ESSENTIALS OF BIOSTATISTICS

&
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

Indranil Saha
MBBS, MD (Community Medicine), FIPHA, ACME
Professor & Head, Department of Community Medicine
IQ City Medical College, Durgapur.

Bobby Paul
MBBS, DCH, MD (Community Medicine)
Associate Professor & Head, Department of Preventive & Social Medicine
All India Institute of Hygiene & Public Health, Kolkata.

ACADEMIC PUBLISHERS
5A Bhawani Dutta Lane, Kolkata-700073
E-mail : [email protected]
Website : www.academicpublishers.in

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 Table of Contents

BIOSTATISTICS

Chapter 1 : DATA AND ITS PRESENTATION 1-35

Introduction to some common terminology used in statistics 1; Classification of data 3; Presentation
of data 5; Tabular representation of data 6; Frequency distribution table 8; Bar diagram 9; Pie dia-
gram 12; Pictogram 13; Map diagram 14; Venn diagram 15; Histogram 16; Frequency polygon 17;
Frequency curve 18; Line chart 18; Ogive 19; Scatter diagram 19; Box plot 20; Stem plot 21; Pareto
chart 22; Spider chart 23; Heat map 24; Applications 24; Exercises 26; Answers 31

Chapter 2 : SCALES OF MEASUREMENTS 36-45

Different scales of measurement 36; Nominal scale 36; Ordinal scale 37; Interval scale 37; Ratio
scale 37; Likert scale 38; Four point forced choice format 40; Dockert scale 41; Visual analogue
scale 41; Applications 42; Exercises 44; Answers 45.

Chapter 3 : CENTRAL TENDENCY 46-52

Concept of central tendency 46; Arithmetic mean 46; Geometric mean 47; Harmonic mean 48; Median
48; Mode 49; Applications 50; Exercises 50; Answers 52.

Chapter 4 : NORMAL DISTRIBUTION AND MEASURES OF DISPERSION 53-85

Measures of location 53; Random variable 55; Discrete probability distribution 56; Binomial distribution
56; Geometric distribution 57; Hypergeometric distribution 57; Poisson distribution 58; Negative
binomial distribution 59; Multinomial distribution 60; Continuous probability distribution 60; Rectangular
distribution 61; Exponential distribution 61; Chi-square distribution 62; T distribution 62; F distribution
62; Gaussian distribution / Normal distribution 63; Z score 65; Standard normal curve 66; Skewness
67; Kurtosis 69; Measures of dispersion / variation 70; Standard deviation 70; Coefficient of variation
73; Error bar diagram 73; Applications 77; Exercises 77; Answers 84.

Chapter 5 : SAMPLE SIZE ESTIMATION 86-114

Some common terminology used in sampling 86; Complete enumeration method 87; Sample size
calculation 88; Null and alternative hypothesis 89; Type I and Type II error 89; Power of the study
91; Confidence level 91; Precision 92; Design effect 92; Finite Population Correction 93; Cochran’s
formula 94; Slovin’s formula 95; Descriptive study 95; Cross-sectional study 98; Case-control study
98; Cohort study 100; Randomised controlled trial 102; Diagnostic study 104; Exercises 110; Answers
114. 74; Answers 77.

Chapter 6 : SAMPLING TECHNIQUE AND SAMPLING VARIABILITY 115-134

Sampling technique 115; Non-probability sampling 115; Probability sampling 116; Simple random
sampling 116; Systematic random sampling 118; Stratified random sampling 118; Cluster sampling
119; Multistage sampling 123; Multiphase sampling 123; Lot quality assurance sampling 123; Standard
error 125; Confidence interval 126; Standard error of the mean 126; Standard error of proportion
127; Standard error of difference between two means 127; Standard error of difference between two
proportions 127; Exercises 129; Answers 133.

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Chapter 7 : PROBABILITY 135-141
Probability 135; Additive rule 135; Multiplicative rule 136; P value 137; Null hypothesis 137; Interpretation
of P value 137; Exercises 139; Answers 141.

Chapter 8 : DIFFERENCE BETWEEN PROPORTIONS 142-157

Chi-square test 142; Chi-square distribution 143; Assumptions 144; General procedure 144; Yates’
correction factor 145; Fisher’s exact test 145; McNemar’s Test 146; Cochran-Mantel-Haenszel test
147; Contingency table 148; Degrees of freedom 148; Effect size 149; Z test for proportion 149;
Cochran-Armitage trend test 149; Test of significance 150; Applications 151; Exercises 152; Answers
156.

Chapter 9 : DIFFERENCE BETWEEN MEANS 158-176

Selection of tests 158; Assumptions 158; Z test for mean 159; Student’s t test 159; Mann-Whitney
U test 162; Wilcoxon Matched-Pairs Signed Rank test 163; ANOVA 164; Friedman’s ANOVA 167;
Kruskal-Wallis H test 167; MANOVA 167; ANCOVA 168; Effect size 168; Applications 170; Exercises
171; Answers 175.

Chapter 10 : CORRELATION 177-187

Correlation 177; Interpretation 178; Assumptions 179; Output 179; For nominal scale 180; For
ordinal scale 181; For interval & ratio scale 181; Correlation matrix 181; Multiple correlation 182;
Partial correlation 182; Dependent & independent correlation 182; Intra-class correlation 182;
Autocorrelation 183; Nonsense correlation 183; Applications 183; Exercises 184; Answers 187.

Chapter 11 : REGRESSION 188-199

Regression 188; Linear regression 189; Assumptions 190; Output 191; Logistic regression 192;
Assumptions 193; Output 193; Multinomial logistic regression 194; Ordinal logistic regression 194;
Cox regression model 194; Applications 195; Exercises 196; Answers 199.

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

Chapter 12 : ART AND SCIENCE OF RESEARCH 200-232

Common terminologies 200; Types of health research 201; Quantitative research 201; Qualitative
research 202; Mixed methods research 202; Translational research 202; Health policy and systems
research 203; Outcomes research 203; Implementation research 204; Operations research 204;
Research protocol 205; Components of research protocol 208; Title 210; Introduction 210; Aims and
objectives 212; Review of literature 213; Materials and methods 213; Ethics approval 218; Budget
218; References 218; Thesis writing 222; Results 224; Discussion 225; Conclusion, 226; Summary
226; Acknowledgement 226; Exercises 228; Answers 232.

Chapter 13 : COMMON RESEARCH DESIGNS 233-286

Study designs 233; Qualitative 233; Phenomenology 234; Ethnography 234; Grounded Theory 234;
Case study 235; Quantitative study 236; Case report 236; Case series 236; Ecological study 236;
Cross-sectional study 236; Case control study 238; Cohort study 240; Nested case control 243;
Randomized controlled trial 244; Clinical trial 248; Factorial trial 250; Crossover trial 250; Cluster
randomised trials 251; Field trial 251; Community trial 251; Non-randomised trial 251; Systematic
review 253; Meta-analysis 259; Mixed methods design 263; Levels of evidence 269; Evidence based
medicine 269; Applications 274; Exercises 277; Answers 284.

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Chapter 14 : LITERATURE REVIEW AND USE OF SEARCH ENGINE 287-313
Literature search 287; Types of literature review 288; Steps of literature review 289; PubMed 291;
Word search 291; Field search 291; Boolean operator 292; MeSH term 292; Elements of MeSH term
293; literature search using MeSH terms 296; Result page PubMed 298; Other features in PubMed
300; Advanced search 301; Google Scholar 304; Search strategy 304; Result page 305; Advanced
search 306; Exercises 308; Answers 313.

Chapter 15 : METHODS OF DATA COLLECTION 314-346

Data collection 314; Different methods 315; Questionnaire; Open ended questions 316; Closed ended
questions 316; Validated questionnaire 317; Online questionnaire 319; Construction of questionnaire
321; Pilot study 323; Interview 323; Key informant interview 325; In-depth interview 325; Focus
group discussion 326; Conduction of FGD 327; Delphi technique 330; Nominal group technique 331;
Observation 332; Anthropometric measurement & clinical examination 333; Laboratory investigations
333; Field notes 333; Secondary data 333; Reliability and Validity of research instrument 334; Stability
335; Cohen’s kappa 335; Internal consistency 336; Cronbach`s alpha coefficient 336; Face validity
338; Content validity 338; Criterion validity 338; Construct validity 339; Convergent validity 339;
Discriminant validity 339; Predictive validity 339; Exercises 342; Answers 346.

Chapter 16 : ETHICS IN BIOMEDICAL RESEARCH 347-360

Brief history 347; Basic principles 348; Categories of anticipated risk 349; Informed consent process
349; Waiver of consent 351; Privacy & confidentiality 352; Research on vulnerable population 352;
For clinical trial 353; Reporting serious adverse events & compensation 354; Conflict of interest 356;
Exercises 357; Answers 360.

Chapter 17 : PUBLICATION TECHNICALITIES 361-389

Flow chart of publication 361; Journal selection 362; Impact factor 362; Open access model 363;
Predatory journal & publisher 364; Instruction to authors 364; Manuscript preparation 365; Cover
letter 366; Title page 366; Authorship criteria 367; Inappropriate types of authorship 368; Blinded
article file 369; Title 369; Abstract / summary 369; Key words 370; IMRAD 371; Reporting guidelines
373; Submission in journal 374; ORCID 374; ResearcherID 375; Publons 375; Peer review types
375; Plagiarism 378; Author’s response 378; Dissemination 380; ResearchGate 381; Mendeley 381;
Academia 381; figshare 382; DRYAD 382; Citation metrics 382; h-index 382; g-index 382; i10-index
383; Altmetric Score 383; Plum X Metrics 383; Retraction 383; Exercises 385; Answers 389.

APPENDIX 390-394
INDEX 395-398

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