MAM2000W

ADVANCED CALCULUS (2AC)

BY ALESHAN SUBBAN
LECTURER: DR FRANCOIS EBOBISSE BILLE

Determining Parametric Curves

 For any parametric vector equation in the variable “t”, in order to determine its curve,
we have to eliminate the t in 𝑥 = 𝑓(𝑡), 𝑦 = 𝑔(𝑡), 𝑧 = ℎ(𝑡).
 This can easily be done by finding a relationship between the variables 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 or
generally just between any two variables.

Domain of A Vector Function

𝑟⃗(𝑡) = {𝑟1 (𝑡), 𝑟2 (𝑡), … , 𝑟𝑛 (𝑡)}

 Each 𝑟𝑖 is a function from ℝ ⟶ ℝ (of one variable) for i = 1 … n. The domain of the
vector function 𝑟⃗(𝑡) is the intersection of the domains of 𝑟𝑖 .

Limit of A Vector Function

For 𝑟⃗(𝑡) : ℝ ⟶ ℝ𝑛 where 𝑟⃗(𝑡) = {𝑟1 (𝑡), 𝑟2 (𝑡), … , 𝑟𝑛 (𝑡)}

lim 𝑟⃗(𝑡) = { lim 𝑟1 (𝑡), lim 𝑟2 (𝑡) , … , lim 𝑟𝑛 (𝑡) }

𝑡 ⟶ℎ 𝑡 ⟶ℎ 𝑡 ⟶ℎ 𝑡 ⟶ℎ

Provided that these individual limits exist.

Integrals/Derivatives of a Vector function

For 𝑟⃗(𝑡) : ℝ ⟶ ℝ𝑛 where 𝑟⃗(𝑡) = {𝑟1 (𝑡), 𝑟2 (𝑡), … , 𝑟𝑛 (𝑡)}

𝑟⃗′(𝑡) = {𝑟1 ′(𝑡), 𝑟2 ′(𝑡), … , 𝑟𝑛 ′(𝑡)}

𝑏 𝑏 𝑏 𝑏
∫ 𝑟⃗(𝑡) = { ∫ 𝑟1 (𝑡) , ∫ 𝑟2 (𝑡) , … , ∫ 𝑟𝑛 (𝑡) }
𝑎 𝑎 𝑎 𝑎

 The integral/derivative of a vector function is the vector function containing

components that are the integrals/derivatives of the components of the function.

1
How To Find The Vector Equation of A Tangent Line
 Find the value of t, corresponding to the given point <a; b; c>.
 Find the direction of the tangent line to the curve at the point t. This is done by finding
the derivative of the vector equation and thereafter substituting the value of t into this
new expression, e.g. <u; v; w>
 The last step is optional and involves writing the equation of the tangent line in its
parametric form. Each point is described as the sum of the corresponding value at that
point and the direction at that point multiplied by the parameter (𝜆)

𝑥 = 𝑎 + 𝑢𝜆 , 𝑦 = 𝑏 + 𝑣𝜆, 𝑧 = 𝑐 + 𝑤𝜆 where 𝜆 ∈ ℝ

Regular Curves
 We say that a curve C described by a vector function 𝑟⃗(𝑡) : [𝑎; 𝑏] ⟶ ℝ𝑛 is a regular or
smooth curve iff:
i. 𝑟⃗(𝑡) is differentiable at every t in [a; b] and 𝑟⃗′(𝑡) is continuous
ii. 𝑟⃗′(𝑡) ≠ 0 for every t in [a; b]
 We say that C is a regular or smooth curve if C can be decomposed as a finite union of
regular or smooth curves.

The Arc Length

 Let C be a regular curve described by the vector function: 𝑟⃗(𝑡) : [𝑎; 𝑏] ⟶ ℝ2/3 then by
the use of linear approximation and Riemann sums we define the Arc length of the
curve C in [a; b] to be:
𝑏
𝐿(𝐶) = ∫ |𝑟⃗′(𝑡)| 𝑑𝑡
𝑎
Which is described as the definite integral of the magnitude of the derivative of the
curve over the region [a; b].

Arc Length Parameterisation

 For a curve described by : 𝑟⃗(𝑡) : [𝑎; 𝑏] ⟶ ℝ2/3 which is regular on the interval [a; b],
we segment the curve between the points 𝑟⃗(𝑎) and the arbitrary 𝑟⃗(𝑡) and define a new
function of the segment (s):
𝑡
𝑠 = ∫ |𝑟⃗′(𝑢)| 𝑑𝑢
𝑎
where t : [0; L(C)] ⇾ [a; b]
 Steps for parameterising a curve using arc length:
𝑡
i. Define 𝑠 = ∫𝑎 |𝑟⃗′(𝑢)| 𝑑𝑢
ii. Find t as a function of s, t(s).
iii. Substitute t in the expression of 𝑟⃗ to obtain the new vector function, 𝛾(s), where
𝛾(𝑠) = 𝑟⃗(𝑡(𝑠)) 0 ≤ 𝑠 ≤ 𝐿(𝐶)

2
The Unit Tangent Vectors
 Let C be a regular curve described by the vector function 𝑟⃗(𝑡) : [𝑎; 𝑏] ⟶ ℝ2/3 the unit
tangent vector of C at 𝑟⃗(𝑡) is defined by:
𝑟⃗′(𝑡)
𝑇⃗⃗(𝑡) =
|𝑟⃗′(𝑡)|

With the following relationship:

⃗⃗(𝑡(𝑠))| = 1
|𝛾⃗′(𝑠)| = |𝑇

The Curvature
 Let C be a regular curve described by the vector function 𝑟⃗(𝑡) : [𝑎; 𝑏] ⟶ ℝ2/3 , then the
curvature, K(t), of the function is defined as:
⃗⃗′(𝑡)
𝑇
𝐾(𝑡) = | |
𝑟⃗′(𝑡)
The above formula is used when |𝑟⃗′(𝑡)| is constant.
 Curvature is defined as the inverted radius (radius −1) of the biggest circle that can be
fitted into the curve at the point at which the curvature is examined.
 The alternate expression for curvature is used when the magnitude of the derivative is
not constant:
|𝑟⃗′(𝑡) × 𝑟⃗′′(𝑡)|
𝐾(𝑡) =
|𝑟⃗′(𝑡)|3

The Normal Vector and The Binormal Vector

 The Principal Unit Normal Vector is defined as the unit vector that is
orthogonal/perpendicular to the plane and the unit tangent vector 𝑇 ⃗⃗′(𝑡). It is defined by
the following expression:
⃗⃗′(𝑡)
𝑇 ⃗⃗′(𝑡)
𝑇
𝑁⃗⃗ (𝑡) = = ⃗⃗ (𝑡) × 𝑇
= 𝐵 ⃗⃗(𝑡)
𝐾(𝑡)|𝑟⃗′(𝑡)| ⃗⃗′(𝑡)|
|𝑇
 The Binormal Vector is defined as the crossed product of the Normal Vector and the
Unit Tangent Vector. Thus the Binormal Vector is orthogonal/perpendicular to both the
Normal and tangent Vector, and is defined as follows:
𝑟⃗′(𝑡) × 𝑟⃗′′(𝑡)
𝐵⃗⃗ (𝑡) = 𝑇
⃗⃗(𝑡) × 𝑁
⃗⃗ (𝑡) =
|𝑟⃗′(𝑡) × 𝑟⃗′′(𝑡)|
 The vector <𝑇
⃗⃗(𝑡); 𝑁 ⃗⃗ (𝑡)> is called the Frénet Moving frame at 𝑟⃗(𝑡).
⃗⃗(𝑡); 𝐵

The Normal and Osculating Plane

 The plane that is determined by 𝑁⃗⃗ (𝑡) and 𝐵 ⃗⃗ (𝑡) is called the Normal Plane to the curve
C at 𝑟⃗(𝑡).
 The plane determined by 𝑇⃗⃗(𝑡) and 𝑁 ⃗⃗(𝑡) is called the Osculating Plane to the curve C at
𝑟⃗(𝑡).

3
Projectile Motion
 If the position of an object at the instant t is 𝑟⃗(𝑡), when 𝑟⃗(𝑡) : [a; b] ⟶ ℝ3 , and is twice
continuously differentiable, then the velocity and acceleration of this object is given by:
𝑟⃗′(𝑡) = 𝑣⃗(𝑡)
𝑟⃗′′(𝑡) = 𝑎⃗(𝑡)
Speed is given by: C(t) = |𝑣⃗(𝑡)| = |𝑟⃗′(𝑡)|
 Some important formulas:
𝑣0 = (|𝑣
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ 0 cos(𝛼))𝑖⃗ + (|𝑣
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗| ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗|sin
0 (α))𝑗⃗
𝑡
𝑟⃗(𝑡) = ∫ 𝑣⃗(𝑠) 𝑑𝑠 + 𝑟⃗(0)
0
𝑡
𝑣⃗(𝑡) = ∫ 𝑎⃗(𝑠) 𝑑𝑠 + 𝑣⃗(0)
0
Where, 𝑟⃗(0) and 𝑣⃗(0) are the initial values and α is the angle of inclination of motion.
I. For every problem we begin with Newton’s Laws of Motion to derive the formula
for acceleration as follows:
𝑎⃗(𝑡) = −𝑔𝑗⃗
II. We use this expression to derive the formula for 𝑣⃗(𝑡) and then 𝑟⃗(𝑡).
III. Thereafter we express the 𝑟⃗(𝑡) in its horizontal and vertical components. We do
this by taking out 𝑖⃗ as a common factor, thus producing the x (horizontal)
component, similarly we take out 𝑗⃗ as a common factor, thereby establishing the
y (vertical) component, e.g. :
𝑥 = |𝑣 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗|
0 cos(𝛼) 𝑡
1 2
𝑦 = 𝑔𝑡 + |𝑣 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗|
0 sin(𝛼) 𝑡
2
IV. How much time does the projectile spend in the air? Equate the vertical
component to 0, this is because the time is calculated until the projectile hits the
ground. Once this is done, solve for t:
1
𝑦(𝑡) = 0 = 𝑔𝑡 2 + |𝑣 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗|
0 sin(𝛼) 𝑡 , where t = 𝑡𝐹
2
V. How far away from the original point of launch does the projectile land? We use
the final time and solve for this by substituting it into the horizontal component:
𝑥(𝑡) = |𝑣 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗|
0 cos(𝛼) 𝑡
VI. How high does the projectile get? This is the maximum height the projectile
reaches. For this we find the first derivative of the vertical component, equate it
to zero and solve t. thereafter substitute t back into the original y component.
1
𝑦(𝑡) = 𝑔𝑡 2 + |𝑣 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗|
0 sin(𝛼) 𝑡
2
𝑦 ′ (𝑡) = −9.8𝑡 + |𝑣 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗|
0 sin(𝛼)
′ (𝑡)
𝑦 = 0 = −9.8𝑡 + |𝑣 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗|
0 sin(𝛼) , solve to get t = 𝑡𝑀
then find 𝑦(𝑡𝑀 )
VII. Velocity at time of impact? Substitute t = 𝑡𝐹 into the formula for 𝑣⃗(𝑡).

Variable Forces of Electrons or Particles

 When given the variable force 𝑓(𝑡) we use Newton’s 2nd Law of Motion: F = ma, to solve
for the acceleration 𝑎⃗(𝑡), by dividing the force components by the mass of the particle.

4
Functions of Severable Variables
 For these functions we are generally called upon to determine its domain.
 We do so by forming a relationship between the x and y variables, and therefore
establishing the domain of the function.

Level Curves/Surfaces
 If f: ℝ3 → ℝ, then the level curves of f are the sets:
{ (𝑥; 𝑦; 𝑧) ∈ ℝ3 ∶ 𝑓 (𝑥; 𝑦; 𝑧) = 𝑘 , 𝑘 ∈ ℝ }
 We determine the level curve of a function by solving for k in the above expression and
then substitute it back into the equation to determine the different curves.
 We do this by considering three different scenario’s and determining the different level
surfaces:
I. 𝑘 <0
II. 𝑘 = 0
III. 𝑘 > 0

Limits of Multivariable Functions

 Let f: ℝ2 → ℝ and (a; b) ∈ ℝ2 , we say the limit of 𝑓(𝑥; 𝑦) when (𝑥; 𝑦) written:
lim 𝑓(𝑥; 𝑦) = 𝐿
(𝑥;𝑦)→(𝑎;𝑏)
We can make 𝑓(𝑥; 𝑦) as close to L as we like by taking (𝑥; 𝑦) sufficiently close to (a; b)
but not necessarily equal to (a; b).
 If the lim 𝑓(𝑥; 𝑦) exists, then it does not depend on the direction followed by (𝑥; 𝑦)
(𝑥;𝑦)→(𝑎;𝑏)
to approach (a; b) therefore if exist 2 curves C1 and C2 passing through (a; b) such that:
lim 𝑓(𝑥; 𝑦) ≠ lim 𝑓(𝑥; 𝑦)
(𝑥;𝑦)→(𝑎;𝑏) (𝑥;𝑦)→(𝑎;𝑏)
(𝑥; 𝑦) ∈ 𝐶1 (𝑥; 𝑦) ∈ 𝐶2
The limit does not exist!
 We use various algebraic tools to determine the limits, one of them being the Squeeze
theorem or Polar coordinates. If there are no other algebraic tools that we could use,
start taking the limits along functions that look similar to those in the limit.

Continuity
 We say that f: ℝ2 → ℝ is continuous at (a; b) iff:
I. f is defined at (a; b)
II. lim 𝑓(𝑥; 𝑦) exists
(𝑥;𝑦)→(𝑎;𝑏)
III. lim 𝑓(𝑥; 𝑦) = 𝑓(𝑎; 𝑏)
(𝑥;𝑦)→(𝑎;𝑏)
f is not continuous at (a; b) if at least one of the above conditions is not satisfied.
 When asked to study the continuity at a certain point we prove the above definition for
the function, i.e.
lim 𝑓(𝑥; 𝑦) = 𝑓(𝑎; 𝑏)
(𝑥;𝑦)→(𝑎;𝑏)
We use the above mentioned techniques to evaluate such a limit.

5
Partial Derivatives
 We say that f: ℝ2 → ℝ, (a; b) ∈ ℝ. We say that f has a partial derivative with respect to
x at the point (a; b) if the limit:
𝑓(𝑎 + 𝑡; 𝑏) − 𝑓(𝑎; 𝑏)
lim
𝑡→0 𝒕
exists and the value of that limit is called the Partial Derivative of f at (a; b) with
𝜕𝑓
respect to 𝑥 is denoted by: 𝑓𝑥 (𝑎; 𝑏) 𝑜𝑟 (𝑎; 𝑏).
𝜕𝑥
 We say that f has a partial derivative with respect to y at the point (a; b) if the limit:
𝑓(𝑎; 𝑏 + 𝑡) − 𝑓(𝑎; 𝑏)
lim
𝑡→0 𝒕
exists and the value of that limit is called the Partial Derivative of f at (a; b) with
𝜕𝑓
respect to 𝑦 is denoted by: 𝑓𝑦 (𝑎; 𝑏) 𝑜𝑟 (𝑎; 𝑏).
𝜕𝑦
 As an application of the partial derivatives we can rewrite the equation of a plane in
terms of its partial derivatives, let 𝑧 = 𝑓(𝑥; 𝑦)
𝑧 = 𝑓(𝑎; 𝑏) + 𝑓𝑥 (𝑎; 𝑏)(𝑥 − 𝑎) + 𝑓𝑦 (𝑎; 𝑏)(𝑦 − 𝑏)

Differentiability
 We say that f: ℝ2 → ℝ, (a; b) ∈ ℝ. We say that f is differentiable at (a; b) iff
𝑓(𝑥; 𝑦) − 𝑓(𝑎; 𝑏) − 𝑓𝑥 (𝑎; 𝑏)(𝑥 − 𝑎) − 𝑓𝑦 (𝑎; 𝑏)(𝑦 − 𝑏)
lim =0
(𝑥;𝑦)→(𝑎;𝑏) √(𝑥 − 𝑎)2 + (𝑦 − 𝑏)2
Exists.
 If the limit does not exist or is not equal to 0 then the function is not differentiable at
(a; b).
 If f is differentiable at (a; b) then the plane P is called the tangent plane to the graph f
at the point <a; b; f(a; b)>.
 If f is differentiable at (a; b) then f is continuous at (a; b), then
𝑓(𝑥; 𝑦) ≅ 𝑓(𝑎; 𝑏) + 𝑓𝑥 (𝑎; 𝑏)(𝑥 − 𝑎) + 𝑓𝑦 (𝑎; 𝑏)(𝑦 − 𝑏) = 𝑧
When (𝑥; 𝑦) is close enough to (a; b).
 Using linear approximations and differentiability we get:
𝑧 = 𝑓(𝑎; 𝑏) + 𝑓𝑥 (𝑎; 𝑏)(𝑥 − 𝑎) + 𝑓𝑦 (𝑎; 𝑏)(𝑦 − 𝑏)
Which is called the Tangent Plane to the graph of f at the point <a; b; f(a; b)>.

The Chain Rule

 This involves the differentiability of a composition of differentiable functions.
 Let 𝑟⃗(𝑡) : [a; b] ⟶ ℝ𝑛 be differentiable at t0 ∈ [a; b]. Let f: ℝ𝑛 → ℝ and differentiable
at 𝑟⃗(𝑡0 ):
𝑓 ∘ 𝑟⃗(𝑡0 ) ∶ [𝑎; 𝑏] → ℝ
Is differentiable at t0 and
𝑑
(𝑓 ∘ 𝑟⃗)(𝑡0 ) = ∇𝑓(𝑟⃗(𝑡0 )) ∙ 𝑟⃗′(𝑡0 )
𝑑𝑡
Where ∇𝑓(𝑟⃗(𝑡0 )) is called the Gradient of the function and is the function whose
components are the partial derivatives.
∇𝑓(𝑟⃗(𝑡0 )) = (𝑓𝑥1 ; 𝑓𝑥2 ; … ; 𝑓𝑥𝑛 )
6
Directional Derivatives
 Let 𝑢 ⃗⃗ ∈ ℝ𝑛 be a unit vector and let ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝑥0 ∈ ℝ. The directional derivative of f: ℝ𝑛 → ℝ at
𝑥0 in the direction of the vector is defined as the:
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑓(𝑥 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗0 + 𝑡𝑢
⃗⃗) − 𝑓(𝑥
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗)
0
𝑓𝑢⃗⃗ (𝑥
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗):
0 lim
𝑡 →0 𝑡
 Set 𝑔(𝑡) = 𝑓(𝑥 ⃗⃗), the directional derivative in the direction of 𝑢
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗0 + 𝑡𝑢 ⃗⃗ iff the function
g: ℝ → ℝ is defined by 𝑔(𝑥 0 is differentiable at t = 0 and 𝑔′(𝑥
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗) ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗)
0 = 𝑓𝑢 ⃗⃗ (𝑥
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗).
0
 If f: ℝ → ℝ is differentiable at (a; b) and 𝑢
2
⃗⃗ ∈ ℝ is a unit vector, then:
2

𝑓𝑢⃗⃗ (𝑥
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗)
0 = ∇𝑓(𝑎; 𝑏) ∙ 𝑢 ⃗⃗
 To find the directional derivative:
I. Find 𝑢
⃗⃗, which the vector between the two given points divided by its own
magnitude.
II. Determine the partial derivatives.
III. Substitute into 𝑓𝑢⃗⃗ (𝑥 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗)
0 = ∇𝑓(𝑎; 𝑏) ∙ 𝑢 ⃗⃗

Maximum Increase/Decrease of a Function

 Given f: ℝ2 → ℝ and (a; b). We want the unit vector 𝑢 ⃗⃗ ∈ ℝ2 such that 𝑓𝑢⃗⃗ (𝑎; 𝑏) is a
maximum or minimum:
𝑓𝑢⃗⃗ (𝑥
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗) ⃗⃗ = |∇𝑓(𝑎; 𝑏)|cos(𝜃)
0 = ∇𝑓(𝑎; 𝑏) ∙ 𝑢
by the dot product definition.
 If we want the rate of maximum increase, we let cos(𝜃) = 1, if we want the rate of
maximum decrease, we let cos(𝜃) = -1