Market Opportunities in Sustainable Phytoremediation

C H A P T E R
2
Market Opportunities in Sustainable
Phytoremediation
Vimal Chandra Pandey1,* and Pablo Souza-Alonso2
1
Department of Environmental Science, Babasaheb Bhimrao Ambedkar University, Lucknow, India,
2
Department of Plant Biology and Soil Science, University of Vigo, Campus As Lagoas-
Marcosende, Vigo, Spain
2.1 INTRODUCTION TO pollutants existing in over 80% of all the iden-

PHYTOREMEDIATION tified contaminated sites across England and
Wales (Environment Agency, 2009). In the
The progressive and sustained intensifica- United States, there are currently 6 3 105
tion of land pollution and the presence of a brownfields that are polluted with a variety of
wide variety of waste-dumps due to industri- toxic elements; within them 1 3 105 ha of crop-
alization and urbanization is a major concern lands, 55,000 ha of pasture, and 50,000 ha of
worldwide (Pandey, 2017). The term pollution forests are currently considered as severely
has different implications, but in this chapter, polluted, so, land reclamation is urgently
we refer to those unnatural processes, derived required (McKeehan, 2000; Ragnarsdottir and
for humankind’s purpose, that usually include Hawkins, 2005). According to estimation, more
heavy metals, metal(loid)s, and organic pollu- than 150 3 106 km2 of farmlands have been
tants. Considering the European Union terri- contaminated with heavy metals in China, trig-
tory, about 3.1 3 106 sites—approximately 45% gering the damage of about 10 million metric
located in Western Europe and 55% in Central tons of grain per year, and producing a direct
and Eastern European countries—are signifi- economic loss of approximately US$2.99 billion
cantly polluted due to anthropogenic activities (Zhou et al., 2014). In New Zealand and
while around 250,000 sites would require Australia, Cd accumulation in the offal of graz-
immediate clean-up (EEA, 2007; Sharma and ing animals made it unacceptable for human
Pandey, 2014). In the United Kingdom alone, consumption, complicating the access of meat
metal(loid)s are the most extensive soil products to foreign markets (Loganathan et al.,
*Corresponding Author.
Phytomanagement of Polluted Sites

DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-813912-7.00002-8 51 Copyright © 2019 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
52 2. MARKET OPPORTUNITIES IN SUSTAINABLE PHYTOREMEDIATION
2008). Unfortunately, pollution assessment is From an environmental point of view, it is

not a priority in many developing countries highly desirable that contaminated sites are
and therefore, available data regarding the rehabilitated through appropriate management
area or the number of polluted sites is rarely operations based on the best possible standard
available. available. Unfortunately, economic opportu-
Due to the direct and indirect harmful nities are distributed in an unbalanced way
effects of pollutants on plants, livestock, and worldwide. While developed countries can
human health, during the past few years, we invest large amounts of funds into the remedi-
have observed a significant increase in public ation of contaminated sites, usually with a
attention and interest in alternative methodolo- large set of governmental structures that create
gies to remediate polluted sites. In the United and protect environmental regulation, in
States, the remediation of heavy metal contam- developing countries institutional weakness,
inated soil by traditional tools such as chemi- minimal public and private research, and dif-
cal leaching but especially digging is highly ferent priorities often lead to weak environ-
expensive, with estimated costs of US$250,000 mental regulations (Adriano et al., 1995; Lee
(Cunningham and Ow, 1996) and US$7 35.4 and George, 2013).
billion per acre (Salt et al., 1995), respectively. All over the world, land prices associated
Developed countries have appropriate scien- with urban areas are continuously increasing,
tific outlines for in situ remediation of contam- and this could be a motivating force to land
inated sites, while in developing countries developers to remediate contaminated sites
there are no such efforts, no systematic frame- under the planning system (UK Government,
work or oriented policies for the remediation 2015). In this sense, green, sustainable and
of polluted sites (Doberl et al., 2013). Despite also economically viable, phytoremediation is
the fact that remediation technologies usually attracting the attention of the general public.
consider the possibility of in situ or ex situ Besides its effectiveness at reducing environ-
(also called off site) remediation actions, in this mental pollution, many reasons could explain
chapter we will exclusively focus on in situ the generally accepted public perception of
approaches. In situ actions are normally con- phytoremediation as a sustainable practice
sidered less capital demanding and slower e.g., habitat restoration, the creation of greener
than ex situ methods, which usually entail places, landscaping values, and the increase
excavation, transport, and physical treatment in flora and faunal biodiversity. Additionally,
(Caliman et al., 2011; Bech et al., 2014) and are positive publicity, low secondary waste, pres-
therefore, more adequate for developing econ- ervation of substrate fertility, and reduced
omies. A general integrated environmental costs are also further advantages of phytore-
strategy, which is accessible and utilizes mediation compared to conventional methods
suitable decontamination technologies is one (Koelmel et al., 2015).
of the main concerns for coming years In highly developed areas such as Europe,
(Caliman et al., 2011). Within this context, phy- there is an important background of available
toremediation appeared several years ago as a information regarding the effectiveness of phy-
promising technology for soil and water reme- toremediation projects (Lelie et al., 2001;
diation. Broadly speaking, the term “phytore- Panagos et al., 2013). As a consequence, there
mediation” describes the ecophysiological is increasing pressure to design adequate poli-
process where plants retain pollutants and cies based on economically valuable plants
consequently ameliorate environmental condi- that can be immediately applied for the pro-
tions, including air, soil, or water ecosystems. gressive remediation of contaminated sites also
PHYTOMANAGEMENT OF POLLUTED SITES

2.2 BRINGING SUSTAINABILITY INTO PHYTOREMEDIATION 53
in the developing world. Some emergent coun- judgments can support us toward more sus-
tries such as India, are making important tainable societies and environments (Lozano
efforts and several remediation actions have et al., 2015a,b,c). Nevertheless, the implementa-
been implemented during the past few years tion of phytoremediation on a commercial scale
(Prasad, 2011), with the aim of promoting remains disappointing (Witters et al., 2012a,b).
phytoremediation and to further include it in This failure can be related, to some extent, with
national and state regulatory policies. In fact, certain limiting factors of phytoremediation:
according to a study published by Koelmel time constraints, limited budgets, a general
et al. (2015), developing countries, especially absence of long-term perspectives or proper
those in Southeast Asia, are showing the pollution assessments, together with other fac-
most dramatic increase and emphasis in tors, such as the lack of social concern and
phytoremediation research. These authors information (Robinson et al., 2003; Scholz and
highlight the exceptional example of India, Schnabel, 2006; Lachapelle and Montpetit, 2015;
which leads the percent of articles, patents, Heckenroth et al., 2016).
books, and Google traffic in the field of A further step in future phytoremediation, is
phytoremediation. the inclusion of high value-added crops with
Extensive research on a wide variety of commercial applications in order to develop
plants has been done with regards to the reme- market opportunity, thereby extending the
diation of contaminated sites. As a result, phy- frontiers of conventional phytoremediation
toremediation has long been suggested for which is merely—but fundamentally—aimed at
remediation of contaminated soils and waste- remediating contaminated sites (Vangronsveld
dumps as a cost-effective and holistic approach et al., 2007; Cunningham and Berti, 1997;
(Pandey and Prakash, 2014; Pandey and Singh, Pandey, 2013a). Accordingly, we collect infor-
2012). Currently, hundreds of hyper- mation based on recent publications to extend
accumulator plants have been identified and sustainability and market opportunities in
different methodologies have been established phytoremediation, mainly focusing on soil-
for enhanced phytoremediation (Baker et al., polluted environments. In general terms, a
2000; Mc Grath, 1998; Prasad and de Oliveira rapid comparison between the general charac-
Freitas, 2003; Chon et al., 2011). Nevertheless, a teristics of conventional remediation, classical
substantial part of these studies includes labora- phytoremediation, and sustainable phytoreme-
tory or greenhouse experiments and strategies diation can be seen in Table 2.1.
based on the short-term. Additionally, these
works generally only focus on two main objec-
tives: the election of plant species/varieties/cul- 2.2 BRINGING SUSTAINABILITY
tivars with enhanced capacity of extraction, and INTO PHYTOREMEDIATION
the reduction of available pollutants.
Sustainable phytoremediation is a current The combination of changes in the economy,
necessity and a future value. The phyto strat- environment, and society, together with a
egy has the potential to provide aesthetics more educated public perception, have forced
from natural systems while being effective and regulators to progressively introduce more
economical (US EPA, 2001). There is a growing restrictive legislation, monitoring, and controls
interest in sustainability worldwide, in educat- regarding pollution at national and interna-
ing corporates, practitioners, environmental- tional levels. The concept of sustainability is
ists, researchers, stakeholders, politicians, complex, and it probably requires a large
decision makers, and leaders on how their debate. However, that is not the objective of

TABLE 2.1 Main Characteristics of Conventional Remediation, Classical Phytoremediation, and Sustainable
Phytoremediation. Criteria was Based on the 9-Step Criteria for Alternative Evaluation Proposed by Lister (2000),
With Some Modifications (in Italics)
Conventional Sustainable
Remediation Phytoremediation Phytoremediation
Short-term effectiveness High Low Low

Long-term effectiveness High Medium Medium
Size of managed area Low High High
Levels of pollution All levels Low-medium Low-medium
Availability through the year Yes Seasonally dependent Seasonally dependent
Type of contaminant Almost all types Limited Limited

Reduction in toxicity, mobility, High Medium Medium
or volume
Implementability Medium-difficult Easy Easy-medium
Economic costs (Usually) high Low Low
Benefits Environmental Environmental Environmental-
economical
Single/multipurpose action Single purpose Multipurpose Multipurpose
Compliance with applicable or High High High
relevant requirements
Overall protection of human health Medium High High
and the environment
State acceptance High High High
Community acceptance Low-medium High High
this chapter and for those interested in a dee- the socioeconomic environmental perspective
per immersion on the concept of sustainability, (Huisingh et al., 2013; Pandey et al., 2015b;
a good revision can be found in Seghezzo Singh et al., 2011). However, these studies
(2009). Broadly speaking, sustainability should unfortunately coincide in highlighting the long
fulfill the requirements of the present genera- road ahead in order to develop more sustain-
tion without compromising the resources of able societies.
future generations, precisely identified as intra- Decision-making models and tools for sus-
generational and inter-generational justice by tainability are currently necessary to explore
Seghezzo (2009). It can allow practitioners, market opportunities for sustainable phytoreme-
societies, and governments to take a specific diation. Thus, it is important that an attempt
direction on socio-economic development should be made to link sustainability issues with
according to environmental premises. Several commercial phytoremediation. Always consider-
research and review papers on various topics ing the ecological perspective, the development
have highlighted the progress being made of market opportunities for sustainable phytore-
toward sustainable development considering mediation and the establishment of corporate

2.2 BRINGING SUSTAINABILITY INTO PHYTOREMEDIATION 55
sustainability are some of the most important • Environmental perspective. As the main step
topics that should be considered in order to sat- in sustainable phytoremediation, the
isfy sustainability principles in the long term. environmental dimension provides an
Along these lines, we propose five perspectives applied framework that establishes the main
that have to be considered in sustainable phy- goals and parameters of phytoremediation
toremediation, based on the dimensions of sus- purposes. It covers all the aspects of
tainability formulated by Seghezzo (2009). This phytoremediation projects, from the
author pointed out place, permanence, and persons beginning until the project is considered
as the basic dimensions, contrasting to the finished: the toxic levels of pollutants
essential anthropocentrism of the concept of sus- identified, groups of organisms involved
tainability proposed by the World Commission and affected by pollution, the adequacy of
on Environment and Development, since in the plan selection for phytoremediation
opinion of Seghezzo, “this definition overesti- purposes, plant species suitability and
mates the explanatory power of economic rea- selection, the reduction of pollutant
soning.” Far from considering the specific availability over time, biodiversity levels
weight of each perspective, our intention is to and ecological indices that should be further
collect and describe sustainability as the considered to assess phytoremediation
expression of a combination of five perspectives, effectiveness, etc.
including environmental, time, economic, social, • Time perspective. Time plays a crucial
and educational perspectives (Fig. 2.1). dimension in phytoremediation purposes.
– Social benefits +
ENVIRONMENTAL DIMENSION
Multi-stage process. Environmental variables should

be clearly defined and measured at each stage Timeline for remediation goals
EDUCATION
AND SOCIAL
PARTICIPATION
Citizen education
will facilitate the
initial steps of
implementation ECONOMIC INVESTMENTS
of sustainable
phytoremediation
methodologies
Grasses or small shrubs Trees

Essential oils, fibre, biogas, bioethanol, mats, baskets, Timber, biochar, pulp, furniture wood, alkaloids, dyes,
rope, broom, slow release fertilizers (Zn enriched biochar) fibre, biomass, bioenergy, biodiesel.
FIGURE 2.1 Schematic representation of the different perspectives that influence sustainable phytoremediation: envi-
ronmental, time, economic, social, and educational perspectives. Regardless of the fact that some phytoremediation pro-
grams directly use trees, the development of sustainable phytoremediation based on small life-forms—mainly grasses or
shrubs—must pursue, to some extent, similar objectives as ecological succession.

As a general statement, there is no standard phytoremediation such as regulatory or

time to achieve phytoremediation goals as certification agencies, remediation experts,
each polluted site has its own sustainability assessors, technology
characteristics, e.g., variable extent, type of suppliers, consultants, site owners, farmers,
soil, vegetation, level, and type of bio-refineries, financial sponsors, or non-
pollutants, etc. Consequently, governmental organizations. The
phytoremediation success is, at the same economical perspective of phytoremediation
time, dependent on allocated time. will be further explored along this chapter.
Obtaining legally safe levels of site • Social perspective. From the social dimension
cleanliness, can take years or even decades, point of view, sustainability should be
hence phytoremediation may be constructed from the bottom to the top.
unsuitable for commercially-focused clients From a practical perspective, it means that
with short time-frames, and is currently stakeholder, political, or company decisions
uncommon on valuable urban sites should be accepted or should arise from
(Zeunert, 2017). Nevertheless, it is social demands. General public must be
fundamental to include the perspective of consulted during the decision-making
time in phytoremediation projects. With the process before implementing new projects
increased understanding of the time and they should actively participate and be
required and long-term project planning, engaged with actions. At the same time,
phytoremediation can feature more they will deeply and progressively benefit
dominantly in the planning, design, and from the environmental amelioration of
construction of projects and post-industrial reclaimed areas. It is widely accepted that
cleansing (Zeunert, 2017). management or restoration actions, in
• Economic perspective. Nowadays, it is remediation but also in other fields, are
difficult to separate management actions usually better implemented and generally
from their economic value and costs, mostly accepted with the participation of the
if actions are implemented with public society (Le Maitre et al., 2011). Information
funds or in developing countries. about the ecological and societal
Phytoremediation is generally preferred consequences of pollution and its possible
because of its low-demanding inputs, the remediation should result in public (or
main idea of using solar dependent, private) investments. Following the advice
autonomous organisms with of Le Maitre et al. (2011) regarding public
phytoremediation purposes is based on the participation in the control of invasive
cost-effective, low energetic methodology of species, the evidence of environmental
its implementation. Nevertheless, some degradation and further consequences (at
basic funds are necessary to launch any different levels) of environmental pollution
phytoremediation project, and in some should be used to engage society in a cost-
cases, to maintain them during short benefit dialogue and gain their support for
periods or reinforce them during the first such investments.
stages. In case phytoremediation becomes a • Educational perspective. Knowledge-based
profitable and sustainable manner of collaboration, social participation, and
sustainable development and land reliance on experience are key steps to
amelioration, its implementation could achieve sustainability in innovation,
attract different entrepreneurs or consumption, production, and maintenance
stakeholders interested in commercial of environmental remediation. Therefore,

2.3 COMMERCIAL OPPORTUNITIES FOR SUSTAINABLE PHYTOREMEDIATION 57
there is an urgent need of introducing the political leverage to negotiate with polluters
concept of phytoremediation from the (Koelmel et al., 2015) should be clearly recog-
earliest stages of educational development. nized and avoided.
Derived from the social dimension arises
the need for education in sustainable
practices, in this case mainly focused on 2.3 COMMERCIAL
phytoremediation. Education, from primary OPPORTUNITIES FOR
school to higher education, is a fundamental SUSTAINABLE
basis for obtaining future sustainable PHYTOREMEDIATION
development (Lozano et al., 2015c). With
increasing attention on sustainability, many High value-added crop-based phytoreme-
universities have become involved in the diation offers several opportunities including
formation of policy-makers, scientific the opportunity to enhance the business mar-
researchers, environmentalists, future ket of phytoremediation. Prospecting for eco-
leaders, and practitioners, as well as in how nomically valuable crops is likely to lead to the
their judgments can benefit societies and the discovery of suitable plant species for remedia-
environment toward sustainability (Lozano tion and management of a wide range of con-
and Lozano, 2014; Lozano et al., 2015b). taminated and waste dump sites worldwide.
There is a great opportunity for commercial
As a final remark, we highlight the interest-
crops in phytoremediation; however, funda-
ing observation pointed out by Licht and
mental research on this issue is still in the
Isebrands (2005). These authors indicated that
early stages. Any successful strategy to benefit
there is a key concept that all those working on
from this issue needs to synchronize strong
phytoremediation should keep in mind: envi-
motivations for developing phytoremediation
ronmental justice, which is understood as the
business and environmental protection.
fair treatment of people of all races, cultures,
Nevertheless, before the implementation of
and incomes with respect to the development,
any phytoremediation program (regardless the
implementation, and enforcement of environ-
final objective desired), it is fundamental to
mental laws, regulations, programs, and poli-
provide a solid economic framework including
cies. Linking with the mentioned concepts of
capital (initial) and operational costs of the
inter-generational and intra-generational justice
phytoremediation program (Wan et al., 2016).
(Seghezzo, 2009), fair treatment means that no
Steps are generally case-specific, but some
racial, ethnic, or socioeconomic group should
basic points can be included in the capital
bear a disproportionate share of the negative
costs, such as previous investigations, strate-
environmental consequences resulting from the
gies, soil preparation, and nursery equipment
operation of industrial, municipal, and commer-
or irrigation systems. Operational costs mainly
cial enterprises (Licht and Isebrands, 2005).
consider the cost of labor, materials, the possi-
These people, that usually suffer direct conse-
ble use of large machinery, and all the subsidi-
quences of contaminants, did not benefit from
ary and indirect costs associated with these
the products, which are the mainly responsible
primary operational costs (see Wan et al., 2016
for the pollution. In the same line, “environ-
for a detailed description).
mental classism” referring to the situation
Phytoremediation has gained popularity over
where contaminated sites are centralized
the past two decades yet the concept of
around rural and urban poor, meaning that the
profitable phytoremediation is not fully explored.
effected population has minimal financial and
Although some companies have started their

business on phytoremediation, and several phy- different factors, such as site characteristics,
toremediation initiatives have been successfully concentrations, types of pollutants to be reme-
carried out all over the world (Prasad, 2011; diated, and the ultimate purpose desired
Panagos et al., 2013), phytoremediation is not (Mulligan et al., 2001). In the end, commercial
largely commercialized yet. Some years ago, phytoremediation of contaminated sites should
there were about four dozen phytoremediation be focused on three main goals; low input, eco-
companies in the United States, Canada, and nomic yield, and minimum risk for developing
Europe, such as Applied Natural Sciences, market opportunities (Fig. 2.3).
Ecolotree, EarthCare, Living Technologies, Phytorem,
Thomas Consultants, or Verdant Technologies, some
of them fully dedicated to phytoremediation pro-
2.3.1 Plant Species for Phytoremediation
jects (Glass, 1999). Nowadays, their number has
increased (some examples can be reviewed in
Purposes
Table 2.2) and, in the hypothetical scenario of Sustainable phytoremediation has been sug-
commercial phytoremediation development, the gested to be used as a more holistic approach
number of phytoremediation companies is likely for the phytomanagement of polluted sites
to be even larger in the future. (Pandey et al., 2015a). In general, the use of
Besides the advances obtained in developed economically valuable crops (e.g., energy
countries, after more than 25 years of research crops, aromatic crops, pulp paper crops, high
progress in phytoremediation, developing value-added timber trees, ornamental plants,
countries are still waiting for the implementa- etc.,) for utilization, remediation, and manage-
tion of phytoremediation practices. The credibil- ment of a wide range of polluted sites and
ity of phytoremediation among nonscientific waste-dumps sites would be a reasonable
stakeholders has not been entirely realized as choice and several potential economically valu-
many farmers or landowners still remain doubt- able crops have been recognized and tested.
ful about its current applicability or future pro- However, the selection of appropriate species
spects. Despite their scientific leadership in for economically sustainable phytoremediation
phytoremediation studies (Koelmel et al., 2015) purposes is a crucial step. As in other disci-
and the interesting possibilities derived, the plines, e.g., forestry, farming, or gardening,
application of phytoremediation technology is phytoremediation is also subject to the same
still not common in developing countries. constraints around the globe in terms of plant
To overcome the challenge of being election (Licht and Isebrands, 2005). In this
accepted and widely recognized, we present a sense, project managers are required to care-
list of economically important plant species fully chose plant species for remediation pur-
based on recently published research on phy- poses according to site-specificity, e.g.,
toremediation worldwide (Table 2.3) and, at environmental conditions, edaphic characteris-
the same time, we propose some major lines tics, time constrains, type of ecosystem, level of
for future exploration in the search of pollution, or dominant plant species, among
profitable yields through phytoremediation. others (Fig. 2.4.). There are no strict guidelines
As this chapter will further explore in detail, on how to choose your “remediating” plant,
there are clearly some potential opportunities however, we agree with the “phased phytore-
in phytoremediation (Fig. 2.2). It is commonly mediation strategy” pointed out by Licht and
stated that the selection of the most appropri- Isebrands (2005). These authors described a
ate soil and sediment remediation techniques conservative four-phased approach that con-
and methodologies is highly dependent on tains screening studies of plant materials under

TABLE 2.2 Some Important Website Addresses for Phytoremediation Companies/Organizations All Over the World
Companies/Organization Country Website Addresses
Trident Environmental Services Mississippi, United http://tridentenviro.com/about-us/

& Technologies Inc. States
BioRemed AB Sweden http://bioremed.se

Clean Biotec Spain http://www.cleanbiotec.com/en/
Waterloo Environmental Hamilton, Ontario, http://www.waterlooenvironmentalbiotechnology.com/
Biotechnology Inc. Canada
Microhumus 54140 Jarville, France www.microhumus.fr
Earthwork Rome, Italy https://www.earthworksaction.org/
Clemmens Consult bvba Watou, Belgium http://www.clemmens-consult.be/
The Association for Amherst, http://www.aehs.com/
Environmental Health and Massachusetts, United
Sciences (AEHS) States
Tolunay-Wong Engineers, Inc. Houston, Texas, https://www.tweinc.com/
(TWE) United States
Treefree Biomass Solutions Inc. Seattle, Washington, www.treefreebiomasssolutions.com
United States
OverVerde Ltd. Flintshire, United http://www.oververde.co.uk/
Kingdom
OP-TECH Environmental East Syracuse, New http://www.op-tech.us

Services, Inc. York, United States
Phytorem Miramas, France http://en.phytorem.com/
The Vetiver Network San Antonio, Texas, http://www.vetiver.org/

International (TVNI) United States
Microbe Inotech Laboratories, St. Louis, Missouri, http://www.microbeinotech.com/

Inc. United States
Agua Inc. Boulder, Colorado, http://aguainc.com/
United States
Edenspace Systems Corporation Purcellville, Virginia, www.edenspace.com
United States
Argonne National Laboratory Argonne, Illinois, https://www.anl.gov
United States
Remedy Engineering, Inc. Redding, California, www.remedyengineering.com
United States
ERIN Consulting Ltd. Regina, Saskatchewan, http://www.erinconsulting.com/
Canada
HydroQual Laboratories Ltd. Calgary, Alberta, http://www.hydroqual.ca/
Canada
(Continued)

TABLE 2.2 (Continued)

Blue Planet Environmental Inc. Ontario, Canada http://www.blueplanetenviro.com/

(BPE)
Bioclear earth Groningen, http://bioclearearth.nl/

Netherlands
DWC DecRen Water Consult Trier, Germany http://www.dwc-water.com/
Cox-Colvin & Associates, Inc. Plain City, Ohio, https://www.coxcolvin.com/

Environmental Services United States
TEA, Inc. Baton Rouge, http://www.teainconline.com/
Louisiana, United
States
AquaBio Environmental Hawthorne, California, http://aquabio.us/
Technologies, Inc. United States
CH2M Hill Companies, Ltd. Englewood, Colorado, https://www.ch2m.com/
United States
Weston Solutions, Inc. West Chester, http://www.westonsolutions.com/
Pennsylvania, United
States
Civil & Environmental Pittsburgh, http://www.cecinc.com/

Consultants, Inc. (CEC) Pennsylvania, United
States
EnviroLogek Technologies Culver City, California, http://envirologek.com/
United States
Hoskin Scientific Limited Burnaby, BC, Canada http://www.hoskin.ca/
Ceres Boston, United States https://www.ceres.org/
Sustainable Strategies DC Washington DC, http://www.strategiesdc.com/
United States
D. Glass Associates Inc. Massachusetts, United http://www.dglassassociates.com/
States
Ecolotree United States https://www.ecolotree.com/
Edenspace systems corporation Virginia, United States http://www.edenspace.com/our-team/
Applied PhytoGenetics, Inc. Athens, Georgia, www.appliedphytogenetics.com

United States
Applied Natural Sciences, Inc. Ohio, United States http://www.treemediation.com/
Lemna Technologies, Inc. Vadnais Heights, MN http://www.lemnatechnologies.com/

55110, United States
Living Technologies, Inc. Charlottesville, VA http://www.livingmachines.com/Home.aspx

22911 United States
Ecological Engineering Group Massachusetts 02493- http://ecological-engineering.com
0003 United States
(Continued)

Thomas consultants, Inc. Cincinnati, OH 45254, http://thomas-consultants.com

United States
Verdant Technologies, Inc. Yardville, New Jersey, www.verdanttech.com

United States
Wolverton Environmental Picayune, Mississippi, www.wolvertonenvironmental.com
Services, Inc. United States
Viridian Environmental Montclair, New Jersey, http://www.viridianinc.com/
consultants United States
Abydoz Environmental Inc. Canada https://www.abydoz.com/
Oceans-ESU Ltd. Barnsley, United http://www.oceans-esu.com/
Kingdom
Symbio Greentech Kolkata, India http://www.symbiogreentech.com
Greenvironment Innovation & Taramani, Chennai, http://www.greenvironmentindia.com
Marketing India
Global Innovation Solution SRL Bucharest, Romania http://global-innovation.com.ro/?page_id 5 751&lang 5 en
controlled conditions in situ during consecutive idea of structural biodiversity, which can be
years, then small-scale field replications up to measured through different indices, there is an
field scale prospections to validate the strategy. emerging view considering that by measuring
On the other hand, a wide range of ecolog- and understanding functional diversity—also
ically and socio-economically valuable native known as plant trait (any measurable feature
plants are underused for phytoremediation of an individual that potentially affects perfor-
programs in many countries all over the mance or fitness) diversity—we can make bet-
world. Some of these species play a key role in ter conservation and restoration decisions
the remediation of polluted sites, carbon (Cadotte et al., 2011). Therefore, it is important
sequestration, biodiversity enhancement and to highlight that idealistically, a proper phytor-
conservation, and environmental sustainabil- emediation strategy should also consider the
ity. These added-value and underused plants functional biodiversity of the novel ecosystem
should be studied and the possibility of by including different life-form species. In
their inclusion in phytoremediation projects, comparison with taxonomic diversity which,
explored. For example, Saccharum spontaneum in the end, is a catalogue that indicates the
has been documented as an underused tall presence and abundance of species, functional
grass for revegetation and restoration programs diversity considers some attributes that may
(Pandey et al., 2015c). Saccharum munja was also be particularly useful to explaining ecosystem
reported as a multiple purpose grass in terms functioning. The power of functional diversity
of use and function (Pandey et al., 2012). is that unlike traditional measurements of spe-
Besides adequate plant selection, the phy- cies richness or diversity, it goes further and
toremediation strategy should also consider presumes a mechanistic link between diversity
some ecological principles. Beyond the concept and the ecological phenomena in question
of plant species and besides the well-known (Cadotte et al., 2011).

TABLE 2.3 An Indicative List of Highly Valued Plant-Based Commercial Phytoremediation for the
Phytoremediation Business World
Name of Crop Family Tolerance Economic Use Type of Contaminated Sites References
Vetiveria Poaceae Most Essential oil Pb/Zn mine tailings; Fly ash Wu et al. (2010), Chakraborty
zizanioides tolerant dumps; Pb, Cu, and Zn sites; and Mukherjee (2010), Danh
chromite-asbestos mine et al. (2010), Verma et al.
waste dumps (2014), Srivastava et al.
(2014), Das et al. (2013) and
Kumar and Maiti (2015)
Cymbopogon Poaceae Tolerant Essential oil Chromite-Asbestos mine Kumar and Maiti (2015)
citratus waste dumps
Chrysopogon Poaceae Tolerant Essential oil Chromite-asbestos mine Kumar and Maiti (2015)
zizanioides waste dumps
Srivastava et al. (2014)
Mentha Lamiaceae Tolerant Essential oil Fly ash dumps, heavy metals Das et al. (2013) and
arvensis (i.e., Cd, Pb, Cu, Mn, and Zn) Zheljazkov and Nielsen (1996b)
Mentha Lamiaceae Tolerant Essential oil Fly ash and organic waste, Kumar and Patra (2012),
piperita L. heavy metals (i.e., Cd, Pb, Zheljazkov and Nielsen (1996b)
Cu, Mn, and Zn) and Zheljazkov et al. (2006)
Anethum Tolerant Essential oil Heavy metals (i.e., Cd, Cu, Zheljazkov et al. (2006)
graveolens L. and Pb) contaminated soil
Lavandula Lamiaceae Tolerant Essential oil Heavy metals (i.e., Cd, Pb, Zheljazkov and Nielsen
angustifolia Cu, Mn, Zn, and Fe) (1996a)
Mill. contaminated soil
Lavandula Lamiaceae Tolerant Essential oil Pb, Cd, and Zn Angelova et al. (2015)
vera L. contaminated soil
Ocimum Lamiaceae Tolerant Essential oil Heavy metals (i.e., Cd, Cu, Zheljazkov and Nielsen
basilicum L. and Pb) contaminated soil (1996a,b); Zheljazkov et al.
(2006)
Ricinus Euphorbiaceae Most Biodiesel Fly ash contaminated sites; Pandey (2013), Olivares et al.
communis tolerant mine tailings; DDTs and (2013), Huang et al. (2011),
cadmium (Cd) co- Bauddh and Singh (2012),
contaminated soil; Cadmium Rajkumar and Freitas (2008)
contaminated soil; heavy and Pandey and Prakash
metal contaminated soil (2014)
Jatropha curcas Euphorbiaceae Most Biodiesel Heavy metal contaminated Juwarkar et al. (2008), Yadav
tolerant soil; arsenic, chromium, and et al. (2009), Kumar et al.
zinc polluted soil; soil (2008), Agamuthu et al.
contaminated with used (2010), Mangkoedihardjo and
lubricating oil; lead, and Surahmaida (2008) and
cadmium polluted soil; Mangkoedihardjo et al. (2008)
hexavalent chromium
polluted soil
Miscanthus Poaceae Most Biodiesel PAH polluted soils; fly ash Didier et al. (2012) and
tolerant dumps Técher et al. (2012)
(Continued)

Name of Crop Family Tolerance Economic Use Type of Contaminated Sites References
Dendrocalamus Poaceae Tolerant Pulpwood Tannery sludge dumps Shukla et al. (2011) and
strictus Pandey and Prakash (2014)
Populus spp. Salicaceae Tolerant Pulpwood Tannery sludge dumps; Shukla et al. (2011), Robinson
boron contaminated sites; fly et al. (2007) and Das et al.
ash dumps (2013)
Leucena Fabaceae Tolerant Pulpwood Fly ash amended soil; dye Rai et al. (2004), Pandey and
leucocephala contaminated site Kumar (2013) and Jayanthy
et al. (2014)
Eucalyptus Myrtaceae Tolerant Eucalyptus oil, Tannery sludge dumps; fly Shukla et al. (2011), Juwarkar
tereticornis Timber-wood ash dumps and Jambhulkar (2008) and
Ram et al. (2008)
Tectona grandis Lamiaceae Tolerant Timber-wood Crude oil sites, iron (Fe) ore Yenn et al. (2014) and Maiti
tailings et al. (2005)
Gmelina Verbenaceae Tolerant Timber-wood Crude oil sites, heavy metal Agbogidi et al. (2007) and
arborea sites Ogbonna and Ukiwe (2010)
Holoptelia Ulmaceae Tolerant Timber-wood Sewage, filth drainage Pandey and Prakash (2014)
integrifolia systems
Azadirachta Meliaceae Tolerant Timber-wood Sewage, filth drainage Pandey and Prakash (2014)
indica systems
Salix spp. Salicaceae Tolerant Timber-wood Cadmium contaminate soil; Lewandowski et al. (2006)
zinc, and cadmium and Konlechner et al. (2013)
contaminated soil
Jasminum Oleaceae Most Floriculture Cr contaminated soil Ramasamy (1997)

auriculatum tolerant
Jasminum Oleaceae Most Floriculture Cr contaminated soil Anandhkumar (1998) and
grandiflorum tolerant Mahimairaja et al. (2011)
Jasminum Oleaceae Tolerant Floriculture Cr contaminated soil, Ramasamy (1997),
sambac tannery effluent irrigation Anandhkumar (1998) and
Mahimairaja et al. (2011)
Nerium oleander Apocynaceae Tolerant Floriculture Tannery effluent irrigation Anandhkumar (1998)
Tagetes erecta Asteraceae Tolerant Floriculture Cd contaminated soil Lal et al. (2008)
Chrysanthemum Asteraceae Tolerant Floriculture Cd contaminated soil Lal et al. (2008)
indicum
Gladiolus Iridaceae Most Floriculture Cd contaminated soil Lal et al. (2008)
grandiflorus tolerant
Calendula Asteraceae Tolerant Floriculture Cr contaminated soil Ramana et al. (2013)
officinalis
Nelumbo Nelumbonaceae Hyper- Floriculture domestic wastewater Kanabkaew and Puetpaiboon
nucifera tolerant treatment, ex-mining area, (2004) and Ashraf et al. (2011)
mined out shallow pond

FIGURE 2.2 Some examples of different purposes that include economically valuable plants in phytoremediation
business.
2.3.2 Examples of Commercial

Opportunities
Market opportunities in sustainable phytor-
emediation could be large, while the data on
the subject is still scarce. Glass (1998) consid-
ered the initial estimates of market opportu-
nities in phytoremediation in the United States
as US$16.5 29.5 million, US$55 103 million,
and US$214 370 million in the years 1998,
2000, and 2005, respectively. In addition to this
direct benefit, commercial phytoremediation is
likely to offer job opportunities for environmental
scientists, practitioners, botanists, microbiologists,
ecological engineers, soil scientists, and multi-
FIGURE 2.3 A conceptual diagram showing commer-
cial phytoremediation with three main goals (low input,
disciplinary staff. Research by private indus-
economic yield, and least-risk) for developing market tries and government institutes has advanced
opportunities. methods, from small-scale laboratory or

FIGURE 2.4 Potential plants that
can be used in phytoremediation pur-
poses including aromatic plants such
as (A) Lavandula angustifilia or (B)
Rosmarinus officinalis; species with
ornamental purposes (C) Rosa damasce-
na, (D) Water lily, (E) Marigold, and (F)
Roadside florist in Lucknow; species to
use for phytoremediation via biofortifi-
cation e.g., in Fe contaminated soils,
(G) Vigna radiata, or (H) Oryza sativa.
greenhouse assays and field trials, to effective as a model for an integrated development
field applications (Granley and Truong, 2012). framework with the aim of preserving and
A conceptual diagram is proposed here to ameliorating the environment and, at the same
introduce a promising way for commercial time, provide employment. This fact is particu-
phytoremediation and to develop market larly important for developing countries. In
opportunities (Fig. 2.5). this sense, within the current economic system,
To some extent, government intervention government intervention could allow and
could be necessary to implement some eco- impulse regulatory factors that can create tech-
nomical activities. The use of phytoremedia- nology development opportunities. Within this
tion technologies can be objectively observed section, we will summarize some major fields

FIGURE 2.5 Diagram showing a possible scheme to obtain novel market opportunities for commercial
phytoremediation.
where phytoremediation can have future mar- sites. Some researchers have suggested that
ket niches. aromatic crop-based phytoremediation is a
Aromatic essential oils. High value-added sustainable and economical methodology
essential oils from aromatic crops can be with limited risk (Pandey and Singh, 2015;
obtained free from heavy metals through pro- Pandey et al., 2015a; Verma et al., 2014). As
cesses such as steam-distillation (Lal et al., 2013; an example, vetiver grass (V. zizanioides) has
Zheljazkov et al., 2006). Some potential aromatic demonstrated successful results as a novel
crops, such as Vetiveria zizanioides, Cymbopogon species for commercial phytoremediation in
flexuosus, Cymbopogon martini, Cymbopogon win- pot experiments, at field scale, and at large
terianus, Lavandula vera, Rosmarinus officinalis, project level (Danh et al., 2009; Granley and
Pogostemon cablin, Pelargonium graveolens, Mentha Truong, 2012). Vetiver is a wide-ranging spe-
piperita, Ocimum sanctum, Ocimum basilicum, and cies in tropical and sub-tropical regions with
Rosa damascena, could provide an additional worldwide distribution (Maffei, 2002), which
income in the form of essential oil that comes offers great market opportunities all over the
from the phytoremediation of contaminated world. Essential oil obtained from vetiver is

generally used to elaborate a number of biochar made of Prosopis juliflora (also known
important herbal products. Furthermore, the as mesquite), an evergreen tree species native
global demand for herbal and natural pro- to Central and South America that has become
ducts is predicted to reach US$5 trillion by invasive in arid and semi-arid regions across
the end of 2050 (Verma et al., 2014). the world. Currently, P. juliflora is one of the
Pulp paper biomass. There are many impor- top global invasive plant species according to
tant plant species used for pulp paper produc- the International Union for Conservation of
tion such as subabool (Leucaena leucocephala), Nature and is considered among the 10 most
poplar (Populus spp.), willow (Salix spp.), bam- noxious invasive plant species in the state of
boo (Dendrocalamus strictus), or safeda Uttar Pradesh (Singh et al., 2010).
(Eucalyptus tereticornis), which have been used Energy/Biodiesel. The cultivation of crops
in phytoremediation and could be exploited as with the capacity to accumulate different pol-
high economical species for commercial phytor- lutants from metal contaminated soils could
emediation (see Table 2.3). Furthermore, some contribute to gradually reducing the available
high value-added timber trees, such as teak metal fractions in soils, and at the same time,
(Tectona grandis) and white teak (Gmelina arbor- produce some benefits (Witters et al., 2012a). A
ea), have been used for phytoremediation. schematic representation of phytoremediation
Biochar. Biochar is a solid product from bio- combined with energy production can be
mass pyrolysis that comprises of mostly found in Fig. 2.6. Several studies have
stable aromatic forms of carbon (C) which pre- addressed the production of energy through
vails in the soil for a long time holding recalci- crops, however, the study of energy crops
trant carbon. It is this process of preserving within phytoremediation programs has been
carbon in soil (hundreds to thousands of years) explored to a lesser extent (Vangronsveld
that makes biochar a carbon-negative resource et al., 2007; Pandey et al., 2016). After har-
and a good option toward climate change miti- vest, plant biomass is converted into energy,
gation (Nanda et al., 2016). Biochar provides a which can be electricity, heat, or gas (see
large exchange surface that can be used to Witters et al., 2012a for a more detailed
adsorb pollutants with phytoremediation pur- description on energy production). Besides
poses. In fact, several studies consider biochar the amount of energy produced, Witters
for the physico-chemical immobilization of et al. (2012b) also showed in a clear way that
heavy metals in polluted soils (Phillips et al., the external benefit of CO2 abatement when
2016; Rodrı́guez-Vila et al., 2016; Xu et al., using phytoremediation crops for land man-
2016). Biochar provides organic matter, espe- agement was significant, with values ranging
cially carbon and nitrogen, usually in recalci- between EUh55 and 501 ha21. Regardless of
trant forms, but unlike other amendments, the the limited benefit, these authors pointed out
waste used to make biochar usually contains that the economic vision could help visualize
extremely few or no trace elements, such as the advantages of phytoremediation in
forestry biomass (Forján et al., 2016). comparison with conventional remediation
Moreover, biochar can be produced by using technologies.
the biomass of tree invasive species which, in There are a substantial number of highly
the end, will help valorize material from inva- valuable crops included in phytoremediation
sive plant management creating a novel prod- programs at contaminated sites that can also
uct that can be used for different purposes. be used for biodiesel production. This list
The company Greenfield Eco Solutions, estab- could include species such as Jatropha curcas,
lished in Jodhpur (India), is providing a Ricinus communis, Miscanthus spp., Panicum

FIGURE 2.6 Schematic overview of

a conceptual phytoremediation model
combined with energy production on
contaminated land. *To obtain more
information regarding safe disposal of
metal enriched residues consult
Kovacs and Szemmelveisz (2017).
virgatum, Helianthus annus, Cynara cardunculus, act as pollutants above specific thresholds.
or the fast-growing Populus spp. and Salix spp. Taking into account plants capacity to absorb
Other species such as Arundo donax or Phalaris pollutants as metals or metalloids, this type of
arundinacea have also been utilized as species contaminated soil can be used in the biofortifi-
for biodiesel production. Nevertheless, these cation of edible crops (Zhao and McGrath,
species have been generally identified as inva- 2009; Guerinot and Salt, 2001). Therefore, the
sive species (Global Invasive Species Database, link of biofortification with phytoremediation
2017) through different parts of the world, and would immensely benefit the environment and
therefore, their use should be carefully sug- society (Yin and Yuan, 2012). However, a
gested and restricted to their native ranges. detailed and careful risk assessment should be
Biofortification. Supplying nutritious food to considered before using these types of crops
people is the ultimate goal of sustainable agri- from contaminated sites as food sources.
culture. Initially focused on the increase of It is also necessary to highlight that, in order
crop yields, today the scenario has changed: to be acceptable under sustainability precepts
quantity does not necessarily match quality and environmental responsibility, the use of
and approximately half of the world popula- crops for biodiesel, energy production, or bio-
tion suffers from micronutrient deficiencies as fortification as suggested should be wisely
Fe, Zn, and Se. Biofortification of these micro- selected to resist and adapt to local environ-
nutrients can be increased in food crops mental conditions and, at the same time, in
through different methods such as agronomic order to avoid large monocultures. These for-
practices, traditional breeding, or genetic engi- mations are responsible for many ecosystem
neering. Worldwide there are several locations disservices, as they usually become less resis-
with high levels of Fe, Zn, and Se, which tant to plagues and entail a loss of soil quality
besides their elemental role in plant function, and biodiversity in general terms.

Ornamental purposes. Floriculture is another In Thailand, marigolds are famous orna-
interesting option for the sustainable phytore- mental plants because of their high demand
mediation of polluted sites, remediating con- during Buddhist Sabbath days and Thai tradi-
taminated sites while, at the same time, tional festivals and, during these days,
generating stable incomes. Briefly, ornamental approximately one billion marigold flowers
plants are those plants used for decorative are commercialized across the country
purposes in houses, gardens, offices, shop- (Nakbanpote et al., 2015). Several marigold
ping malls, and landscape design programs. farms, which were formerly contaminated,
Several ornamental plants are marketable, have been converted into ecotourism sites
ameliorating landscapes for ecotourism and (Nakbanpote et al., 2015). Transition from pol-
with few exceptions most ornamental plants luted places to sites devoted to ecoturism via
are not edible. Therefore, the use of these remediation provides a sustainable way with
plants for phytoremediation purposes might multiple benefits such as remediation, reve-
reduce the risk of heavy metal toxicity nue generation, attracting visitors and popu-
because they are not directly associated with larity through tourism, park and garden
the food chain. Anandhkumar (1998) studied development. Additionally, Chintakovid et al.
the Cr accumulation potential of some orna- (2008) reported that nugget marigold has the
mental plants such as Jasminum sambac, potential to grow satisfactorily in As-
Jasminum grandiflorum, Polyanthus tuberosa, contaminated sites in the Ron Phibun District,
and Nerium oleander and reported a consider- Thailand. Therefore, while Tagetes spp., Jasminum
able amount of Cr due to tannery effluent irri- spp., Nerium (N. Oleander), Chrysanthemum (C.
gation. Ramasamy (1997) noticed that indicum), and gladiolus (G. grandiflorus) are
Jasminum auriculatum was more tolerant to Cr suitable ornamental crops for remediating pol-
contaminated soils up to 1000 µg g21 com- luted soils, water lily belonging to either the
pared to Crossandra infundibuliformis and J. sam- Nymphaeaceae or Nelumbonaceae family are
bac, that were more sensitive at this suitable ornamental plants for sustainable phy-
concentration. Mahimairaja et al. (2011) also toremediation of polluted water with economic
studied the phytoremediation potential of some returns. Lotus (Nelumbo nucifera) cultivation is
ornamental plants such J. grandiflorum, J. sam- famous in Thailand from natural or constructed
bac, P. tuberosa, and N. oleander for remediation wetlands (Nakbanpote et al., 2015). Currently, it
of Cr contaminated soils. They showed that replaces paddy farming because of its market
Jasminum spp. has a higher tolerance to Cr opportunities and high demand.
contaminated soil. Additionally, Ramana Phytomining. One step beyond phytoreme-
et al. (2013) explored the possibility of the diation, we find phytomining, a ‘green’
phytoremediation of Cr contaminated soil approach to the environmentally sensitive and
using four ornamental plants: Aster novibelgii, energy intensive practice of mining, involving
Dahlia sambucifolia, Calendula officinalis, and the use of selective plants to extract valuable
Chrysanthemum indicum. They concluded that, metals from both solid and liquid substrates
at low concentrations (up to 10 ppm), C. officina- (Sheoran et al., 2013). Phytoextraction depends
lis is suitable for the remediation of Cr polluted on the annual accumulation of sufficient quan-
soil. Lal et al. (2008) examined three ornamental tities of a specific element in harvestable shoot
crops: Tagetes erecta, C. indicum, and Gladiolus biomass, of which biomass removal would
grandiflorus for their potential production and support soil remediation or phytomining goals
removal of Cd, and showed that G. grandiflorus (Chaney et al., 2007). In order to select ade-
had the highest Cd tolerance. quate species for phytomining, annual biomass

yield is important, but element tolerance and increasing in demand as a source of material
accumulation in aerial parts are also significant for composite wood products as particleboard,
aspects to consider. In order to be economically fiberboard, wafer board, oriented strand
viable, conventional mining operations require boards, and plywood as well as composite
adequate deposits of a selected element. lumber products (Licht and Isebrands, 2005).
However, harvestable parts of plants can effi- Other potential products from poplar and wil-
ciently extract and accumulate precious and low wood include extruded signs from wood
other metals even in those cases where low powder, chopsticks, hockey sticks, and cricket
grade deposits are present (Sheoran et al., 2013). bats (Balatinecz and Kretschmann, 2001).
Despite not being extensively studied until Intermediate market projects. In the case of the
now, some studies have addressed the impor- market economy for sustainable phytoremedia-
tance of considering plants for their extractive tion, there are some cases that remain in the
abilities of economically interesting elements middle. Meaning that these projects have only
such as gold, platinum, or thallium (Brooks short-term applications. Within the context of
and Robinson, 1998). Within them, gold phy- a 2-year phytoremediation project of soil con-
toextraction is probably the most promising taminated with As, Cd, and Pb conducted in
field of study regarding phytomining and a China, Wan et al. (2016) used intercropping
solid review on the physiological mechanism, technology, which can bring some income dur-
uptake, transport, and also economics of gold ing remediation because of the production of
phytomining can be found by Sheoran et al. cash crops (5.6 ha of sugar cane and 2.8 ha of
(2013). These authors consider that gold phyto- mulberry trees). Besides the significant reduc-
mining is an economically and environmentally tion in crop metal content, these authors
friendly technology in comparison to heap reported a total income of US$90,932 and US
leaching, and, as we mentioned previously, $45,220, respectively (US$4663.2 and US
they also recommend the inclusion of native $2318.9 per hectare of soil, respectively) gener-
plant species that are resistant and adapt to ated due to the sale of sugar cane and mul-
environmental conditions. The economics of berry trees. After remediation, they also
whole phytomining operations depend on sev- indicated that the soil recovered ecosystem ser-
eral parameters, such as the metal content of vice function and the capacity to produce
the plant, its biomass production per annum, healthy agricultural products, no longer threat-
and whether or not the energy of combustion ening the health of local people. At the end of
of the biomass can be recovered and sold the project, the difference between costs and
(Sheoran et al., 2013). They also predict that a the just-for-once benefits was equal to US
substantial effort is still required, mainly $55,758.9 (US$8241/hm2). In this projected sce-
focused on the capacity of plants to accumulate nario, they indicated that the benefits would
increasing concentrations of metals. offset the costs used for phytoremediation in
Wood products. Solid and composite wood less than 7 years.
products can be obtained from trees used in Green roofs. Focused on prevention rather
phytoremediation programs. Wood obtained, than intervention, the design, installation, and
mainly from poplar trees, can be further used maintenance of green roofs are also an interest-
for solid wood products as structural lumber, ing phyto-market option to mitigate environ-
but is more often used in non-stress graded mental pollution and ameliorate air quality.
lumber applications such as pallets or boxes Green roofs involve growing vegetation on
(Balatinecz and Kretschmann, 2001). On the rooftops and are one tool that can help miti-
other hand, composite wood products are also gate the negative effects of urban pollution

2.4 LIMITING FACTORS ON PHYTOREMEDIATION 71
(Rowe, 2011). Although architects have applied decontamination, able to fix and absorb pollu-
green-roof technology worldwide, its imple- tants, thereby ameliorating water quality and
mentation in developing countries is still in preventing soil infiltrations. Some companies
the early stages. Initially expensive, the costs such as Symbio Greentech Pvt. Ltd., a biotechnol-
of green roof installation are currently decreas- ogy company committed to providing innova-
ing, and their use could be justified in the long tive sustainable technologies for environmental
run if the environmental benefits are consid- protection based on Kolkata (India), are cur-
ered. As for other remediation techniques, rently working in this field in an active man-
environmental conditions, especially rainfall ner. Complementarily, further investigations in
and extreme temperatures, may restrict the use the elaboration and application of novel geo-
of certain species; native stress-tolerant plants textiles, which help to retain pollutants and
are generally considered ideal choices because can be helpful to use alone or in combination
of their adaptations to local climates with phytoremediation techniques, appears
(Oberndorfer et al., 2007). In a study on also as a highly promising field of research.
Chicago (United States), the annual removal of
pollutants per hectare of green roof was
approximately 85 kg ha21 year21 (Yang et al., 2.4 LIMITING FACTORS ON
2008). The marketing value of green roofs is PHYTOREMEDIATION
also seldom considered, but the value of a
“green building” brand is potentially tremen- In spite of its multiple benefits, overall in a
dous to private enterprise, universities, and hypothetic profitable scenario, phytoremedia-
cities in attracting clients, students, faculty, tion has some intrinsic limitations because of
and tourists (Oberndorfer et al., 2007). the living nature of plants. Some of these lim-
Furthermore, as suggested by Rowe (2011), itations are: the autotrophic nature of plants,
there is also an interesting field of exploration limited metabolic detoxifying capacity, soil
for future years in green roof amelioration toxicity level, extreme or highly variable clima-
including plant species selection, substrates, tological conditions, seasonal variability, or
water quality, agriculture, or benefits for root-limiting growth. Another major limitation
human health. is the long-term act of phytoremediation, the
Smart architecture and engineering projects. introduction of contaminants into the food
The use of bio-engineering methodologies and chain, or the common, but inadequate, use of
smart architecture to build alternative struc- invasive plant species that further generate
tures inside and outside our cities is an inter- additional environmental problems. To pro-
esting approach for future development of vide a proper vision of time limitations, based
innovative technology-based companies. The on data obtained in the experimental field,
development of up-to-date technologies will Witters et al. (2012a) indicated that reducing
help mitigate environmental pollution but also total Cd concentrations in soil from 5 to
to prevent future disasters based on environ- 2 mg kg21 would hypothetically take 888 years
mental contention. The construction of eco- for silage maize, more than 1000 years for
friendly slopes can help limit surface water rapeseed, and 114 years for willow.
run-off and consequently soil erosion, also Furthermore, one of the key problems of phy-
acting as barriers to prevent soil and putative toremediation, a serious ecological concern
pollutants’ movement. Other interesting exam- and a challenging task to environmentalists is
ples of bio-engineering approaches are the the question of how can we dispose of har-
installation of floating gardens for water vested plants that accumulate pollutants (for

detail see Kovacs and Szemmelveisz, 2017). willow (Salix spp.) or poplar (Populus spp.).
Some specific strategies are proposed here to Both, willow and poplars are probably the
avoid the limitations of phytoremediation: most common tree species used for
phytoremediation because of their fast
1. Maximize access to pollutants through long
growth, and large and extensive roots
root species. Vetiver (Chrysopogon
which provide adequate surface area for
zizanioides) is a highly promising plant
fungi that form beneficial mycorrhizae
species all over the world, which has the
(Licht and Isebrands, 2005). Several
capability to remediate pollutants against
experimental approaches (including field
both upper and deeper layers of
trials, glasshouse pot experiments and
contaminated sites. This species has an
experiences with hydroponic systems) have
extremely large root system that can reach
considered the inclusion of willow as a
6 m, in comparison to the 4.5 m poplar root
feasible option to study metal uptake.
system (Movahed and Maeiyat, 2009;
Through four growing seasons, a
Lavania and Lavania, 2009). Besides root
phytoremediation system based on fast-
growth, vetiver is also highly tolerant to
growing hybrid poplars was installed and
pests, diseases, drought, and flooding, and
maintained, substituting an ex situ
performs well at high levels of numerous
remediation process in St Louis (Granley
contaminants. In a project carried out in
and Truong, 2012). The phytoremediation
Biloxi (United States), 1.5 ha of vetiver was
system paid for itself in less than 2 years
planted and after a short period, disposal
with a total cost avoidance of US$810,000
cost (per liter) was almost ten times
obtained by eliminating the transportation
reduced. With these numbers, the project
and disposal process. This innovative
was expected to save US$8 million over a
project was honored with several awards,
standard accrual period compared to
including being named as one of the top 25
traditional off-site disposal methods. Based
engineering projects in the United States in
on these unusual results, this project was
2009 by the American Council of
honored as a national Grand Prize winner
Engineering Companies Engineering
in the American Academy of Environmental
Excellence Competition (Granley and
Engineers—National Engineering Excellence
Truong, 2012). After these successful results,
Competition (Granley and Truong, 2012).
a similar project was carried out based on
2. Introduce fast growing species in
the plantation of 4000 hybrid poplars over
phytoremediation programs. As Robinson
3 ha in the Chicago metropolitan area,
et al. (2003) interestingly asked: how long is
saving US$350,000 in leachate disposal costs
too long? A long-term period required to
in 2 years (Granley and Truong, 2012). The
remediate soil to legal soil standards is one
use of fast-growing bushy species, which
of the key limitations in the development of
can be readily grown under a short rotation
commercial phytoextraction, and this
coppice system with harvests every 3 5
methodology will be implemented only if it
years, is highly interesting and several
is the most financially attractive long-term
examples regarding the potential
option (Robinson et al., 2003). In this sense,
accumulation of pollutants can be further
time limitations can be reduced by using
reviewed at Pulford and Watson (2003).
fast growing plants such as aromatic grass
3. Diminishing health risks. The hypothetical
species, leguminous plants such as L.
risk of metal ingestion by wild life and the
leucocephala, or fast-growing trees such as
subsequent introduction into the food chain

2.4 LIMITING FACTORS ON PHYTOREMEDIATION 73
can be avoided, or at least substantially a scale of 0 10, more than 90% of the
reduced by using unpalatable and high experts ranked their familiarity with
value-added non-edible crops such as J. phytoremediation at five or below and none
curcas, R. communis, and other plant species assigned themselves a score of higher than
including aromatic plants, which are not eight. Here, we summarize some of the
frequently consumed by livestock. Eapen most generalized doubts that we have been
and D’Souza (2005) described a genetic collecting during the last few years
manipulation procedure for the regarding sustainable phytoremediation
development of potential transgenic crops (Table 2.4).
for phytoremediation. They showed that the 5. Dealing with uncertainty in soil
limitations of phytoremediation may be remediation. In the case of evident soil
reduced through alterations in root, contamination, decision making on the
biomass, metal transporter, and metal application of remediation alternatives is a
chelators, etc. However, there is some crucial step after a comprehensive analysis
public concern on the field release of such and assessment of contaminants and their
genetically manipulated plants; this highly impacts on safeguards has been conducted
unpopular action in many countries, mainly (Scholz and Schnabel, 2006). However, there
in developed countries, includes increased are some cases or areas where pollution is
genetic pollution, invasiveness, and not clearly defined and then decisions,
decreased genetic variability of native overall in case economic investments are
plants due to interbreeding. In this context, necessary, should be taken on the basis of
the use of sterile clones is a potential solid arguments in order to decide among
strategy to stop invasiveness and different management options, e.g., soil
interbreeding (Daniell, 2002). washing, phytoremediation, or even no
4. Improving knowledge on phytoremediation. It is remediation. In that case, it would be
also important to note that, despite the advisable to utilize methodologies that
increase in its use and interest, increase decision makers’ knowledge as
phytoremediation is still rarely those proposed by Scholz and Schnabel
implemented in the field, whereas (2006) or Lemming et al. (2010).
conventional methods, such as excavation
There is also a controversy between eco-
and off-site treatment, are much more
nomics and environmental suitability. In some
common (Lachapelle and Montpetit, 2015).
specific cases, profitable resources obtained
The current situation is even more
from polluted sites do not necessarily match
worrisome if we consider the current
with remediation purposes. In the case of the
knowledge of some accredited
essential oil production, plants can be growing
decontamination professionals. In a survey
in a polluted area by pollutant-exclusion
carried out in Quebec, Canada, Lachapelle
mechanisms. Therefore, in a case like that,
and Montpetit (2015) surveyed nearly 100
objectives would be only partially successful.
decontamination experts (considered as the
group of individuals who play an important
role in the selection of remediation
2.4.1 Microorganisms in Sustainable
technologies, as they consult on, approve,
and monitor decontamination projects).
Phytoremediation
Contrary to their expectations, results Defined as the unseen majority by Van der
revealed a surprising lack of knowledge: on Heijden et al. (2008), microbes are essential

TABLE 2.4 Outstanding Questions Regarding the Search of Market Opportunities in Sustainable
Phytoremediation
Sl. no. Outstanding Questions Regarding “Phytoremediation Business”
1 What are the key challenges for phytoremediation business?
2 Effect of phytoremediation business on the flora and fauna of that site?

3 Risk assessments of phytoproducts from phytoremediation should be done before marketing?
4 Economic evaluation of the phytoremediation business for its sustainability?
5 How effective is the phytoremediation business on the livelihoods on local people?
6 Can ecological engineering offer new solutions for the utilization of polluted sites?
7 How effective is the phytoremediation business under changing climate?
8 Do developing countries have the potential to generate bio-economy through phytoremediation?
components in ecosystems as they influence conventional strategies but disadvantages, such

different ecosystem processes at many levels. as the difficulty of monitoring or controlling
Microbial community structure and function is environmental conditions, should also be con-
generally highly affected in degraded soils— sidered (Megharaj et al., 2011). The use of
many polluted soils—and consequently, mycorrhiza for the amelioration of plant growth
becomes a major constraint to plant establish- in heavy metal contaminated soils has been
ment and growth. Microbial communities play largely studied over the last few years (Göhre
a fundamental role in plant establishment, that and Paszkowski, 2006; Meier et al., 2012). The
is, arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) are use of plant growth promoting rhizobacteria
obligated mutualists that establish intimate (PGPR) in the remediation of polluted sites has
relationships with 80% of terrestrial plant fam- also been widely studied and it is currently
ilies (Brundrett, 2004). In fact the survival of considered a good contribution for speeding up
some plant species is totally dependent on the the phytoremediation process (Ma et al., 2011,
association with AMF (Van der Heijden et al., 2017). It is generally known that root exudates
2008). Despite their rapid response to environ- from plants act as nutritive C-sources to rhizo-
mental stresses, microorganisms can also pres- sphere microbes, thus increasing the microbial
ent adaptive responses to metal stress, some of activity in the rhizosphere, which creates a pos-
them, as AMF are able to promote plant itive feedback that stimulates plant growth. For
growth and resistance in contaminated areas example, the cumulative effect of using PGPR
and, consequently, facilitate the phytoremedia- and particular pollutant-degrading bacteria can
tion process (Meier et al., 2012). eliminate complex pollutants from contami-
Plant microbe partnerships can be exploited nated soils (Huang et al., 2005). Some strains of
to promote plant growth in the sustainable pro- PGPR protect plant from pests (Zhang et al.,
duction of energy crops (Weyens et al., 2009), 2010), stimulate crop production, and increase
and these associations can also be implemented crops tolerance to pollutants (Upadhyay et al.,
in remediation practices. Phytostimulation of 2011). In addition, Ma et al. (2017) identified
pollutant degradation by rhizosphere microbial endophytic bacteria (Pseudomonas azotoformans
communities can offer many economic and ASS1) from the rhizosphere of Trifolium arvense
environmental advantages compared to grown on multi-metal-contaminated sites (Cu,

2.5 CONCLUDING REMARKS 75
Zn, and Ni) under drought stress conditions. of seed availability and transportation. Among
This bacteria was extremely resistant to metal others, these reasons led to the fact that pre-
and drought stresses and significantly amelio- liminary assays using local plant assemblages
rated plant performance. This study showed for phytostabilization in polluted protected
the potential of P. azotoformans ASS1 for protect- areas have been increased (Heckenroth et al.,
ing plants against harsh conditions and assisting 2016). The possibility of preparing ad hoc mix-
plants to flourish under abiotic stress as well as tures of vegetation with phytoremediation pur-
accelerating the phytoremediation process. poses also opens the door to a potential niche
Thus, there is a wide scope to work on plant- in the commercial market.
microbial interactions between rhizospheric Nevertheless, there are some controversial
microbes and roots to enhance the phytoreme- aspects to that point since doubts arise when
diation process. However, the rhizosphere is a invasive species are already present. The status
highly diverse, variable, and complex matrix of some species appear controversial, present-
and enormous challenges remain in revealing ing a dilemma between the prioritization of
the exact function of rhizospheric engineering biodiversity management in a protected area
for enhanced phytoremediation. For further or the application of ecological solutions for
information, several examples on plant mic- pollution management (Ellili et al., 2017).
robes related to biomass production and reme- Atriplex halimus, a xerohalophyte that has a
diation can be found in the interesting reviews high tolerance to metal and metalloid ele-
published by Khan (2005) or Weyens et al. ments, used as an ornamental plant, but with
(2009). potential use for phytoremediation, has been
found to be associated to polluted sites in the
National Park of Calanques (France).
However, results from this study (Ellili et al.,
2.4.2 Invasive Species and
2017) indicated that the potential for wide-
Phytoremediation spread dissemination of A. halimus by seed
In some specific cases, authors have recom- germination is limited to the surrounding soils,
mended the use of non-native species because suggesting that the maintenance of invasive
of physiological traits that allow them to grow populations could be a viable option to pre-
under exceptional circumstances. However, vent pollutant transfer.
the experience has largely demonstrated that
the use of non-native plants could be initially
profitable but can have irregular or serious 2.5 CONCLUDING REMARKS
consequences after planting. Besides the rapid
growth and easy acclimation, non-native We are on the verge of a decisive historical
plants can further become invasive, spreading moment, since we realize that conventional
across the territory and produce large and practices in many disciplines no longer remain
unpredictable economical costs. A proper and viable, as in the case of environmental pollu-
integrated selection of plants for phytoreme- tion and remediation. Novel fields, in terms of
diation purposes should balance the use of economic progress and employment are con-
local seedbanks and native plant communities stantly emerging based on the development of
with phytoremediation goals (Heckenroth novel technologies. In this sense, we argue that
et al., 2016). Local plants demand less atten- sustainable phytoremediation will allow us to
tion, are generally suited to the climate, and create a niche for future employment, with
do not entail costs or legal problems in terms sustainable, eco-friendly, and healthy precepts

for future development. However, the lack of stakeholders, and all influential groups.
knowledge of a substantial portion of our soci- Therefore, communication is one task ahead for
ety, economic interests in conventional remedi- those who are involved in phytoremediation. In
ation, and the fragility of recent gains, in terms our opinion, commercial phytoremediation
of current application, are limiting the applica- offers a sustainable, clean, and green future
tions of phytoremediation and warning us bringing together socio-economic and environ-
about the length of the journey ahead. mental issues as well as revitalizing the ecosys-
New knowledge and insights shall remain tem on which all life depends.
the driving forces of developing phytoreme-
diation business’ in the global knowledge-
economy of the 21st century. Nevertheless, fur- Acknowledgment
ther research is necessary for popularizing sus- The authors sincerely thank TECO Project 2014 18
tainable phytoremediation, and the priorities Technological Eco-Innovations for the Quality Control and
the Decontamination of Polluted Waters and Soils for
of phytoremediation in the future should focus
financial support.
on establishing commercial phytoremediation
through finding more valuable, tolerant, and
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C H A P T E R

2.1 INTRODUCTION TO pollutants existing in over 80% of all the iden-

Phytomanagement of Polluted Sites

2008). Unfortunately, pollution assessment is From an environmental point of view, it is

PHYTOMANAGEMENT OF POLLUTED SITES

PHYTOMANAGEMENT OF POLLUTED SITES

Short-term effectiveness High Low Low

Type of contaminant Almost all types Limited Limited

PHYTOMANAGEMENT OF POLLUTED SITES

Multi-stage process. Environmental variables should

Grasses or small shrubs Trees

PHYTOMANAGEMENT OF POLLUTED SITES

As a general statement, there is no standard phytoremediation such as regulatory or

PHYTOMANAGEMENT OF POLLUTED SITES

PHYTOMANAGEMENT OF POLLUTED SITES

PHYTOMANAGEMENT OF POLLUTED SITES

Trident Environmental Services Mississippi, United http://tridentenviro.com/about-us/

BioRemed AB Sweden http://bioremed.se

OP-TECH Environmental East Syracuse, New http://www.op-tech.us

The Vetiver Network San Antonio, Texas, http://www.vetiver.org/

Microbe Inotech Laboratories, St. Louis, Missouri, http://www.microbeinotech.com/

PHYTOMANAGEMENT OF POLLUTED SITES

TABLE 2.2 (Continued)

Blue Planet Environmental Inc. Ontario, Canada http://www.blueplanetenviro.com/

Bioclear earth Groningen, http://bioclearearth.nl/

Cox-Colvin & Associates, Inc. Plain City, Ohio, https://www.coxcolvin.com/

Civil & Environmental Pittsburgh, http://www.cecinc.com/

Applied PhytoGenetics, Inc. Athens, Georgia, www.appliedphytogenetics.com

Lemna Technologies, Inc. Vadnais Heights, MN http://www.lemnatechnologies.com/

Living Technologies, Inc. Charlottesville, VA http://www.livingmachines.com/Home.aspx

PHYTOMANAGEMENT OF POLLUTED SITES

Thomas consultants, Inc. Cincinnati, OH 45254, http://thomas-consultants.com

Verdant Technologies, Inc. Yardville, New Jersey, www.verdanttech.com

PHYTOMANAGEMENT OF POLLUTED SITES

PHYTOMANAGEMENT OF POLLUTED SITES

Jasminum Oleaceae Most Floriculture Cr contaminated soil Ramasamy (1997)

PHYTOMANAGEMENT OF POLLUTED SITES

2.3.2 Examples of Commercial

PHYTOMANAGEMENT OF POLLUTED SITES

PHYTOMANAGEMENT OF POLLUTED SITES

PHYTOMANAGEMENT OF POLLUTED SITES

PHYTOMANAGEMENT OF POLLUTED SITES

FIGURE 2.6 Schematic overview of

PHYTOMANAGEMENT OF POLLUTED SITES

PHYTOMANAGEMENT OF POLLUTED SITES

PHYTOMANAGEMENT OF POLLUTED SITES

PHYTOMANAGEMENT OF POLLUTED SITES

PHYTOMANAGEMENT OF POLLUTED SITES

PHYTOMANAGEMENT OF POLLUTED SITES

Sl. no. Outstanding Questions Regarding “Phytoremediation Business”

1 What are the key challenges for phytoremediation business?

2 Effect of phytoremediation business on the flora and fauna of that site?

8 Do developing countries have the potential to generate bio-economy through phytoremediation?

components in ecosystems as they influence conventional strategies but disadvantages, such

PHYTOMANAGEMENT OF POLLUTED SITES

PHYTOMANAGEMENT OF POLLUTED SITES

PHYTOMANAGEMENT OF POLLUTED SITES

PHYTOMANAGEMENT OF POLLUTED SITES

PHYTOMANAGEMENT OF POLLUTED SITES