Channelization
Collision-free protocols
Contention protocols

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 Data Link
Layer
(MAC) Aloha I
Functions
• Developed by the Hawaii University in the 70’s.
MAC
Multiple Access
Channelization
Collision-free • Nodes send frames without P=Frame size
protocols
B=link bit rate
Contention protocols any previous negotiation.
Frame
• Transmissions are always
asynchronous because the t
P
frames are sent when required. T x=
B
• Obviously, we can NOT be sure that frames arrive OK
to the receiver because of collisions.
• Remember that collisions occur when two or more
senders transmit a frame at the same time.
• Aloha uses an acknowledgement (ACK) control frame
that is sent through the other way channel to indicate a
positive reception of the data frame.

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 Data Link
Layer
(MAC) Aloha II
• If the sender does not receive the ACK frame, it waits
Functions for a random time, called back-off time and then
MAC
Multiple Access
retransmits the frame.
Channelization
Collision-free
protocols Station A frame A1 frame A2 BO1-A2 ...
Contention protocols Time

Station B frame B1
BO1-B1
frame B1
BO2-B1 ...
Time

BO1-C1
frame C1 frame C1
Station C
Time
BO1-D1
frame D1 frame D1
BO2-D1 ...
Station D
Time

TX Collision Collision TX
A1 A2,B1,C1,D1 B1,D1 C1

• We assume that the propagation delay D ≈ 0 is

irrelevant and that ACKs are transmitted over a
collision-free channel (the other way channel is not
showed in the picture).
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 Data Link
Layer
(MAC) Aloha III
Functions Aloha Algorithm
MAC K: current number of attemps
Multiple Access Kmax:max number of attemps Station has a
Channelization
D: maximum propagation time frame to send Start
Collision-free
protocols R: random integer
Contention protocols Tx: frame transmission time
TBO: back-off time K=0

Wait TBO time

Send the frame
TBO =(R·Tx)

Choose a random integer Wait ACK timeout

R between 0 and 2k-1 >2·D + Tx
No
Typically K>Kmax? K=K+1 ACK received?
Kmax=15 No
Yes Yes
Abort Success

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 Data Link
Layer
(MAC) Aloha IV
Y's end collides with Z's beginning with
Functions X's beginning X's end collides
• We use the
MAC

Begin
term

End
Multiple Access Y
Channelization
Collision-free
”vulnerable

Begin

End
protocols
Contention protocols
period“ to X
denote the

Begin
period of time

End
Assumption: ACK's Z

End
are transmitted by a
that a frame X “free of collisions”
may collide channel.

with other t-Tx t t+Tx time

frames. Vulnerable period 2Tx

• Any frame that starts within time t from the starting point of X
(either before or after) will collide with X.
• The bigger the vulnerable period, the higher the probability
of collisions.
• The vulnerable period in Aloha is 2Tx .

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 Data Link
Layer
(MAC) Slotted Aloha I

Begin
collision

End
Functions Y
MAC
Multiple Access • Slotted Aloha
Channelization
Collision-free
(S-Aloha)

Begin

End
X
protocols
Contention protocols
reduces the
vulnerable
period to

Begin

End
Z
reduce the
collision
probability. t-Tx t t+Tx

Vulnerability period=Tx

• S-Aloha introduces discrete time-slots of duration Tx .

• A station can send only at the beginning of a time-slot.
• In Aloha system, the vulnerable period has length Tx .

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 Data Link
Layer
(MAC) Slotted Aloha II
Functions Slot 1 Slot 2 Slot 3 Slot 4 Slot 5 Slot 6
MAC
Multiple Access Station A frame A1 frame A2
Channelization
Collision-free
protocols
Contention protocols
Station B frame B1 frame B1

frame C1 frame C1
Station C

frame D1 frame D1
Station D
Collision Collision
B1,C1 A2,D1

• The main problem in S-Aloha is how to synchronize the

stations to correctly use the time-slots.

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 Data Link
Layer
(MAC) Carrier Sense Multiple Access
Functions

MAC A B E F
Multiple Access B senses here
Channelization
E senses here
Collision-free • Carrier t1
protocols
Contention protocols sense t1+D
means: Frame
”listen
before
transmit“.
F senses
here

• With CSMA, we can reduce the vulnerable period to the

propagation delay (D).
• Transmission can be done with several degrees of
”persistence“.

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 Data Link
Layer
(MAC) Persistence in CSMA I
Functions
• Non-persistent CSMA:
MAC
Multiple Access • Step 1: If the medium is idle, transmit immediately.
Channelization
Collision-free • Step 2: If the medium is busy, enter in back-off (wait a
protocols
Contention protocols random amount of time) and repeat Step 1.
• Notice that there is a trade-off:
• Large back-offs reduce the probability of collisions.
• Large back-offs introduce delay and might force the
stations to not to use the channel even though it is idle.
• 1-persistent CSMA:
• Step 1: If the medium is idle, transmit immediately.
• Step 2: If the medium is busy, continue listening until
the medium becomes idle, and then transmit
immediately.
• Notice that if two nodes are waiting for the channel to
become idle to transmit their respective frames, there
will be a collision.

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 Data Link
Layer
(MAC) Persistence in CSMA II
Functions

MAC
Multiple Access CSMA Persistence
Channelization
Collision-free Sense and Transmit Sense and Transmit
protocols
Contention protocols Continuously sense Sense Sense
wait wait

Time

Busy Busy Time

1-persistent non-persistent
Probability outcome does not allow
transmission Transmit

Continuously sense
*
Time Time Time Time
slot slot slot slot

Time
Busy * Selected time slot
p-persistent

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 Data Link
Layer
(MAC) Persistence in CSMA III
Functions

MAC
Multiple Access
Channelization
• p-persistent CSMA:
Collision-free
protocols • Step 1: If the medium is idle, transmit with probability p,
Contention protocols
or delay the transmission with probability (1-p). The
transmission is delayed for a time-slot.
• Step 2: For a delayed frame transmission, if we find the
medium busy, we continue listening until it becomes idle
and then we go to Step 1.
• Step 3: For a delayed frame transmission, if we find the
medium idle, we go to Step 1.
• Typically, the time-slot duration is set to the worst
propagation between any two stations in the link (Dmax ).

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 Data Link
Layer
(MAC) Persistence in CSMA IV
Persistence Algorithms
Functions

MAC
Multiple Access
Channelization busy
Wait
Collision-free Channel? Channel?
protocols busy randomly
Contention protocols
idle idle Back-off
station can transmit station can transmit
1-persistent non-persistent

busy
Channel?

idle

Wait Probability
Channel?
a slot >p outcome?

busy <p

station can transmit

p-persistent

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 Data Link
Layer
(MAC) Persistence in CSMA V
Functions

MAC • p-persistent let us adjust the trade-off between delay

Multiple Access
Channelization and collision probability.
Collision-free
protocols
Contention protocols • The higher the p, the lower the delay but the higher the
collision probability and on the contrary for low p.
• More specifically:
• Assume that N nodes are constantly ready to send a
frame.
• Then, Np is the expected number of nodes that will
attempt to transmit on the time-slot after the medium
becomes idle.
• If Np > 1, then a collision is expected to occur.
• Therefore, we should design our CSMA with Np < 1.

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 Data Link
Layer
(MAC) CSMA-CD
Functions

MAC
Multiple Access
Channelization
• We can not further reduce the vulnerable period, so we
Collision-free
protocols need new ideas.
Contention protocols

• Some shared media allow us to detect collisions.

• Using this idea, we can reduce the collision time by
stop transmitting when a collision is detected.
• This is called CSMA with Collision Detection or
CSMA-CD.
• Typically, CSMA-CD is used with persistence p = 1.
• This is the type of access control implemented by
Ethernet (IEEE 802.3).

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 Data Link
Layer
(MAC) Collision Detection
Functions Energy
MAC • The coaxial
Multiple Access Coaxial cable
Channelization cable allows
Collision-free
protocols us to detect
Contention protocols Collisions (more average energy)
collisions by
measuring
Frame Frame
the average transmission transmission
power. Time

Idle

• When there are collisions, this is energy is higher than

in a normal transmission of a frame.
• Other media like the twister pair allow us detecting
collisions by sensing the signal at the transmission and
reception pins. There is a collision if there is signal
simultaneously on both pins.
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 Data Link
Layer
(MAC) Collision of the first Bit
Functions

MAC
Multiple Access
Channelization
A B E F

E is transmitting without detecting collision

Collision-free
A is transmitting without detecting collision

protocols
Contention protocols
t1 t2
First b
it o fA

t3
of E
t b it
Firs Collision E's collision:
occurs detection and
abortion
t4
A's collision:
detection and
abortion

time

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 Data Link
Layer
(MAC) Maximum Detection Time
Functions
(CSMA-CD)
MAC
t0
Multiple Access
Channelization
Collision-free
protocols
Contention protocols

t0+D-ε

t0+D+ε

t0+2D

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 Data Link
Layer
(MAC) Frame Collision
Functions

MAC
Multiple Access
A B E F
Channelization
Collision-free
protocols
Collision occurs
Contention protocols
t1 t2

Part of
A 's fram
e t3

e
ram
's f
fE
rt o
Pa
t4

E detects time
A detects collision
collision and
and aborts
aborts

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 Data Link
Layer
(MAC) CSMA-CD Jamming
Functions

MAC
Multiple Access
A B E F
Channelization
Collision-free Collision occurs
protocols t1 t2
Contention protocols

Part of
A 's fram
e t3
Jamming Collision
e
's fram detection
fE by F
rt o
Pa ce
t4 ue n
g s eq
min
Jam

time
E detects
collision,
jamming and
aborts

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 Data Link
Layer
(MAC) CSMA-CA I
Functions

MAC
Multiple Access
Channelization
Collision-free
protocols • There are media in which we cannot detect collisions.
Contention protocols

• An example is the the radio frequency spectrum.

• In this case, we need to implement some mechanism to
avoid collisions (CA=Collision Avoidance).
• The idea of CSMA-CA is similar to p-persistent CSMA
but implemented in another way.
• This is the type of access control implemented by
Wireless LAN (IEEE 802.11).

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 Data Link
Layer
(MAC) CSMA-CA II
Functions • CSMA-CA roughly works as follows:
MAC • A node wishing to transmit senses the medium.
Multiple Access
Channelization • If the medium is sensed as ”idle”, then the node is
Collision-free
protocols permitted to transmit its frame.
Contention protocols
• If the channel is sensed as ”busy“:
• The node defers its transmission entering in back-off.
• The node continuously senses the medium.
• The back-off time is only discounted when the node
senses the medium as ”idle“.
• When the back-off time is totally discounted and the
medium is idle, the node can transmit its frame.
• Any collision that occurs at that point cannot be
detected.
• To deal with undetected collisions, the receiver sends an
ACK.
• If the transmitter does not receive the ACK, assumes a
collision and retransmits the frame.

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 Data Link
Layer
(MAC) CSMA-CA III
Functions
TS
MAC
Multiple Access Collision
Channelization ack2
Collision-free
protocols
Contention protocols

frame 2

frame 4

frame 3

A wants to TX C wants to TX B wants to TX

BOA=2TS BOC=3TS BOB=1TS

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