Q.

3 Answer the followng

1. What is derived attributes?
-> In a Database Management System (DBMS), a derived attribute is an attribute
whose value is calculated from other attributes.
It is not stored directly in the database; instead, its value is derived using a
formula or computation from other stored attributes.
Derived attributes are also known as computed or virtual attributes.

2. What is integrity constraints?

-> In a Database Management System (DBMS), integrity constraints are rules that
ensure the accuracy and consistency of data within a database.
These constraints enforce the standards and requirements for the data to prevent
any invalid data from being entered into the database.

3. State the definition of DBMS?

-> A Database Management System (DBMS) is software that is used to create,
manage, and manipulate databases.
It serves as an interface between the database and the end-users or application
programs, ensuring that data is consistently organized and remains easily
accessible.

4. Which data types are available in SQL?

-> SQL (Structured Query Language) supports a wide variety of data types that
allow you to store different kinds of data in your database.
Here are some of the most common data types available in SQL:
Numeric Data Types
INT: Integer (whole numbers).
SMALLINT: Smaller range integer.
BIGINT: Large range integer.
DECIMAL(p, s): Fixed-point numbers, where p is the precision and s is the scale.
NUMERIC(p, s): Same as DECIMAL.
FLOAT: Floating-point numbers.
REAL: Single-precision floating-point numbers.
DOUBLE PRECISION: Double-precision floating-point numbers.

Character/String Data Types

CHAR(n): Fixed-length character string.
VARCHAR(n): Variable-length character string with a maximum length of n.
TEXT: Variable-length character string with an unlimited length.

Date and Time Data Types

DATE: Date (year, month, day).
TIME: Time of day (hour, minute, second).
TIMESTAMP: Date and time (year, month, day, hour, minute, second).
INTERVAL: A time interval.

5. What is deadlock?
-> In the context of databases and operating systems, a deadlock is a situation
where two or more processes are unable to proceed because each is waiting for
the other to release a resource.
This creates a cycle of dependencies that leads to a standstill, where none of
the processes can make progress.

6. State the drifference between procedural and non procedural DML.

-> Procedural DML:
Specifies how to perform operations.
Includes the sequence of steps to retrieve or modify data.
Example: SQL cursors or PL/SQL in Oracle.

Non-Procedural DML:
Specifies what data operations are needed, not how to perform them.
Describes the desired result.
Example: SQL SELECT statements.
Q.4 Answer the following in detail.
1. What are the advantages of DBMS?
a) Data Redundancy and Inconsistency Reduction:
DBMS ensures that all data is stored centrally, reducing redundancy and
minimizing inconsistencies. This eliminates the need for multiple copies of the
same data, which can often lead to discrepancies.
b) Data Integrity and Accuracy:
Integrity constraints in DBMS enforce rules on the data being entered,
ensuring its accuracy and consistency. This helps in maintaining high-quality
data which is critical for decision-making processes.
c) Data Security:
DBMS provides robust security measures to protect sensitive data. Access
controls and authorization mechanisms ensure that only authorized users can
access or manipulate data, safeguarding it from unauthorized access and
breaches.
d) Data Sharing and Concurrent Access:
Multiple users can access and work with data simultaneously in a DBMS
without conflicts, thanks to mechanisms like locking, transaction management,
and concurrency control. This enhances collaboration and productivity.
e) Backup and Recovery:
DBMS offers automatic backup and recovery features that protect data from
loss due to system failures, crashes, or other disasters. This ensures data
availability and reliability, helping organizations to quickly restore data and
continue operations with minimal disruption.

2. Define normalization and state the advantages of normalization.

-> Normalization is the process of organizing data in a database to reduce
redundancy and improve data integrity.
It involves structuring a database in such a way that data is stored in related
tables, each with a unique primary key, and relationships between the tables are
defined using foreign keys.
The goal is to ensure that the database is efficient, flexible, and easy to
maintain.

Advantages of Normalization:
a) Reduces Data Redundancy:
By organizing data into related tables and eliminating duplicate data,
normalization ensures that each piece of information is stored only once.
This reduces storage space and minimizes data redundancy, leading to more
efficient data storage.
b) Improves Data Integrity:
Normalization enforces data integrity by ensuring that relationships
between tables are maintained through foreign keys.
This helps in maintaining consistent and accurate data across the
database, preventing anomalies like update, insert, and delete anomalies.
c) Facilitates Data Maintenance:
With normalized tables, any changes to data need to be made in only one
place, which simplifies data maintenance and updates.
This reduces the risk of data inconsistencies and makes it easier to
manage the database.
d)Enhances Query Performance:
Normalized databases often have well-defined relationships between tables,
making it easier to write efficient queries.
This can improve the performance of data retrieval operations, especially
when dealing with large datasets.
e) Promotes Data Flexibility and Scalability:
A well-normalized database is more flexible and can easily accommodate
changes in data requirements.
It allows for easier addition of new data attributes and relationships
without major restructuring, making the database more scalable.

3. Explain in detail properties of transaction.

-> Transactions in a Database Management System (DBMS) are a sequence of
operations performed as a single logical unit of work. To ensure data integrity
and consistency, transactions must adhere to the following four key properties,
often referred to as the ACID properties:

a) Atomicity:
Definition: Atomicity ensures that a transaction is treated as a single,
indivisible unit. It means that either all the operations within the transaction
are completed successfully, or none of them are.
If any part of the transaction fails, the entire transaction is
rolled back, leaving the database in its previous state.
Example: In a banking system, transferring money from one account to
another involves debiting one account and crediting another. Atomicity ensures
that both operations are completed successfully;
otherwise, neither operation is performed.
b) Consistency:
Definition: Consistency ensures that a transaction takes the database from
one valid state to another, maintaining the integrity constraints of the
database.
A transaction must ensure that all data integrity constraints are
satisfied, and the database remains in a consistent state before and after the
transaction.
Example: If a transaction involves updating the total balance of accounts
in a banking system, the sum of the balances before and after the transaction
should remain the same,
ensuring consistency.
c) Isolation:
Definition: Isolation ensures that the operations of one transaction are
isolated from the operations of other transactions. It means that the
intermediate state of a transaction is not visible to other transactions until
the transaction is committed.
This prevents concurrent transactions from interfering with each
other.
Example: In an online booking system, two users attempting to book the
same seat should not see each other's transactions until they are completed.
Isolation ensures that only one user can book the seat, avoiding
conflicts.
d) Durability:
Definition: Durability ensures that once a transaction is committed, its
changes are permanent and will survive any subsequent system failures.
This means that the results of a committed transaction are reliably
stored in the database, even in the event of a power failure or crash.
Example: After a successful purchase transaction in an e-commerce system,
the order details and inventory updates are permanently recorded in the
database,
ensuring that they are not lost in case of a system crash.

4. What is failure? Explain different of failures.

-> A failure in a Database Management System (DBMS) occurs when a system or
component does not perform its intended function. Failures can result in data
loss, inconsistency, or unavailability,
and it's crucial to understand the types of failures that can occur to ensure
effective recovery and maintain data integrity.

Types of Failures:
a) Transaction Failure:
Description: Occurs when a transaction cannot be completed due to errors
such as logical errors (e.g., division by zero) or system errors (e.g., deadlock
detection).
Example: A transaction trying to transfer funds between accounts might
fail if it detects an insufficient balance.
b) System Crash:
Description: A system crash happens due to hardware failures, software
bugs, or power outages. These crashes can lead to the abrupt termination of all
active transactions.
Example: A server crash during a database operation causes the system to
shut down unexpectedly.
c)Media Failure:
Description: Media failure refers to the failure of storage devices such
as hard disks. This can result in the loss of the database or parts of it.
Example: A hard disk failure leads to the corruption or loss of stored
data.
d) Application Software Failure:
Description: Failures in application software interacting with the
database can lead to incorrect data processing or transactions not being
completed.
Example: A bug in a banking application causes incorrect transaction
processing, leading to data inconsistencies.
e) Natural Disasters:
Description: Natural disasters such as floods, earthquakes, or fires can
cause extensive damage to the database infrastructure, leading to data loss or
unavailability.
Example: A flood damages the data center, resulting in the loss of
hardware and data.

5. What is concurrency? Explain any 2 problems associated with concurrer.

-> Concurrency refers to the simultaneous execution of multiple transactions in
a database system. This is essential in a multi-user environment where many
users need to access and manipulate the database simultaneously.
Concurrency control is vital to ensure data consistency, isolation, and
integrity while allowing concurrent operations.

Problems Associated with Concurrency:

a) Lost Update Problem:
Description: This problem occurs when two or more transactions
simultaneously select the same row and then update it based on the values
originally selected.
Each transaction is unaware of the other transactions' updates,
leading to a loss of data.
Example: Suppose two users, A and B, are booking the last seat on a flight
simultaneously. User A checks the availability and sees 1 seat left.
At the same time, User B also sees 1 seat available. Both users book
the seat simultaneously. Since both transactions update the same seat count
without knowledge of the other, one of the bookings might be lost, resulting in
an inconsistent state.

b) Dirty Read Problem:

Description: A dirty read occurs when a transaction reads data that has
been written by another uncommitted transaction. If the transaction that wrote
the data is rolled back,
the reading transaction will have read invalid data.
Example: Transaction T1 updates a row but does not commit. Transaction T2
reads the updated row. If T1 is rolled back, the data read by T2 becomes invalid
or "dirty," as T2 has read uncommitted and potentially incorrect data.

6. Explain in detail the user of DBMS.

a) Database Administrators (DBAs):
Role: DBAs are responsible for the overall management and maintenance of
the database system. They ensure the database is available, secure, and
performing optimally.
Their tasks include installing and upgrading the DBMS, managing
database security, backup and recovery, and tuning performance.
Example: Setting up user accounts with appropriate access levels,
monitoring database performance, and implementing disaster recovery plans.
b) Database Designers:
Role: Database designers (or data architects) design the database
structure, including tables, relationships, and constraints. They create the
logical and physical schemas that define how data is stored, organized, and
accessed.
Example: Defining the schema for a new sales database, including tables
for customers, orders, products, and relationships between these tables.
c) End Users:
Role: End users interact with the database to perform various tasks such
as querying data, generating reports, or updating records. They can be further
categorized into:
Casual Users: Interact with the database occasionally, often using
query languages or report-generating tools.
Naive or Parametric Users: Perform routine tasks using predefined
queries and forms without needing to know the underlying database structure.
Sophisticated Users: Include analysts and engineers who write
complex queries and perform advanced data analysis.
Example: A sales representative updating customer information, a manager
generating sales reports, or a data analyst running complex queries to identify
sales trends.
d) Application Programmers:
Role: Application programmers write application software that interacts
with the database. They use programming languages and database APIs to develop
applications that perform data entry, retrieval, and processing tasks.
Example: Developing an inventory management system that interacts with the
database to track stock levels, update records, and generate alerts for low
inventory.
e) System Analysts:
Role: System analysts work on designing and implementing the overall
system architecture, which includes the database.
They bridge the gap between end users' requirements and the
technical implementation by working closely with both the users and the
technical team.
Example: Analyzing business requirements to design a customer relationship
management (CRM) system that includes a database component for storing customer
interactions and data.

7. Explain wait-die and wound-wait schemes related to deadlock.

-> In a Database Management System (DBMS), deadlocks can occur when transactions
compete for the same resources and become stuck in a circular wait. To manage
and prevent deadlocks, various schemes are employed. Two prominent deadlock
prevention schemes are the Wait-Die and Wound-Wait schemes.
Both schemes are based on the principle of resource acquisition priority to
ensure that deadlocks do not occur.

Wait-Die Scheme:
The Wait-Die scheme uses timestamps to determine the priority of
transactions. Each transaction is assigned a timestamp when it enters the
system.
The scheme dictates that an older transaction (with a smaller timestamp)
can wait for a younger transaction (with a larger timestamp), but a younger
transaction must be aborted if it requests a resource held by an older
transaction.

Wound-Wait Scheme:
The Wound-Wait scheme also uses timestamps to assign priorities but takes
a different approach. In this scheme, an older transaction can "wound" a younger
transaction by forcing it to roll back and release resources. Conversely, a
younger transaction can wait for an older transaction to release resources.

Q.5 Answer the following in detail.

1. Explain in detail ERD.
-> An Entity-Relationship Diagram (ERD) is a visual representation of the data
and the relationships between entities in a database. It is a crucial tool in
database design, used to model the logical structure of a database.
ERDs help in understanding the database at both a high level and a detailed
level, ensuring that all necessary entities and relationships are captured
accurately.

Components of an ERD:
a) Entities:
Definition: Entities represent real-world objects or concepts that have a
distinct existence and are distinguishable from other objects. Each entity is
typically a table in the database.
Example: In a school database, entities could be Student, Teacher, Course,
and Classroom.
b) Attributes:
Definition: Attributes are the properties or characteristics of an entity.
They provide details about the entity and are typically the columns in a table.
Example: For the Student entity, attributes could include StudentID, Name,
DateOfBirth, and Email.
c) Relationships:
Definition: Relationships depict the associations between entities. They
describe how entities interact with each other and are represented by lines
connecting entities in the ERD.
Types: One-to-One (1:1): Each instance of one entity is associated with a
single instance of another entity.
One-to-Many (1:M): An instance of one entity can be associated
with multiple instances of another entity.
Many-to-Many (M:N): Instances of one entity can be associated
with multiple instances of another entity, and vice versa.
Example: A Student can enroll in multiple Courses (1:M), and a Course can
have multiple Students (M:N).
d) Primary Keys:
Definition: A primary key is a unique identifier for each instance of an
entity. It ensures that each record in the table can be uniquely identified.
Example: StudentID in the Student entity.
e) Foreign Keys:
Definition: A foreign key is an attribute in one entity that links to the
primary key of another entity, establishing a relationship between the entities.
Example: CourseID in the Enrollment entity, linking to the primary key
CourseID in the Course entity.

Steps to Create an ERD:

Identify Entities: Determine the main objects or concepts that need to be
represented in the database.
Determine Relationships: Identify how these entities are related to each
other and define the type of relationships.
Define Attributes: Specify the attributes for each entity and identify
primary and foreign keys.
Draw the Diagram: Use standard symbols to represent entities (rectangles),
attributes (ovals or ellipses), and relationships (diamonds or lines).

Importance of ERD:
Visual Clarity: Provides a clear and intuitive visual representation of
the database structure, making it easier to understand and communicate.
Efficient Design: Helps in identifying redundant data, ensuring data
normalization, and creating an efficient database design.
Documentation: Acts as a blueprint for the database, providing detailed
documentation that can be referred to during development and maintenance.
Consistency and Integrity: Ensures that all necessary data relationships
and constraints are captured, maintaining consistency and integrity in the
database.

Example:
Consider a simple ERD for a university database with the following entities and
relationships:

Entities:
Student, Course, Instructor, Enrollment
Attributes:
Student: StudentID, Name, DateOfBirth
Course: CourseID, CourseName, Credits
Instructor: InstructorID, Name, Department
 Enrollment: EnrollmentID, Grade
Relationships:
Student enrolls in Course (M:N)
Course is taught by Instructor (1:M)
Enrollment links Student and Course

This ERD visually depicts the database structure, relationships, and

constraints, providing a clear blueprint for database implementation.

2. Explain in detail components of DBMS.

-> A Database Management System (DBMS) is a sophisticated software system
designed to manage databases. It provides a comprehensive environment for
storing, retrieving, and manipulating data while ensuring data integrity,
security, and efficiency.
Here are the key components of a DBMS:
a) Database Engine:
Description: The core service for accessing and processing data. It
handles queries, executes commands, and manages data storage, retrieval, and
updates.
Functions: Query processing, transaction management, concurrency control,
and maintaining data integrity.
Example: When a user runs a SQL query, the database engine interprets the
query, retrieves the required data, and returns the results.
b) Database Schema:
Description: Defines the logical structure of the database, including
tables, fields, data types, relationships, and constraints.
Functions: Organizing data into a structured format, ensuring consistency,
and providing a blueprint for database design.
Example: A schema for an e-commerce database might include tables for
products, customers, orders, and their relationships.
c) Data Definition Language (DDL):
Description: A subset of SQL used to define and manage database schemas.
It includes commands to create, alter, and delete database objects such as
tables, indexes, and views.
Functions: Structuring the database, setting up relationships, and
defining constraints.
Example: Using the CREATE TABLE command to create a new table in the
database.
d) Data Manipulation Language (DML):
Description: A subset of SQL used to retrieve, insert, update, and delete
data in the database.
Functions: Manipulating and managing the data stored in the database.
Example: Using the SELECT command to retrieve data from a table or the
INSERT command to add new records.
e) Data Control Language (DCL):
Description: A subset of SQL used to control access to data in the
database. It includes commands to grant and revoke permissions.
Functions: Managing user permissions and ensuring data security.
Example: Using the GRANT command to give a user permission to access
specific data.
f) Transaction Management:
Description: Ensures that all database operations are performed reliably
and adhere to the ACID properties (Atomicity, Consistency, Isolation,
Durability).
Functions: Handling transactions, ensuring data consistency, and providing
mechanisms for rollback and recovery.
Example: Ensuring that a multi-step bank transfer is either fully
completed or fully rolled back in case of an error.
g) Storage Management:
Description: Manages how data is physically stored in the database,
including file management and memory allocation.
Functions: Efficiently storing and organizing data, managing indexes, and
handling data compression and encryption.
Example: Organizing data into tablespaces and using indexing to speed up
data retrieval.
h) Query Processor:
Description: Interprets and executes database queries. It optimizes query
performance by determining the most efficient way to access data.
Functions: Parsing, analyzing, and executing queries, and optimizing query
plans.
Example: Transforming a high-level SQL query into a series of low-level
operations that the database engine can perform efficiently.
i) Backup and Recovery Management:
Description: Provides tools and processes for backing up data and
recovering it in case of data loss or corruption.
Functions: Ensuring data durability, enabling data restoration, and
minimizing downtime.
Example: Scheduling regular backups and using logs to recover data after a
system failure.
j) User Interface:
Description: The means through which users interact with the DBMS. It
includes graphical user interfaces (GUIs) and command-line interfaces (CLIs).
Functions: Facilitating user interaction, providing tools for database
management, and enabling query formulation and execution.
Example: Database management tools like phpMyAdmin or SQL Server
Management Studio (SSMS).