VISUAL

PRESENTATION
OF DATA

GED0103
 DESCRIBING DATA VISUALLY

▪ Visual Description ▪ Bar Charts

▪ Dot Plots ▪ Scatter Plots
▪ Frequency Distributions ▪ Tables
and Histograms ▪ Pie Charts
▪ Excel Charts ▪ Deceptive Graphs
▪ Line Charts

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 Ungrouped vs Grouped Data
Ungrouped Data
- Original form of data, also known as raw data
- Trends or relationships are difficult to see here
- May be presented using a dot plot

Example:
Forty people were asked about their morning beverage.
They were asked to indicate W for water, C for coffee, T for tea,
M for milk, and J for juice. The following results were gathered:

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 Dot Plots
Methods of organizing, exploring and summarizing data include:
- Visual (charts and graphs) provides insight into characteristics of a data set without
using mathematics.
- Numerical (statistics or tables)
provides insight into characteristics of a data set using mathematics.
Presenting Ungrouped Data using Dot Plots
A dot plot is the simplest graphical display of n individual values of numerical data.
◼ Easy to understand
◼ Not good for large samples (e.g., > 5,000).

How to Make a Dot Plot

1. Make a scale that covers the data range
2. Mark the axes and label them
3. Plot each data value as a dot above the scale at its approximate location
Note: If more than one data value lies at about the same axis location, the
dots are piled up vertically.
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 Dot Plots
• Range of data shows dispersion.

• Clustering shows central tendency. data range

• Dot plots do not tell much about the shape of distribution.

clustering
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 Dot Plots
Comparing Groups
• A stacked dot plot compares two or more groups using a common X-axis scale.

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 Ungrouped vs Grouped Data
Grouped Data
- Organized data, usually in tabular form known as a frequency distribution
- Uses classes (or bins) and frequencies
- Allows trends or relationships to show
- Have multiple presentation forms

Example:
The raw data in the morning
beverage example can be
organized as shown.

It can now be seen that the

most preferred beverage is
water, and the least
preferred beverage is tea.

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 Frequency Distributions and Histograms
Creating a Frequency Distribution for a Data Set

Bins and Bin Limits

• A frequency distribution is a table formed by classifying n data values into k classes or
bins.
• Class limits / Bin limits define the values to be included in each bin.
Widths must all be the same.
• Frequencies are the number of observations within each bin.
• Express as relative frequencies (frequency divided by the total) or percentages (relative
frequency times 100).

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 Frequency Distributions and Histograms

Creating a Frequency Distribution for a Data Set

Bins and Bin Limits
• The lower class limit is the smallest data value that can be included in the class.
• The upper class limit is the largest
• The class width is the upper class limit of one class minus the lower class limit of the
same class.
• Class boundaries separate classes to ensure a gapless distribution.
• The class width can also be obtained by the upper class boundary of one class minus
the lower class boundary of the same class.

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 Frequency Distributions and Histograms

Creating a Frequency Distribution for a Data Set

Frequency Distribution Guidelines
• Maintain at least 5 and at most 20 classes.
• If possible, make the class an odd number to easily identify the
class mark/ class midpoint which is calculated using the usual averaging.

• Classes must be mutually exclusive.

• Classes must be continuous. Empty classes in between non-empty classes should be
kept. Empty classes at either end can be omitted without affecting the distribution.
• Classes must be exhaustive.
• Classes must be equal in width.

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 Frequency Distributions and Histograms
Create a Frequency Distribution for a Data Set

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 Frequency Distributions and Histograms
Making a histogram with appropriate bins.
Histograms
• A histogram is a graphical representation of a frequency distribution.
Y-axis shows frequency within each bin.
• A histogram is a bar chart.

X-axis ticks shows end points of each bin.

One can use appropriate technology to construct histograms

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 Frequency Distributions and Histograms
Identifying skewness, modes, and outliers in a histogram.

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 Frequency Distributions and Histograms

Frequency Polygons and Ogives

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 Line Charts
Making an effective line chart using Excel.

Simple Line Charts

• Used to display a time series

or spot trends, or to compare
time periods.
• Can display several variables
at once.

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 Line Charts
Simple Line Charts
• Two-scale line chart – used to compare variables that differ in
magnitude or are measured in different units.

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 Line Charts
Log Scales
A log scale is useful for time series data that might be expected to grow at a
compound annual percentage rate (e.g., GDP, the national debt, or your
future income). It reveals whether the quantity is growing at an
• increasing percent (concave upward),
• constant percent (straight line), or
• declining percent (concave downward)

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 Bar Charts
Creating effective bar charts and pie charts.

Simple Bar Charts

Most common way to display attribute data.
- Bars represent categories or attributes.
- Lengths of bars represent frequencies.

Vertical Bar Chart Horizontal Bar Chart

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 Bar Charts
Pareto Charts
• Special type of bar chart used in quality management to display the frequency
of defects or errors of different types.

• Categories are displayed in

descending order
of frequency.

• Focus on
significant few
(i.e., few
categories that
account for most defects or errors).

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 Bar Charts
Bar Charts for Time Series Data
Bar charts can be used for time series data although it may be harder to
compare trends.

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 Scatter Plots
Making an interpret a scatter plot using Excel.

Scatter plots can convey patterns in data pairs that would not be apparent from a table.

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Making simple tables and Pivot tables
Tables
• Tables are the simplest form of data display.
• A compound table is a table that contains time series data
down the columns and variables across the rows.
Creating effective tables:

1. Keep the table simple, consistent with its purpose.

Put summary tables in the main body of the written report
and detailed tables in an appendix.
2. Display the data to be compared in columns rather than rows.
3. For presentation purposes, round off to three or four
significant digits.
4. Physical table layout should guide the eye toward the comparison
you wish to emphasize.
5. Row and column headings should be simple yet descriptive.
6. Within a column, use a consistent number of decimal digits.
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 Tables
Example:

• Units of measure are stated in the footnote.

• Note merged headings to group columns.

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 Pie Charts
Making effective bar charts and pie charts
• A pie chart can only convey a general idea of the data.
• Pie charts should be used to portray data which sum to a total
(e.g., percent market shares).
• A pie chart should only have a few (i.e., 2 or 3) slices.
• Each slice should be labeled with data values or percents.

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 Deceptive Graphs
Recognizing deceptive graphing techniques

Error 1: Nonzero Origin

Error 2: Elastic Graph Proportions
Error 3: Dramatic Title
Error 4: Distracting Pictures
Error 5: Authority Figures
Error 6: 3-D and Rotated Graphs
Error 7: Missing Axis Demarcations
Error 8: Missing Measurement Units or Definitions
Error 9: Vague Source
Error 10: Complex Graphs
Error 11: Gratuitous Effects
Error 12: Estimated Data
Error 13: Area Trick

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 REFERENCES

▪Bluman, A. G. (2023). Elementary statistics: A step by step

approach. McGraw Hill LLC.

▪Doane, D. P. & Seward, L. W. (2022). Chapter 3. Applied statistics in

business and economics, McGraw Hill.

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