CHAPTER # 24

RELATIVITY
Relative Motion:
Relative motion is a concept that
describes the motion of an object in
relation to another observer or frame of
reference. This viewpoint recognizes
that motion is not absolute but depends
on the observer's point of view.
Relative Motion: Same direction
When two objects are moving in the same
direction, their relative motion involves the
difference in their velocities. The relative
velocity is the velocity of one object as seen
from the perspective of the other. The formula
for relative velocity (Vrel) when the objects move
in the same direction is given by:
Vret = V1-V2 where v₁ and v₂ are the velocities of
the two objects, respectively.
Example:
Consider two cars, A and B, moving on a straight road. If car A has a velocity of 20
m/s, and car B has a velocity of 15 m/s in the same direction, the relative velocity of
car B as observed from car A is
V=20m/s - 15m/s =5m/s
Relative Motion: Opposite direction:
When two objects are moving in opposite
directions, their relative motion involves the sum
of their velocities. The formula for relative
velocity (Viet) when the objects move in opposite
directions is given by:
Vrel = V1 + V2
Example:
x m/s
y m/s
Same direction
(x+y) m/s
FRAM OF REFERENCE
A reference frame is a fundamental concept that helps us
to describe and understand the relative motion of objects
and events. It consists of a set of coordinate axes
(usually x, y, and z axes) and a clock, allowing observers
Z
to precisely define where and when events occur.
A rigid framework (usually x, y and z- axes) relative to
which the position and motion of an object can be P(x,y,z)
measured is called frame of references.
The familiar Cartesian System of Co- ordinates, in
which the position of the particle is specified by its three Y
co-ordinates x, y, z, along the three perpendicular axes,
is shown in Figure
.
X 9
Types of Frames of References
There are two types of frames of reference.
I) Inertial frames of reference
II) Non inertial frames of reference.
Inertial Frame of Reference:
If a frame of reference is moving with uniform velocity with respect to other frames
of reference or is at rest is called inertial frame of reference or non-accelerated
frame of reference. Newton’s laws of motion are valid in the inertial frame of
reference.
Non-Inertial Frame of Reference:
If a frame of reference is moving with non-uniform velocity with respect to other
frames of reference is called non inertial frame of reference. Newton’s laws of
motion are not valid in non-inertial frame of refe
Criteria Inertial Frame of Non-Inertial Frame of
Reference Reference
Definition A frame of reference with constant A frame of reference with
motion accelerating motion

Motion of objects Objects in uniform motion appear to Objects may appear to accelerate or
follow straight lines or constant experience fictitious force
velocities.
Appearance of Real forces are observed and can be Fictitious forces (eg, centrifugal
forces directly measured. force,) may appear due to the
acceleration of the frame.

Equations of motion Newton's laws of motion hold true in Additional terms of transformations
this frame. may be required to account of the
frame
B

A 12
Frames of references: Prediction of Motion:
Consider a vehicle moving at a constant speed 15 m/s with
relative to the ground and a boy standing on the vehicle
throws a ball with velocity 8 m/s in the same direction as the
vehicle's motion. As shown in fig . If someone on the ground
measures the ball's speed, it intuitively seems like it should be
23 m/s (15+8). Conversely, if you throw bal in the opposite
direction of the vehicle's speed, the ground observer would
measure a nd of 7 m/s (15-8). Both observers are measuring
the speed of the same object, but their relative motion leads to
different results. we can express this relationship as:
v = v` + u
This equation is essentially the Galilean transformation of
speeds. But, it is only applicable in mechanics
Galilean Transformation: Z S Z
Let us suppose that there are two inertial S`
frames of reference s and s`.
When t = 0, Then the co-ordinate axes of
the two frames coincide. X O` X
O
Let s` moves with a uniform velocity v in
the x-direction with respect to s. After time Y Y
t, it will cover a distance vt from o (i.e ZZ S
origin of the stationary frame of reference S` x
vt P
s) X`
Let (x,y,t) are the co-ordinates of point P at
any time t in the system s and (x`,y`,t`) are O` XY
the co-ordinates of Point P at time t` in s`.
From figure,
x = x` + vt

OR x` = x – vt (1) Z
Z S S`
As there is no relative motion y and z direction, x
vt
so X` P
y` = y (2)
O` Y
z` = z (3) Y
According to Galilean, time is absolute so for
both frames X
X
t` = t (4)
The transformation from one frame of reference
to another is called Galilean Transformation.
EINSTEIN’S POSTULATES OF SPECIAL THEORY OF
RELATIVITY
In 1905, Einstein proposed a theory of relativity based upon
two postulates.
(i)All physical laws (Newton’s laws of motion as well as
Maxwell’s equation) are the same in all inertial frame of
reference.
(ii)The speed of light is universal constant. It is denoted by c.
8
Its value is equal to 3 × 10 𝑚/𝑠. It is independent of the
relative motion between the light source and the observer.
16
RESULTS OF SPECIAL THEORY motion
OF RELATIVITY:
A
1.The Increase of Mass: V
The mass of an object increases 𝑚𝒐
with the increase in velocity of the
moving object. If
𝑚𝒐 = rest mass of an object
𝑚 = mass of an object in motion =
B
relativistic mass m
They are related by the equation:
𝑚𝑜
𝑚= Where v = velocity of a moving object
𝑣2
1− And c = velocity of light
𝑐2
17
 (b) If the object is moving with the
(a)If the object is at rest, v = 0
velocity of light, v = c
𝑚𝑜
𝑚𝑜
𝑚=
𝑐2
𝑚= 1− 2
𝑐
02
1− 2 𝑚𝑜
𝑐 m= 1− 1
𝑚𝑜
m= m=
𝑚𝑜
= ∞
1− 0 0
𝑚𝑜
m= = 𝑚𝑜 The mass of an object becomes
1 infinite. There is no material object
The relativistic mass becomes having infinite mass. So the velocity
equal to the rest mass of an of an object can never be equal to c
object. or greater than c. 18
2. Contraction in Length:
The length of an object decreases
with the increase in velocity of a moving Motion
object. If
V
𝑙𝒐 = length of an object at rest l0
𝑙 = length of an object moving with
the velocity v
They are related by the equation:

𝑣2 l
𝑙 = 𝑙𝑜 1− 2
𝑐
Where v = velocity of a moving
object and c = velocity of light 19
 (a )If the object is at rest, v = 0 (b) If the object is moving with the
02
velocity of light, v = c
𝑙 = 𝑙𝑜 1 − 𝑐2
𝑐2
𝑙 = 𝑙𝑜 1 −
l= 𝑙𝑜 1 − 0 𝑐2
l= 𝑙𝑜 1 − 1
l= 𝑙𝑜 1 = 𝑙𝑜
l = 𝑙𝑜 0 = 0
The relativistic length is equal to
The length of an object becomes zero,
the length of an object at rest.
when the object moves with the
velocity of light. There is a shortening
of length, when v < c then 𝑙 < 𝑙𝑜 .

20
21
3. Time Dilation: (a)If the object is at rest, v = 0
The time of a clock increases with 𝑡𝑜 𝑡𝑜 𝑡𝑜
the increase in velocity of a moving 𝑡= = = = 𝑡𝑜
02 1− 0 1
1− 2
𝑐
object. If
𝑡𝒐 = time of clock when it is at rest (b)If the object is moving with the
𝑡 = time measured by clock in velocity of light, v = c
motion. 𝑡𝑜 𝑡𝑜 𝑡𝑜
𝑡= = = =∞
They are related by the equation: 𝑐2 1− 1 0
1− 2
𝑡𝑜 𝑐
𝑡= The time becomes infinite at v =
𝑣2
1− 2 c. So the time increase with
𝑐
Where v = velocity of a moving motion of a clock.
object
And c = velocity of light 22
Mass Energy Relationship:
According to Einstein's special theory of relativity, mass and energy are
interchangeable. An object's mass m and the equivalent energy E. are related by:
Eo = mc²
where c is the speed of light. This equation gives the mass energy E, If the object is
moving, it has additional energy in the form of kinetic energy K. The total energy E
is the sum of its mass energy and its kinetic energy:
E= Eo + K
E= mc² + K
E = 𝛾mc²
where 𝛾 is the Lorentz factor for the object's motion. And E is the total relativistic
energy the object. From above equations, relative kinetic energy can be calculated
as: K =E - Eo= E - mc² = 𝛾 mc² - mc²
K = mc²(𝛾 -1)