Jurnal Kependidikan: Vol. 9, No.

4 : December 2023
Jurnal Hasil Penelitian dan Kajian Kepustakaan E-ISSN: 2442-7667
di Bidang Pendidikan, Pengajaran dan Pembelajaran pp. 1083-1091
https://e-journal.undikma.ac.id/index.php/jurnalkependidikan/index Email: [email protected]

The Moderating Role of Academic Self-Efficacy in the Relationship between Social

Comparison and Hypercompetitiveness : The Different Effects Among Urban and
Rural Group Students in Indonesia

Khairunnisa Syafira Dumbi*, Ratna Djuwita

Faculty of Psychology, Universitas Indonesia
*Corresponding Author. Email: [email protected]

Abstract: This study aims to explore the relationship between social Article History
comparison and hypercompetitiveness, and the moderating effects of academic Received: 04-10-2023
self-efficacy. In addition, we also compare the different effects among urban Revised: 08-11-2023
group students and rural group students. This study used a non-experimental Accepted: 29-11-2023
design witha quantitative approach. The final participants included 146 high Published: 16-12-2023
school students aged between 15-18 years. There are three instruments used in
this study: the Hypercompetitiveness in Academic Scale (HIA) for measuring
hypercompatitiveness, the Iowa-Netherlands Comparison Orientation Measure
(INCOM) for measuring social comparison, and the Academic Self-Efficacy Key Words:
Scale (TASES) for measuring self-efficacy specific in academic setting. All of Social Comparison;
the data questionnaires were analyzed by descriptive, correlation, and Hypercompetitiveness;
moderation analysis. The result shows that academic self-efficacy plays a Academic Self-
significant role in the association between social comparison and Efficacy.
hypercompetitiveness. In addition, the relationship between these three variables
is different for urban and rural students. Taken together, these findings can
provide theoretical and practical guidance for teachers, counselors, and school
psychologists to understand hypercompetitiveness characteristics among
students, increase their awareness about hypercompetitiveness characteristics,
and provide support through counseling or training that can encourage
collaborative work among students and improve their academic self-efficacy.

How to Cite: Dumbi, K., & Djuwita, R. (2023). The Moderating Role of Academic Self-Efficacy in the
Relationship between Social Comparison and Hypercompetitiveness : The Different Effects Among Urban and
Rural Group Students in Indonesia. Jurnal Kependidikan: Jurnal Hasil Penelitian dan Kajian Kepustakaan di
Bidang Pendidikan, Pengajaran dan Pembelajaran, 9(4), 1083-1091. doi:https://doi.org/10.33394/jk.v9i4.9226
https://doi.org/10.33394/jk.v9i4.9226 This is an open-access article under the CC-BY-SA License.

Introduction
In urban society, competitiveness and a higher degree of individuality are nearly
inescapable (Pan et al., 2013). Previous studies showed that urban individuals are more
individualistic even if the country adheres to a collectivist culture that prioritizes the
harmonization of interpersonal relations (Du et al., 2015; Singelis et al., 1995). This condition
is probably caused by a shift of values in urban regions resulting from globalization,
economic pressures, increased assets in cities, and others (Deas & Giordano, 2001; Spurk et
al., 2019). Furthermore, theoretically, these highly individualistic and competitive values will
influence school students in urban areas to tend to be more self-oriented (prioritizing personal
interests), while children in rural areas tend to be more group-oriented (prioritizing group
interests and harmony) (Broesch et al., 2011; Liu et al., 2018; Park & Peterson, 2010).
In Indonesia, data shows residents who migrate to urban areas perceive competition as
higher than in rural areas (Asyah, 2019). In addition, migrants in urban areas continue to
increase by 5% annually, which means that the level of competition in cities also continues to
increase every year (Badan Pusat Statistik, 2019). Jobs are also increasingly industrialized,
requiring human resources with high knowledge and skills (Peraturan Pemerintah Republik

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di Bidang Pendidikan, Pengajaran dan Pembelajaran pp. 1083-1091
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Indonesia Nomor 34 Tahun 2009, n.d.). Individuals who strive to go to college or get a job
must enter situations that are inherently competitive because there are more applicants than
there are positions available. This condition causes urban residents to be more competitive in
self-development in order to get decent jobs, including self-development through education.
However, Badan Pusat Statistik (2021) shows that education is still unequal in rural and
urban areas of Indonesia. More than 80% of the best-quality schools and universities are
located in cities. Students in urban areas show higher performance and competitive culture in
order to maximize their chances of continuing their education and getting appropriate jobs
(Ganda, 2022). Academic achievement is also higher in urban schools, such as Jakarta and
West Java (Badan Pusat Statistik, 2021). Academic achievement, in the form of the
percentage of residents who have successfully completed compulsory education, in urban
areas is much higher compared to rural areas in Indonesia (Badan Pusat Statistik, 2021)
Based on this phenomenon, the competitiveness trait which is defined as the tendency
of individuals to prioritize individual competence and have a high desire to win, is actually
needed (Bhawsar & Chattopadhyay, 2015; Ryckman et al., 1997). Competitiveness trait has
positive impacts such as maximizing performance (Elliot et al., 2018) and increasing internal
motivation (Reese et al., 2022). However, the competitiveness trait also leads to
hypercompetitiveness which is aggressive and detrimental to others. The concept of
hypercompetitiveness developed through Horney's theory (1937) which defined
hypercompetitiveness as an individual's tendency to always compete and has desire to win in
various situations to maintain self-worth. According to Horney (1937), characteristics of a
hypercompetitive individual include wanting to win at any cost in order to maintain his or her
feelings of superiority. Thus, hypercompetitive individuals may fear that if they lose a
competition, others may discover they lack of ability and are, therefore, inferior.
Even though hypercompetitiveness has been discussed since the 1930s when Karen
Horney wrote about the neurotic individual, it has only been empirically measured since
1990a after the development of the Hypercompetitive Attitude Scale (HCA) (Ryckman et al.,
1990). Afterward, (Bing, 1999) explained that hypercompetitiveness should be examined in
specific settings, such as educational settings. The possible explanation is that education,
especially education levels that are transitional, such as high school level which is a transition
to higher education, creates demands for students to compete with each other (Weissman et
al., 2022; Yoon et al., 2020). In addition, the educational setting also creates opportunities for
competition because students are assessed simultaneously, therefrom their awareness and
self-regulation to compete have developed (Bing, 1999; Dimitrova & Dimitrova, 2017).
Specifically, hypercompetitiveness in academics refers to the individual's need to
compete and win at all costs and not accept defeat in any form (Bing, 1999). Individuals with
high hypercompetitiveness judge that being better than others is the main goal (Chan et al.,
2018; Dagnino et al., 2021). There are several factors related to individual
hypercompetitiveness, one of the most salient factors is social comparison. Social comparison
refers to the tendency of individuals to compare themselves with others regarding certain
aspects to evaluate the individual's own condition (Festinger, 1957). There are two aspects of
social comparison: 1) Ability refers to comparing abilities or behaviors (How am I doing?)
and 2) Opinion refers to comparing opinions or thoughts (What shall I think?). Social
comparison ability is more competitive because it focuses on performance, while social
comparison opinion is more non-competitive because it focuses on similarities on thoughts,
not on differences that lead to conclusions about who is superior (Yang et al., 2018a; Yang &
Robinson, 2018b). The tendency to compare with other people will be higher if individuals
interact with people who are similar to them or are in the same conditions as themselves
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di Bidang Pendidikan, Pengajaran dan Pembelajaran pp. 1083-1091
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(Callan et al., 2015; Festinger, 1957; Schneider & Schupp, 2014), for example,in the class
situation. Individuals compare themselves with others to evaluate their abilities and thoughts,
improve performance, and increase self-esteem (Schneider & Schupp, 2014).
Research about hypercompetitiveness and social comparison is still quite limited.
However, there are two studies that have proven the relationship between social comparison
and hypercompetitiveness. Liu et al. (2021) proves that social comparison has a positive
relationship with hypercompetitiveness. These results are due to both social comparison and
hypercompetitiveness involving related interpersonal evaluation processes. In addition, it was
also found that social comparison ability has a stronger relationship with
hypercompetitiveness; where this finding is in accordance with previous research that the
social comparison ability aspect is more competitive than the opinion aspect. In addition,
every aspect of social comparison is related to hypercompetitiveness (Yang & Robinson,
2018). This finding is also consistent with the previous research that the correlation of social
comparison ability is stronger than the opinion aspect (Liu et al., 2021). Thus, it is important
to involve each aspect of social comparison as an independent aspect.
On the other hand, Spurk et al. (2019) indicate that social comparison and
hypercompetitiveness are not always significantly related, especially in academic settings.
Hypercompetitiveness also depends on the individual's own beliefs regarding his ability to
complete academic tasks and challenges (Bing, 1999). When individuals are confident in
their academic abilities, self-comparison with others does not significantly affect their
tendency to compete (Bing, 1999). This is because the evaluation results can be used more
wisely and individuals are better able to compete in a healthy and not excessive way. Thus,
this study also involves a moderator variable, namely academic self-efficacy to fill the gap
between previous research explain the phenomenon of hypercompetitiveness resulting from
the characteristics of urban areas.
Therefore, this study aims to explore the relationship between social comparison and
hypercompetitiveness. In addition, this study also investigates the moderating role of
academic self-efficacy in the relationship between social comparison and
hypercompetitiveness which is assumed to be different among urban and rural group students
in Indonesia. Based on that, our research will be able to fill the literature gap about predictors
of hypercompetitiveness specifically in educational settings and become the baseline for any
intervention to buffer the negative effect of hypercompetitiveness in students.

Research Method
This study used a non-experimental design with a quantitative approach. To recruit
potential respondents, we used an accidental sampling method. We post the link to our survey
on several social media so that any high school students who are interested in participating
will have access to the link. The final participants included 146 high school students aged
between 15-18 years (M = 16.72, SD = 2.54) from the urban area category and rural area
category. There were three instruments used in this study. First, the Hypercompetitiveness in
Academic Scale (HIA) developed by (Bing, 1999) contains 18 items unidimensional for
measuring the degree of hypercompetitiveness. HIA has been adapted for this research to
Bahasa Indonesia through four stages of adaptation; translation, back translation, expert
judgment, and tryout. Second, the Iowa-Netherlands Comparison Orientation Measure
(INCOM) was developed by Gibbons and Buunk (1999) to measure social comparison.
INCOM contains nine items that Verysa has already adapted (2020). There are two subscales
that measure different and independent (but still related) two aspects; ability scale and
opinion scale. Third, the Academic Self-Efficacy Scale (TASES) was developed by Sagone
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and De Caroli (2013). TASES contains 25 items and has been adapted by Darmayanti et al.
(2021). All the questionnaires were analyzed using R Studio version 2023.06.2+561. First,
we calculated descriptive statistics and correlations between variables. Then, we conducted
an independent sample t-test, correlation, and moderation analysis to test the hypothesis of
this study.

Results and Discussion

An independent t-test analysis was carried out to see differences in the level of
hypercompetitiveness between students from urban and rural areas. Results showed there was
a significant difference in the level of hypercompetitiveness between students from urban and
rural areas where students from urban areas (M=80.04) had a higher level of
hypercompetitiveness than students from rural areas (M=74.63). Furthermore, Table 1
presents the correlation coefficients of all the research variables. Based on the result, social
comparison was associated with a higher level of hypercompetitiveness (r=0.46, p<0.001).
Specifically, only social comparison ability (r=0.07, p<0.05) is positively related to
hypercompetitiveness. Apart from these two variables, none had a significant relationship
with academic self-efficacy.
Table 1. The Correlation between Research Variables
No Mean SD 1 2 3 4 5
1 Hypercompetitiveness 77.37 12.68
2 Social Comparison 29.34 5.24 .678**
3 SCO-Ability 13.73 3.43 .264** .019
4 SCO-Opinion 15.43 4.25 .124 .045 .567
5 Academic Sell-Efficacy 129.2 11.18 .025 .056 .138 .047
Note. SCO-Ability=social comparison ability, SCO-Opinion=social comparison opinion.
Urban Area Group Analysis
Correlation analysis showed that there is a positive and significant relationship
between SCO-ability and hypercompetitiveness (r=0.21, p<0.005). Meanwhile, there is no
significant relationship between SCO-opinion and hypercompetitiveness (r=0.04, p=0.092).
Next, moderation analysis was performed to test the interaction effect. Table 2 shows
that there is an interaction effect between social comparison and academic self-efficacy in
predicting hypercompetitiveness (p<0.05) where high self-efficacy weakens the relationship
between social comparison and hypercompetitiveness. Then there is also an interaction effect
between SCO-ability and academic self-efficacy in predicting hypercompetitiveness (p<0.05)
where high self-efficacy also weakens the relationship between SCO-ability and
hypercompetitiveness. Meanwhile, there is no interaction effect between SCO-opinion and
self-efficacy (p=0.89). The details of the moderation relationship are presented in Figure 1.
Table 2. Moderation Analysis of Urban Area Group of Students
(Intercept) SE t p
Social Comparison* Academic Sell-Efficacy .010 -2.492 .015*
SCO-Ability* Academic Sell-Efficacy .014 -3.028 .003*
SCO-Opinion* Academic Sell-Efficacy .026 -.134 .894
Note. SCO-Ability=social comparison ability, SCO-Opinion=social comparison opinion

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Figure 1. Interaction Effect of Academic Self-Efficacy and Social Comparison

Rural Area Group Analysis
Correlation analysis showed that there is a positive and significant relationship
between SCO-ability and hypercompetitiveness (r=0.57, p<0.05), and also between SCO-
opinion and hypercompetitiveness (r=0.47, p=0.005). Next, moderation analysis was
performed to test the interaction effect in groups of students from rural Indonesia. Table 3
shows that there is no interaction effect between any variables, both between social
comparison and academic self-efficacy in predicting hypercompetitiveness (p=0.326), SCO-
ability and academic self-efficacy in predicting hypercompetitiveness (p=0.857), and SCO-
opinion and self-efficacy (p=0.89). The detail of the moderation relationship is presented in
Figure 2.
Table 3. Moderation Analysis of Rural Area Group of Students
(Intercept) SE t p
Social Comparison*Efikasi Diri Akademik .021 -.990 .326
SCO-Ability* Efikasi Diri Akademik .036 -.181 .857
SCO-Opinion* Efikasi Diri Akademik .026 -.134 .894
Note. SCO-Ability=social comparison ability, SCO-Opinion=social comparison opinion

Figure 2. Interaction Effect of Academic Self-Efficacy and Social Comparison

Discussion
The characteristics of urban and rural areas are different, where urban areas tend to be
more individualistic, self-oriented, and have high desire to compete in various aspects,
including education (Deas & Giordano, 2001; Du et al., 2015; X. Liu et al., 2018; Pan et al.,
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2013; Spurk et al., 2019). This condition can be seen in higher academic achievement and
more qualified schools in urban areas compared to rural areas. Better facilities in urban areas
are also aligned with the need for higher quality human resources so that the community's
desire to be competitive is increasing in obtaining limited employment opportunities. The
results of this study also prove that the level of hypercompetitiveness in urban students is
significantly higher than the students in rural areas. In accordance with the results of previous
studies, hypercompetitiveness in the city is higher than in the village which is a unique
characteristic of urban areas (Zhang & Zhao, 2021).
Regarding the relationship between social comparison and hypercompetitiveness, this
study proves there is a significant relationship between the two variables in groups of
students from urban and rural areas. This result is in line with the previous research that
social comparison is a factor that can influence hypercompetitiveness because these two
variables involve the same process of related interpersonal evaluation (Liu et al., 2021).
However, in the group of students from urban areas, there was no significant relationship
between SCO-opinion and hypercompetitiveness. This is probably caused by the
individualistic values that exist in urban residents (Du et al., 2015; Singelis et al., 1995) so
they do not consider it important to have similarities in thoughts or opinions. In accordance
with previous research, SCO-opinion is the non-competitive aspect of social comparison
(Yang et al., 2018a; Yang & Robinson, 2018b), while characteristics in urban areas are highly
competitive. Thus, SCO-ability which focuses on comparing abilities or achievements, is
more relevant in the urban context.
Furthermore, this study proves that there is a significant interaction between social
comparison in general and academic self-efficacy in predicting hypercompetitiveness, as well
as an interaction between SCO-ability and self-efficacy in predicting hypercompetitiveness.
In accordance with the previous study, the relationship between social comparison and
hypercompetitiveness is also influenced by other variables that may act as moderator
variables, namely academic self-efficacy (Spurk et al., 2019). In addition, this research
proves that academic self-efficacy only plays a significant role as a moderator in urban areas.
There is no previous research that explains these differences, but the possible explanation is
students in urban areas are more influenced by social comparison and academic self-efficacy
on their hypercompetitiveness; meanwhile students in rural areas are less influenced by social
comparison and have a lower degree hypercompetitiveness characteristic (Bing, 1999).
Therefore, academic self-efficacy is a less important factor for the hypercompetitiveness
characteristics in rural students.
In sum, the present study has several advantages in completing research gaps related
to hypercompetitiveness in urban areas. First, this study looks at two groups at once so that
we are able to discover the differences in hypercompetitiveness between urban and rural
students. Second, this study expands the explanation of the phenomenon of
hypercompetitiveness which is not only related to individual tendencies in conducting social
comparisons but also to individual self-efficacy in the academic itself. Thus, this research
certainly adds renewal in explaining the phenomenon of hypercompetitiveness in the
academic field which is still very rarely researched, especially in urban and rural contexts, as
well as expanding understanding of other variables that can also explain this phenomenon.
On the other hand, this present study still has limitations which can also be
suggestions for further research. First, participants are limited to only a few rural and urban
areas. It would be better for further research to increase the number of participants from
different regions in Indonesia. Second, this study has not considered other educational

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characteristics, such as the types of schools in Indonesia and the level of education or grade
of high school which might affect the level of hypercompetitiveness of the students.

Conclusion
The result of this study proves that social comparison has a positive relationship with
hypercompetitiveness both in general and from every aspect, but the social comparison
opinion aspect was only found positively correlated with hypercompetitiveness in rural
students. Furthermore, this study also shows a moderating effect of academic self-efficacy,
but it was only found in groups of students in urban areas. This means that students in urban
areas with high academic self-efficacy are able to counter the negative effect of social
comparison to hypercompetitiveness. Meanwhile, the effect of social comparison itself might
be irrelevant in students from rural areas because they have a lower degree of social
comparison and hypercompetitiveness than students in urban areas. The difference in these
results can also be seen from the comparison of the mean hypercompetitiveness scores which
are already significantly different between groups of students from urban and rural areas.
Thus, the results of this study indicate that there are indeed characteristics that lead to
differences in the level of hypercompetitiveness of students in urban and rural areas of
Indonesia in the academic field.

Recommendation
Based on the result of this study, the following recommendations are offered: (a) Future
research is highly recommended to investigate further the role of academic self-efficacy in
hypercompetitiveness. (b) Students should exercise their academic self-efficacy through
success experience and verbal persuasion because academic self-efficacy is a crucial factor in
buffering the social comparison effect on hypercompetitiveness. (c) The teachers, counselors,
or school psychologists should increase their awareness about hypercompetitiveness
characteristics and provide support through counseling or training that can encourage
collaborative work among students.

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