Area or Branches of Science (1-week)

Science (from Latin Scientia meaning Knowledge) is a systematic enterprise that builds and
organizes knowledge in the form of testable explanations and predictions about the universe.
Modern science is typically divided into following three major areas/branches
1. Natural Science is a branch of science concerned with the description, understanding and
prediction of natural phenomena, based on empirical evidence from observation and
experimentation. It is categorized as follow.
a. Physical Sciences: is a branch of natural science that studies non-living systems, in
contrast of life science.
Physics deals with the physical properties of matter and energy and the interaction
between them. It help to study the basic properties of matter under different conditions.
All the modern equipment’s like radio, television, telephone, computers, LASER
techniques are the products of physics.
Chemistry deals with the nature, composition and properties of matter. It also deals with
the study of various chemical reactions taking place in the universe. Various chemical
reactions taking place inside the living bodies are also studied in chemistry and branch is
known as biochemistry. The digestion of food, the burning of candle, the rusting of iron,
release of oxygen from plants are the common examples of chemical reactions.
Astronomy is a natural science that studies heavenly objects and phenomena. It uses
mathematics, physics and chemistry in order to explain their origin and evolution.
Objects of interest include planets, moons, stars, nebula, galaxies and comets.
Earth Sciences OR geosciences it deals with the study of soil, rocks, minerals, oil and
gas deposits. Pakistani geologists are exploring oil and gas fields in Pakistan and
Geological Survey of Pakistan is an important Organization. It undertakes investigation
and exploration of underground resources, to determine their location, nature and
recoveries.
b. Biological Sciences comprises the branches of science that involve the scientific study of
life-such as microorganisms, plants, animals including human being.
Biology is the scientific study of life. It is a biological science with a broad scope.
Biology encompasses diverse fields, including botany, conservation, ecology, evolution,
genetics, marine biology, medicine, microbiology, molecular biology, physiology,
zoology.
2. Social Sciences is the branch of science devoted to the study of societies and the
relationships among individuals within those societies. The term was formerly used to
refer to the field of sociology, the original “Science of society”, established in the 19 th
century.
Psychology is the scientific study of mind and behavior. Psychology includes the study
of conscious and unconscious phenomena, including feelings and thoughts. It is a
 multifaceted discipline and includes many sub-fields of study areas such as human
development, sports, health, clinical, behavior and cognitive processes.
Sociology is the study of human social relationships and institutions. Sociology’s subject
matter is diverse, ranging from crime to religion, from the family to the state, from the
divisions of race and social class to the shared beliefs of a common culture, and from
social stability to radical change in whole societies.
Economics is a social science that studies the production, distribution and consumption
of goods and services. It focuses on the behavior and interaction of economics agents and
how economics work.
Anthropology is the scientific study of humanity, concerned with human behavior,
human biology, cultures, societies and linguistics, in both the present and past, including
past human species.
Archaeology is the study of the ancient and recent human past through material remains.
It might study the million-year old fossils of our earliest human ancestors in the world.
Geography: Geo mean earth and graphy means graph making. In geography, the
different parts of the earth are marked geographically like the dry regions and wet
regions. There is a discussion about human relationship, vegetation, air, water, soil and
the structure of the terrestrial globe in the subject of geography.
Human geography is the branch of geography that is associated and deals with human
and their relationships with communities, cultures, economies and interactions with the
environment by studying their relations with and across locations.
Political science is the scientific study of politics. It is a social science dealing with
system of governance and power, and the analysis of political activities, political thought,
political behavior and associated constitutions and laws.
3. Formal Sciences is the branch of science studying formal language disciplines concerned
with formal system. It include
Mathematics includes the study of such topics as numbers, formulas and related
structures, shapes and spaces in which they are contained and quantities and their
changes. There is no general consensus about its exact scope.
Logic is an interdisciplinary field which studies truth and reasoning. Informal logic seeks
to characterize valid arguments informally, for instance by listing varieties of fallacies.
Formal logic represents statements and argument patterns symbolically, using formal
systems such as first order logic.
Statistics is the discipline that concerns the collection, organization, analysis,
interpretation, and presentation of data. In applying statistics to a scientific, industrial,
social problem, it is conventional to being with a statistical population or a statistical
model to be studied.
Game Theory is the study of mathematical models of strategic interactions among
rational agents. It has applications in all fields of social science as well as in logic, system
and computer science.
 Physics (2 Weeks)
It is the Branch of science which deals with the properties and interaction of matter and energy
OR
Physics is the branch of science which deals with the properties of matter, energy.
It is one of the most fundamental scientific disciplines, and its main goal is to understand how
the universe behaves.
Branches of Physics: physics is divided into two main branches which are
1. Classical Physics
2. Modern Physics
Classical physics: Classical physics is a group of physics theories which were considered before
1900. It include Mechanics, thermodynamics & kinetic theory of gases, Optics,
Electromagnetism, Acoustics, Astrophysics and relativity.
Mechanics is the branch of physics that focuses on the movement and motion of physical objects
under a force and when at rest. It studies the relationship between different concepts like force,
matter and motion. Force applied to objects result in displacements or change of an objects
position relative to its environment.
Thermodynamics and kinetic theory of gases
Thermodynamics is the branch of physics that deals with heat, work and temperature and their
relation to energy, entropy and the physical properties of matter and radiation. The behavior of
these quantities is governed by the four laws of thermodynamics which convey a quantitative
description using measureable macroscopic physical quantities but may be explained in term of
microscopic constituents by statistical mechanics.
Kinetic theory of gases:
The kinetic theory of gases is a simple, historically significant classical model of the
thermodynamics behavior of gases, with which many principal concepts of the thermodynamics
were established.
This theory is based on the following postulates, or assumptions.
1. Gases are composed of a large number of particles that behave like hard, spherical
objects in a state of constant, random motion.
2. These particles move in a straight line until they collide with another particle or the walls
of the container.
3. These particles are much smaller than the distance between particles. Most of the volume
of a gas is therefore empty space.
 4. There is no force of attraction between gas particles or between the particles and the
walls of the container.
5. Collisions between gas particles or collisions with the walls of the container are perfectly
elastic. None of the energy of a gas particle is lost when it collides with another particle
or with the walls of the container.
6. The average kinetic energy of a collection of gas particles depends on the temperature of
the gas and nothing else.
Optics: it is the branch of physics that studies the behavior and properties of light, including its
interactions with matter and the constructions of instruments that use or detect it. Optics usually
describe the behavior of visible, ultraviolet and infra-red light. There are two branches of optics;
1. Physical optics: is concerned with the nature of light
2. Geometrical optics: focuses on light interactions with lenses, mirrors and other devices
Electromagnetism is a branch of physics involving the study of the electromagnetic force, a
type of physical interaction that occurs between electrically charged particles. The
electromagnetic force is carried by electromagnetic fields composed of electric field and
magnetic field, and it is responsible for electromagnetic radiations such as light.
Acoustics: It is a branch of physics that deals with the study of mechanical waves in gases,
liquids and solids including topics such as vibration, sound, ultrasound and infrasound. A
scientist who works in the field of acoustics is an Acoustician while someone working in the
field of acoustics technology may be called an acoustical engineer.
Astrophysics: It is a science that employ the methods and principles of physics and chemistry in
the study of astronomical objects and phenomena.
Relativity: Relativity is one of the branches of theoretical physics which deals with the
relationship between space, time and energy particularly with objects moving in different ways.
Theory of relativity:
Relativity is one of the most famous scientific theories of the 20 th century formulated by
Albert Einstein in 1905, the theory of relativity is the notion that the laws of physics are the same
everywhere. The theory explains the behavior of objects in space and time, and it can be used to
predict everything from the existence of black hole, to light bending due to gravity, to the
behavior of the planet Mercury in its orbit.
The theory is very simple. First, there is no “Absolute” frame of reference. Every time
you measure an objects velocity, or its momentum, or how it experiences time, its always in
relation to something else. Second, the speed of light is the same no matter who measures it or
how fast the person measuring it is going. Third, nothing can go faster than light.

Modern Physics
Modern physics is a branch of physics that is mainly concerned with the theory of relativity and
quantum mechanics. Albert Einstein and Max Plank were the pioneers of modern of physics as
the first scientists to introduce the theory of relativity and quantum mechanics, respectively.
It include
1. Quantum physics
It is the study of matter and energy at the most fundamental level. It aim to uncover the
properties and behaviors of the very small building blocks of nature.
2. Atomic physics
It is the field of physics that studies atoms as an isolated system of electrons and an
atomic nucleus. It is primarily concerned with the arrangement of electrons around the
nucleus and the processes by which these arrangements change.
3. Nuclear physics
It is the field of physics that studies atomic nuclei and their constituents and interactions,
in addition to the study of other forms of nuclear matter. Nuclear physics should not be
confused with atomic physics, which studies the atom as a whole, including electron,
protons and neutrons.
4. Molecular physics
It is the study of the physical properties of molecules, the chemical bonds between atoms
as well as molecular dynamics. Its most important experimental techniques are the
various types of spectroscopy. The field is closely related to atomic physics and overlaps
greatly with theoretical chemistry and physical chemistry.
5. High energy physics/ Particle Physics
It is a branch of physics the studies the nature of the particles that constitute matter and
radiation. It usually investigates the irreducibly smallest detectable particles and the
fundamental interactions necessary to explain their behavior.
Nature of Matter

Anything that occupies space and has mass is known as matter. Everything around us is a
form of matter. The huge buildings, bridges, electrons revolving around a nucleus, the DNA in
our cells, the surrounding air, the land beneath our feet, etc. all matter. A matter is said to be
composed of particles which are basically atoms and molecules. Depending upon its physical
state, the nature of matter falls into three categories:
Solids:
The substances in which the particles are held close to each other with strong
intermolecular forces are known as solids. The particles are strongly held at their positions and
have only vibratory motion. Solids have a definite shape and definite volume. E.g.: Wood, iron,
etc.

Liquids:
 Those substances in which the intermolecular forces are weak enough to allow the
movement of particles are known as liquids. The particles are held closely and have a higher
degree of freedom than solids. Liquids have a definite volume but no definite shape; they
generally take the shape of the container in which they are placed. E.g.: water, milk, etc.
Gases:
These types of matter have very weak forces between their molecules and hence the
molecules are free to move. The distance between molecules is large as compared to solids and
liquids. Gases have neither a fixed shape nor a definite volume. They tend to completely occupy
the container in which they are placed. E.g. air, oxygen, hydrogen, methane, etc.
The above three states of matter can be transformed from one form to the other by
changing the conditions of temperature and pressure. The nature of matter is also determined by
its composition. If the matter is composed of more than one type of particle then it is called a
mixture while if it consists of a single type of particles then it is known as a pure substance.
Mixtures are further classified as homogeneous and heterogeneous mixtures. Pure substances are
also sub-divided as elements and compounds.
Mixture
“A mixture is a material that is made up of two more chemical compounds or substances
that do not combine together chemically”. It is actually the physical combination of two or more
substances that are able to retain the identities while they are mixed in form of solutions,
suspensions or colloids. You can separate them by physical methods. In any mixture, the various
components do not form through any kind of chemical changes. Therefore, the components’
individual properties remain intact. In a mixture, every component keeps up its own chemical
identity.
Few examples of Mixtures We Find in Our Daily Lives.
 Sand and water.  Sugar and salt  Air
 Salt and water  Ethanol in water  Salt and pepper
Properties and Characteristics of Mixtures
The properties of mixtures are as follows:
 The original physical and essentially the chemical properties of the substances remain
intact without any changes.
 The separations of the substances from the mixture can easily be done as it is just a
mechanical blending process.
 The substance does not share any chemical bonding while in a mixture.
 The proportions in which the substances are dissolved is variable.

The Characteristics of the Mixture are as Follows:-

  The two or more substances are existing together despite there being no force acting
between them.
 The substances in the mixture are either homogeneous or heterogeneous in nature.
 The proportions of the substances that are present in the mixture vary in an indefinite
manner.
 The properties of the individual components determine the properties of the mixture.
 The physical method is the key to separating the substances that are dissolved in the
mixtures.
 The characteristics of the substances determine the boiling and the melting point of the
mixture.
 There is no change in the energy during the formation of the mixture.
 All the state of matter that is solid, liquid or gases can combine to form a mixture.
Types of Mixtures
Based on the composition of mixtures, they can be divided into two types:
1. Homogeneous mixture 2. Heterogeneous mixture
Homogeneous Mixture
Mixtures having a uniform composition all through the substance are called
Homogeneous Mixtures. For instance – a mixture of salt and water, a mixture of sugar and water,
air, lemonade, soft drink water, and so on. Here, a classic example is the mixture of salt in water.
Properties of Homogeneous mixtures
 All solutions are examples of a homogeneous mixture.
 The size of the particles in such a case is less than one nanometer.
 They don't demonstrate Tyndall's impact.
 You can't separate the boundaries of particles.
 You can't separate the constituent particles here utilizing centrifugation or decantation.
 Alloys are the instances of a solution.
Heterogeneous Mixture
Mixtures that are not uniform all through are called Heterogeneous Mixtures. Along these
lines, a mixture of soil and sand, sulfur and iron filings, oil and water and so on are
heterogeneous as they don't have a uniform composition. This is on the grounds that in such a
case it has two or more distinct phases.
Properties of Heterogeneous Mixtures
 Most of the mixtures are heterogeneous aside from solutions and alloys.
 The constituent particles are not present uniformly here.
 You can distinguish the components effectively.
 Generally, at least two stages are available in a heterogeneous mixture.
 The size of the particles here is in the range of one nanometer to one micrometre.
 They demonstrate the Tyndall impact.
Radioactivity:
The disintegration or decay of unstable atoms accompanied by emission of radiation is
called Radioactivity. The elements whose atomic nucleus emits radiation are said to be
radioactive. The spontaneous breaking down of the unstable atoms is termed radioactive
disintegration or radioactive decay.
TYPES OF RADIATIONS
The radioactive radiations are of three types. These were sorted out by Rutherford (1902) by
passing them between two oppositely charged plates (Fig. 4.1). The one bending towards the
negative plate carried positive charge and were named α (alpha) rays. Those bending towards the
positive plate and carrying negative charge were called β (beta) rays. The third type of radiation,
being uncharged, passed straight through the electric field and were named γ (gamma) rays.

PROPERTIES OF RADIATIONS
ALPHA RAYS
(1) Nature. They consist of streams of α-particles. By measurement of their e/m, Rutherford
showed that they have a mass of 4 amu and charge of +2. They are helium nuclei and may be
represented as 42α or 42He .
(2) Velocity. α-particles are ejected from radioactive nuclei with very high velocity, about one-
tenth that of light.
(3) Penetrating power. Because of their charge and relatively large size, α-particles have very
little power of penetration through matter. They are stopped by a sheet of paper, 0.01 mm thick
aluminium foil or a few centimetres of air.
(4) Ionisation. They cause intense ionisation of a gas through which they pass. On account of
their high velocity and attraction for electrons, α-particles break away electrons from gas
molecules and convert them to positive ions.
BETA RAYS
(1) Nature. They are streams of β-particles emitted by the nucleus. From their deflection electric
and magnetic fields, Becquerel showed that β-particles are identical with electrons. They have
very small mass (1/1827 amu) and charge of – 1. A β-particle is symbolized as −10 β or −10e .
(2) Velocity. They travel about 10 times faster than α-particles. Their velocity is about the same
as of light.
(3) Penetrating power. β -Particles are 100 times more penetrating in comparison to α -
particles. This is so because they have higher velocity and negligible mass. β - can be stopped by
about 1 cm thick sheet of aluminium or 1 m of air.
(4) Ionisation. The ionisation produced by β -particles in a gas is about one-hundredth of that of
α - particles. Though the velocity of β-particles is higher but the mass being smaller, their kinetic
energy is much less than α-particles. Hence they are poor ionisers.
GAMMA RAYS
(1) Nature. Unlike α- and β-rays, they do not consist of particles of matter. γ -Rays are a form of
electromagnetic radiation of shorter wavelength than X-rays. They could be thought of as high-
energy photons released by the nucleus during α- or β-emissions. They have no mass or charge
and may be symbolized as 00 γ .
(2) Velocity. Like all forms of electromagnetic radiation, γ-rays travel with the velocity of light.
(3) Ionising power. Their ionising power is very weak in comparison to α- and β-particles. A γ -
photon displaces an electron of the gas molecule to yield a positive ion. Since the chances of
photon-electron collisions are small, γ -rays are weak ionisers.
(4) Penetrating power. Because of their high velocity and non-material nature, γ -rays are most
penetrating. They cannot be stopped even by a 5 cm thick sheet of lead or several metres thick
layer of concrete.

Newton’s Law of Universal Gravitation

 Newton’s Law of Universal Gravitation states that every particle attracts every other
particle in the universe with force directly proportional to the product of the masses and
inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them.

m1 X m
Fα 2

r2
m1 X m
F=G 2
2

r
where, F is the gravitational force between bodies, m1 and m2 are the masses of the bodies, r is
the distance between the centres of two bodies, G is the universal gravitational constant.
The constant proportionality (G) in the above equation is known as the universal
gravitation constant. Henry Cavendish experimentally determined the precise value of G. The
value of G is found to be G = 6.673 x 10-11 N m2/kg2.
The Universal Gravitational Law can explain almost anything, right from how an apple falls
from a tree to why the moon revolves around the earth.
What is Hooke’s Law?
Hooke’s law states that “the strain of the material is proportional to the applied stress
within the elastic limit of that material”.
When the elastic materials are stretched, the atoms and molecules deform until stress is applied,
and when the stress is removed, they return to their initial state.
Mathematically, Hooke’s law is expressed as:
F = –kx
In the equation, F is the force, x is the extension in length, k is the constant of proportionality
known as the spring constant in N/m.
Hooke’s Law Experiment
Consider a spring with load application, as shown in the figure.
The figure shows the stable condition of the spring when no load is applied, the condition of the
spring when elongated to an amount x under the load of 1 N, the condition of the spring
elongated to 2x under the influence of load 2 N.
Depending on the material, different springs will have different spring constants, which can
be calculated. The figure shows us three instances, the stable condition of the spring, the spring
elongated to an amount x under a load of 1 N, and the spring elongated to 2x under a load of 2 N.
If we substitute these values in the Hooke’s law equation, we get the spring constant for the
material in consideration.
Chemistry (2 weeks)

Chemistry is derived from the word “Kheem” which is the old name of Egypt and probably
given to it due to red black colour of the Egyptian soil. The art of Khemia flourished is early
Egyptian and Greek civilizations. The word Khemia then became “Al-Kimiya” in Arabic and in
English word, Alchemy was derived later.
Now a day’s chemistry is defined as “it is a branch of science which deals the composition,
properties and uses of matter and the laws and principles governing the changes matter may
undergo”.
Branches of Chemistry
Organic Chemistry
The branch of chemistry that deals with the study of compounds composed of carbon and
hydrogen is called Organic chemistry. In a broader sense, it can also be defined the compounds
contain Oxygen, Sulphur, Nitrogen, Phosphorus, along with carbon and hydrogen other than
simple salts, carbides, carbonates and oxides are also called organic compounds.
Inorganic chemistry
Inorganic refers to elements that do not have a life of their own. Therefore, it is about
studying the compounds and reactions of substances other than carbon.
In this case we are talking about minerals, metals or ceramic materials. This type of chemistry
has other applications such as fiber optics, concrete or electronic chips.
Biochemistry
This branch of chemistry is all about studying the chemical basis of molecules.
Biochemistry basically deals with both chemistry and Biology. In particular, it is the study of the
chemical composition and properties of organisms (proteins, carbohydrates, lipids, cell reactions
and nucleic acids).
Physical chemistry
Physical chemistry is all about dealing with different methods to study the structure of
physics and the properties of matter. This sub-discipline is studied on the basis of the physical
principles that govern the behavior of atoms, molecules, and other chemical systems.
Analytical chemistry
Such chemistry is devoted to the study of various compounds of nature, whether in their
pure form or as a combined substance. Analytical chemistry works for the identification and
quantification of substances in different compounds. Analytical chemistry is further divided into
qualitative analytical chemistry and quantitative analytical chemistry.
Electrochemistry
The branch of chemistry which deals with the series of reactions to convert the chemical
energy into electrical energy is called Electrochemistry. These reactions are known as
electrochemical reactions. According to the researchers future of global energy depends on the
Electrochemistry.
Photochemistry
The branch of chemistry which deals with the study of phenomena when a light interacts
with some atoms and molecules is called photochemistry. It has very important role to play in
maintain the production of food on the earth as it is linked with photosynthesis. The light may be
sun rays or electromagnetic radiations.
Nanochemistry
This branch deals with the synthesis of different nanomaterial in coopration with the
traditional chemistry. Traditional chemistry methodologies are being used in order to synthesize
and study nanoscopic objects in these areas.
Neurochemistry
The branch of chemistry that deals with the study of the chemistry of brain function is
known as Neurochemistry. This branch deals with the different chemicals or enzymes and their
effects on brain functions.
Industrial Chemistry
The branch of chemistry that utilizes chemistry to manufacture something on industrial
scale is called Industrial chemistry. This branch also deals with the study of different
methodologies used to convert a one material into another material by utilizing the following
principles.
1: Heat transfer
2: Speed transfer
3: Mass transfer
4: Chemical transformation
Pharmaceutical chemistry
The branch of chemistry that deals with the drug development through the synthetic and
nano chemistry and Natural product Chemistry is known as Pharmaceutical chemistry.
This usually start with the research and then involves following steps to develop a drug such as
Analysis followed by detection and tuning of compounds (Both organic and inorganic
compounds).
Petrochemistry
The branch of chemistry that deals with the conversion of different hydrocarbons into
fuel and other useful chemicals is known as Petrochemistry. It also plays important role in
polymer chemistry such as Synthetic plastic polymers. This branch also deals with the
mechanisms used for extraction of chemicals from the fossil fuels.
Environmental Chemistry
This is a subcategory that studies the effects and effects of chemical components in the
environment. The study covers the effects of both chemicals found in nature, as well as
chemicals released into the environment.
Quantum chemistry
The branch of chemistry that deals with the quantum mechanics and field theory in
chemical problems. This chemistry is of the theoretical kind, and describes the behavior of
matter through the use of mathematics.
One of the uses of quantum chemistry is in the comprehensive study of atoms and molecules,
namely their behavior, their properties, their chemical reactions and other aspects.
Theoretical chemistry
In this branch, physics is used to describe or predict various chemical phenomena.
Theoretical chemistry consists primarily of the use of quantum chemistry, or rather, the
application of quantum mechanics to chemical problems.
Computational Chemistry
In this branch, existing programs and methods in the world of computer science are used
to solve chemical problems. Has been added to
Magnetic chemistry
Such chemistry is responsible for both synthesis and the study of the magnetic properties
of substances. Research in this field is based on the discovery of new materials that have
important magnetic properties or that combine magnetic and electrical or magnetic and optical
properties.
Forensic Chemistry
This branch of chemistry deals with the chemicals used to trace the suspects. This branch
of chemistry is utilized by the investigation departments in order to trace the criminal records by
using different chemicals and chemical methods.

Atom
The smallest particle of an element which can take part in a chemical reaction is called atom. For
example atom of Hydrogen element, atom of Helium element, atom of Chlorine element, atom of
Bromine element etc.
History of Atom:
Long time ago, it was thought that matter is made up of simple, indivisible particles.
Greek philosophers thought that, matter could be divided into smaller and smaller particles to
reach a basic unit, which could not be further subdivided. Democritus (460- 370 B.C) called
these particles atoms, derived from the word “Atomos” means indivisible. However, the ideas of
Greek philosophers were not based on experimental evidences.
Atomic structure refers to the structure of an atom comprising a nucleus (centre) in
which the protons (positively charged) and neutrons (neutral) are present. The negatively
charged particles called electrons revolve around the centre of the nucleus.
The electrons in an atom are arranged in shells that surround the nucleus, with each successive
shell being farther from the nucleus. Electron shells consist of one or more subshells, and
subshells consist of one or more atomic orbitals. Electrons in the same subshell have the same
energy, while electrons in different shells or subshells have different energies.
Distribution of Electrons in Orbits or Shells:
Electronic distribution of various orbits or energy levels can be calculated by the formula 2n2.
Here, ‘n’ denotes the number of orbits.
The number of electrons in K shell (1st orbit) = 2n2= 2 x 12 = 2.
Thus, maximum number of electrons in 1st orbit = 2
Similarly,
The number of electrons in L shell (2nd orbit) = 2 x 22 = 8.
Thus, maximum number of electrons in 2nd orbit = 8
We can determine the maximum number of electrons in a similar way.
Subatomic Particles
Protons
 Protons are positively charged subatomic particles. The charge of a proton is 1e, which
corresponds to approximately 1.602 × 10-19 C.
 The mass of a proton is approximately 1.672 × 10-24
 Protons are over 1800 times heavier than electrons.
 The total number of protons in the atoms of an element is always equal to the atomic
number of the element.
Neutrons
 The mass of a neutron is almost the same as that of a proton i.e. 1.674×10-24
 Neutrons are electrically neutral particles and carry no charge.
 Different isotopes of an element have the same number of protons but vary in the number
of neutrons present in their respective nuclei.
Electrons
 The charge of an electron is -1e, which approximates to -1.602 × 10-19 C
 The mass of an electron is approximately 9.1 × 10-31.
 Due to the relatively negligible mass of electrons, they are ignored when calculating the
mass of an atom.
Atomic Number (Z)
The number of protons present in the nucleus of an atom is known as atomic number. It is
denoted by “Z”. For example
Atomic Number of Hydrogen atom = 1
Atomic Number of Oxygen atom = 8
Atomic Number of Sodium atom = 11
Atomic Number of Potassium atom = 19
Mostly an atom contain same number of electron and protons, so it is not wrong to say that
number of electron present in an atom in its neutral condition is known as Atomic Number.
Mass Number (A).
The sum of number of protons and neutrons present in an atom is known as its atomic mass. It is
denoted by “A”.
Mass Number of atom = No. pf protons + No. of neutrons
Mass number of chlorine = 17 + 18 = 35
Mass number of carbon = 6 + 6 = 12
Mass number of Sodium = 11 + 12 = 23
Mass number of Magnesium = 12 + 12 = 24
Element
“A substance which cannot be split up into simple substance is known as element.
OR
An element is a substance in which all the atoms are chemically identical having same atomic
number. Hydrogen, Helium, Nitrogen, Oxygen, Carbon are the examples of element.
Compound.
Compounds are pure substances which consist of two or more elements chemically combined in
a fixed ratio. H2O, CO2, NaCl, NaOH, HCl, HNO3, H2SO4 are the examples of compounds
Molecule.
“The smallest particle of a pure substance which can exist independently is called a molecule.” It
may contain one or more atoms. For example He, Ne are mono-atomic molecules and H 2O, NO2,
HCl are the examples of polyatomic molecules.
Classification of molecule.
The molecules can be divided into many types on the following basis
1. On the basis of number of atoms
2. On the basis of kind of atoms
3. On the basis of size of molecules.
A. On the basis of Number of atoms
Monoatomic Molecules of Elements
Molecule that is composed of only one atom is known as Monoatomic molecule of elements.
For example: argon, helium, etc.
Diatomic Molecules of Elements
Molecule that is composed of two atoms is known as diatomic molecule of elements. For
example: hydrogen, oxygen, fluorine, bromine, iodine, chlorine, etc. Every diatomic molecule
has the atomicity of 2.
Triatomic Molecules of Elements
Molecules that are composed of three atoms of the same element are known as triatomic
molecule of elements. For example ozone. Every triatomic molecule has the atomicity of 3.
Polyatomic Molecules of Elements
Molecule that is composed of four or more atoms is known as polyatomic molecule of elements.
For example boron, Sulphur, phosphorus, fullerene etc.
B. On the basis of kind/Type of atoms
On the basis of kind/Type of atoms, the molecules are of following types
1. Hetroatomic molecules 2. Homoatomic molecules
1. Hetroatomic molecules. Those molecules which consist of different kind of atoms are known
as hetroatomic molecules. HCl, H2O, NH3 etc.
2. Homoatomic molecules. Those molecules which consist of only one kind of atoms are known
as homoatomic molecules. H2, Cl2, P4, S8 etc.
C. On the basis of size of molecules.
The sizes of molecules are definitely bigger than the atoms. The sizes of molecules depends upon
the number of atoms present in them. On the basis of their size, molecules are of the following
types.
Micromolecules: Those molecules which are very small in size and have low molecular weights
are known as micromolecules. These molecules contains less number of atoms. For example
HCl, H2O, H2S, NaOH, HNO3 etc.
Macromolecules: Those molecules which are of very large in size and have high molecular
weights are called macromolecules. For example Starch, Protein, Hemoglobin etc.
Ion.
Atoms or group of atoms which contain either positive or negative charge are called Ions. There
are two types of ions Known as cation and anion.
Cation: Those species which carry positive charge are called cation or positive ion. A cation
may carry either +1, +2, +3 charge or charges. For example Na+, K+, Ca2+, Mg2+, Al3+, Sn4+.
Anion: Those species which carry negative charge are called anion or negative ion. The most
common negative ions are F1-, Cl1-, Br 1-, S2-.
Formation of a uninegative ion is an exothermic process. Justify.
The formation of a uninegative ion is an exothermic process because when an atom gains an
electron it becomes a uninegative ion and some energy is released which is called electron
affinity.
O + e-  O1- H = --141 Kj.mol-1
Since energy is released during this process, therefore formation of a uninegative ion is an
exothermic process.
Formation of cation is an Endothermic process. Justify.
Whenever an atom of an element loses one or more electrons, positive ions are formed. A
sufficient amount of energy is to be provided to a neutral atom to ionize it.
Na  Na+ + e- H = 496Kjmol-1
Since energy is required during this process, hence the formation of a positive ion is an
endothermic process.
Why Cation is smaller than its parent atom?
Cation is smaller than its parent atom due to
1. Loss of electron
2. Increase of nuclear charge
Na → Na+
186 pm 95 pm
Explain the formation of ions with respect to energy changes.
When an atom loses electron, it becomes cation and energy is absorbed e.g.
Mg → Mg+ + 1e- ∆H = 738 KJ/mol
So this is an endothermic process. When an atom gain an electron, it becomes anion and energy
is released e.g.
Cl + 1e- → Cl- ∆H = -- 39KJ/mol
This is an exothermic process.
Rutherford Atomic Model Experiment
Rutherford in 1911, performed scattering experiment in which he bombarded thin walls of
metals like gold, silver, Platinum or copper with a beam of fast moving Alpha particles. The
source of Alpha particles was radium, a radioactive substance, placed in a block of lead. Slits
were used to get a fine beam. The presence of Alpha particles at any point around the thin foil of
gold after striking it was detected with the help of a circular zinc sulphide coated deflection
screen. The point at which an Alpha particle strikes this screen, a flash of light is given out.
Observations of Rutherford Model Experiment
On the basis of the observations made during the experiment, Rutherford concluded that
 Major space in an atom is empty – A large fraction of α-particles passed through the gold
sheet without getting deflected. Therefore, the major part of an atom must be empty.
 The positive charge in an atom is not distributed uniformly and it is concentrated in a very
small volume – Few α-particles when bombarded were deflected by the gold sheet. They
were deflected minutely and at very small angles. Therefore he made the above conclusion.
 Very few α-particles had deflected at large angles or deflected back. Moreover, very few
particles had deflected at 180o. Therefore, he concluded that the positively charged particles
covered a small volume of an atom in comparison to the total volume of an atom.
Postulates of Rutherford atomic model based on observations and conclusions
 An atom is composed of positively charged particles. Majority of the mass of an atom was
concentrated in a very small region. This region of the atom was called as the nucleus of an
atom. It was found out later that the very small and dense nucleus of an atom is composed of
neutrons and protons.
 Atoms nucleus is surrounded by negatively charged particles called electrons. The electrons
revolve around the nucleus in a fixed circular path at very high speed. These fixed circular
paths were termed as “orbits.”
 An atom has no net charge or they are electrically neutral because electrons are negatively
charged and the densely concentrated nucleus is positively charged. A strong electrostatic
force of attractions holds together the nucleus and electrons.
 The size of the nucleus of an atom is very small in comparison to the total size of an atom.

Bohr’s atomic model

In the year 1913, Niels Bohr proposed an atomic structure model, describing an atom as a small,
positively charged nucleus surrounded by electrons that travel in circular orbits around the
positively charged nucleus like planets around the sun in our solar system, with attraction
provided by electrostatic forces, popularly known as Bohr’s atomic model. It was basically an
improved version of Rutherford’s atomic model overcoming its limitations. On most of the
points, he is in agreement with him, like concepts of nucleus and electrons orbiting it. Salient
features of Niels Bohr atomic model are:
 Electrons revolve around the nucleus in stable orbits without emission of radiant energy.
Each orbit has a definite energy and is called an energy shell or energy level.
 An orbit or energy level is designated as K, L, M, N shells. When the electron is in the
lowest energy level, it is said to be in the ground state.
 An electron emits or absorbs energy when it jumps from one orbit or energy level to
another. When it jumps from a higher energy level to lower energy level it emits energy
while it absorbs energy when it jumps from a lower energy level to a higher energy level.
 The energy absorbed or emitted is equal to the difference between the energies of the two
energy levels (E1, E2) and is determined by Plank’s equation.
ΔE = E2-E1 = h𝜈
Where,
ΔE = energy absorbed or emitted

𝜈 = frequency of electromagnetic radiation emitted or absorbed

h = Plank’s constant

 The angular momentum of an electron revolving in energy shells is given by:

nh
mvr =
2π
Where,
n = number of corresponding energy shell; 1, 2, 3 …..
m = mass of the electron
v = velocity
r = radius
h = Plank’s constant
Biology (2 weeks)

The word biology is derived from a Greek word Bios means Life and Logos means thought,
Knowledge or study. Thus biology is the science which deals with the study of life.
There are three major branches of biology – botany, zoology and microbiology. Botany is the
branch of biology which deals with the study of different aspects of plants. Theophrastus is
known as the father of Botany.
Zoology is the branch of biology connected with the study of different aspects of animals.
Aristotle is known as the father of Zoology.
Microbiology is the branch of biology dealing with the study of different aspects of
microorganism. Leeuwenhoek is known as the father of Microbiology.
Some other main branches of biology are:
Taxonomy: It is the science of identification, nomenclature and classification of organisms.

Morphology: It is the study of external form, size, shape, colour, structure and relative position
of various living organ of living beings.
Anatomy: It is the study of internal structure which can be observed with unaided eye after
dissection.

Histology: It is the study of tissue organization and structure as observed through light
microscope.

Cytology: It is the study of form and structure of cells including the behavior of nucleus and
other organelles.

Cell Biology: It is the study of morphological, organizational, biochemical, physiological,

genetic, developmental, pathological and evolutionary aspects of cell and its components.

Molecular Biology: It is the study of the nature, physicochemical organization, synthesis

working and interaction of bio-molecules that bring about and control various activities of the
protoplasm.

Physiology: It is the study of different types of body functions and processes.

Embryology: It is the study of fertilization, growth, division and differentiation of the zygote
into embryo or early development of living beings before the attainment of structure and size of
the offspring.

Ecology: It is the study of living organisms is relation to another organism and their
environment.

Genetics: It is the study of inheritance of characters or heredity and variations. Heredity is the
study of expression and transmission of traits from parents to offspring.

Eugenics: It is the science which deals with factors related to improvement or impairment of
race, especially that of human beings.

Evolution: It studies the origin of life as well as new types of organism from the previous ones
by modifications involving genetic changes and adaptations.
Paleontology: It deals with the study of fossils or remains and impressions of past organisms
present in the rocks of different ages.

Exobiology: It is the branch of scientific inquiry dealing with the possibility of life in the outer
space.

Virology: It is the study of viruses in all their aspects.

Importance of Biology
Biology has made a great effect on human welfare and in improving quality of life. Importance of
biology can be high-lighted as under
1. Biology has given us the concept of balance diet, vitamins and protein which are considered as
the integral part of food and the growth of health tissues of the body.
2. It is also through the advancement in biology, that man has been able to control diseases, which
ultimately has resulted in the low mortality rate and individuals live longer and led better lives.
3. Biology has introduced pest control and genetics, which has greatly helped us to grow more
food from both qualitative and quantitative point of views. It has introduced new and better
varieties of crops, vegetables and fruits.
4. Today because of rapid industrialization the wastes from industries are constantly entering into
air and water. These wastes have posed dangers to human health and wildlife. It is again through
research in biology that human societies have become aware of this problem and are trying to
avoid such conditions.
5. Biotechnology which is an off shoot of biology has greatly helped us to produce good quality
animals. The animals produced by this technology give more flash and meat than those of
animals, which are traditionally produced.
6. The advancement of biology has given birth to vaccines and antibiotics. The vaccines and
antibiotics have greatly helped to eradicate infections and viral diseases. This is all due to the
advancement in biology that today we are safe from lethal diseases like small-pox, tuberculosis
and many other serious diseases.
7. Biology has provided us sufficient knowledge about the plants and trees, which are used
medicinally. Many herbal medicines have been produced which are not harmful to the body and
provide coverage against many serious diseases.
Cell
The cell is the structural and functional unit of life. It may be also regarded as the basic
unit of biological activity. The concept of cell originated from the contributions of Schleiden
and Schwann (1838). However, it was only after 1940, the complexities of cell structure were
exposed.
Prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells
The cells of the living kingdom may be divided into two categories
1. Prokaryotes (Greek: pro – before; karyon – nucleus) lack a well-defined nucleus and possess
relatively simple structure. These include the various bacteria.
2. Eukaryotes (Greek: eu – true; karyon – nucleus) possess a well-defined nucleus and are more
complex in their structure and function. The higher organisms (animals and plants) are composed
of eukaryotic cells.
EUKARYOTIC CELL
The human body is composed of about 1014 cells. There are about 250 types of
specialized cells in the human body e.g. erythrocytes, nerve cells, muscle cells, β-cells of
pancreas. An eukaryotic cell is generally 10 to 100 nm in diameter. A diagrammatic
representation of a typical rat liver cell is depicted in Fig.1.1.
The plant cell differs from an animal cell by possessing a rigid cell wall (mostly composed of
cellulose) and chloroplasts. The latter are the sites of photosynthesis.
The cell consists of well-defined subcellular organelles, enveloped by a plasma membrane. By
differential centrifugation of tissue homogenate, it is possible to isolate each cellular organelle in
a relatively pure form. The distribution of major enzymes and metabolic pathways in different
cellular organelles is given in the chapter on enzymes. The subcellular organelles are briefly
described in the following pages.
Nucleus
Nucleus is the largest cellular organelle, surrounded by a double membrane nuclear
envelope. The outer membrane is continuous with the membranes of endoplasmic reticulum. At
certain intervals, the two nuclear membranes have nuclear pores with a diameter of about 90 nm.
These pores permit the free passage of the products synthesized in the nucleus into the
surrounding cytoplasm.

Nucleus contains DNA, the repository of genetic information. Eukaryotic DNA is

associated with basic protein (histones) in the ratio of 1 : 1, to form nucleosomes. An assembly
of nucleosomes constitutes chromatin fibres of chromosomes (Greek: chroma – colour; soma –
body). Thus, a single human chromosome is composed of about a million nucleosomes. The
number of chromosomes is a characteristic feature of the species. Humans have 46
chromosomes, compactly packed in the nucleus. The nucleus of the eukaryotic cell contains a
dense body known as nucleolus. It is rich in RNA, particularly the ribosomal RNA which enters
the cytosol through nuclear pores. The ground material of the nucleus is often referred to as
nucleoplasm. It is rich in enzymes such as DNA polymerases and RNA polymerases.
Mitochondria
The mitochondria (Greek: mitos – thread; chondros – granule) are the centres for the
cellular respiration and energy metabolism. They are regarded as the power houses of the cell
with variable size and shape. Mitochondria are rod-like or filamentous bodies, usually with
dimensions of 1.0 × 3 µm. About 2,000 mitochondria, occupying about 1/5th of the total cell
volume, are present in a typical cell. The mitochondria are composed of a double membrane
system. The outer membrane is smooth and completely envelops the organelle. The inner
membrane is folded to form cristae (Latin – crests) which occupy a larger surface area. The
internal chamber of mitochondria is referred to as matrix or mitosol. The matrix contains
several enzymes concerned with the energy metabolism of carbohydrates, lipids and amino acids
(e.g., citric acid cycle, β-oxidation). The matrix enzymes also participate in the synthesis of heme
and urea. Mitochondria are the principal producers of ATP in the aerobic cells. ATP, the
energy currency, generated in mitochondria is exported to all parts of the cell to provide energy
for the cellular work.
The mitochondrial matrix contains a circular double stranded DNA (mtDNA), RNA and
ribosomes. Thus, the mitochondria are equipped with an independent protein synthesizing
machinery. It is estimated that about 10% of the mitochondrial proteins are produced in the
mitochondria. The structure and functions of mitochondria closely resemble prokaryotic cells.
It is hypothesized that mitochondria have evolved from aerobic bacteria.
Endoplasmic reticulum
The network of membrane enclosed spaces that extends throughout the cytoplasm
constitutes endoplasmic reticulum (ER). Some of these thread-like structures extend from the
nuclear pores to the plasma membrane. A large portion of the ER is studded with ribosomes to
give a granular appearance which is referred to as rough endoplasmic reticulum.
Ribosomes are the factories of protein biosynthesis. During the process of cell
fractionation, rough ER is disrupted to form small vesicles known as microsomes. The smooth
endoplasmic reticulum does not contain ribosomes. It is involved in the synthesis of lipids
(triacylglycerols, phospholipids, sterols) and metabolism of drugs, besides supplying Ca 2+ for the
cellular functions.
Golgi apparatus
Eukaryotic cells contain a unique cluster of membrane vesicles known as dictyosomes
which, in turn, constitute Golgi apparatus (or Golgi complex). The newly synthesized proteins
are handed over to the Golgi apparatus which catalyse the addition of carbohydrates, lipids or
sulfate moieties to the proteins. These chemical modifications are necessary for the transport of
proteins across the plasma membrane.
 Certain proteins and enzymes are enclosed in membrane vesicles of Golgi apparatus and
secreted from the cell after the appropriate signals. The digestive enzymes of pancreas are
produced in this fashion. Golgi apparatus are also involved in the membrane synthesis,
particularly for the formation of intracellular organelles (e.g. peroxisomes, lysosomes).
Lysosomes
Lysosomes are spherical vesicles enveloped by a single membrane. Lysosomes are
regarded as the digestive tract of the cell, since they are actively involved in digestion of cellular
substances—namely proteins, lipids, carbohydrates and nucleic acids. Lysosomal enzymes are
categorized as hydrolases. The lysosomal enzymes are responsible for maintaining the cellular
compounds in a dynamic state, by their degradation and recycling. The degraded products
leave the lysosomes, usually by diffusion, for reutilization by the cell.
The digestive enzymes of cellular compounds are confined to the lysosomes in the best
interest of the cell. Escape of these enzymes into cytosol will destroy the functional
macromolecules of the cell and result in many complications. The occurrence of several diseases
(e.g. arthritis, muscle diseases, allergic disorders) has been partly attributed to the release of
lysosomal enzymes.
Peroxisomes
Peroxisomes, also known as microbodies, are single membrane cellular organelles. They
are spherical or oval in shape and contain the enzyme catalase. Catalase protects the cell from
the toxic effects of H2O2 by converting it to H2O and O2. Peroxisomes are also involved in the
oxidation of long chain fatty acids (> C18), and synthesis of plasmalogens and glycolipids.
Plants contain glyoxysomes, a specialized type of peroxisomes, which are involved in the
glyoxylate pathway.
Cytosol and cytoskeleton
The cellular matrix is collectively referred to as cytosol. Cytosol is basically a
compartment containing several enzymes, metabolites and salts in an aqueous gel like medium.
More recent studies however, indicate that the cytoplasm actually contains a complex network of
protein filaments, spread throughout, that constitutes cytoskeleton. The cytoplasmic filaments are
of three types – microtubules, actin filaments and intermediate filaments. The filaments which
are polymers of proteins are responsible for the structure, shape and organization of the cell.
Carbohydrates
Carbohydrates are the most abundant organic molecules in nature. They are primarily
composed of the elements carbon, hydrogen and oxygen. The name carbohydrate literally
means ‘hydrates of carbon’. Some of the carbohydrates possess the empirical formula (C.H 2O)n
where n ≤ 3, satisfying that these carbohydrates are in fact carbon hydrates. However, there are
several non-carbohydrate compounds (e.g. acetic acid, C 2H4O2; lactic acid, C3H6O3) which also
appear as hydrates of carbon. Further, some of the genuine carbohydrates (e.g. rhamnohexose,
C6H12O5; deoxyribose, C5H10O4) do not satisfy the general formula. Hence carbohydrates cannot
be always considered as hydrates of carbon. Carbohydrates may be defined as
polyhydroxyaldehydes or ketones or compounds which produce them on hydrolysis. The
term ‘sugar’ is applied to carbohydrates soluble in water and sweet to taste.
Functions of carbohydrates
1. They are the most abundant dietary source of energy (4 Cal/g) for all organisms.
2. Carbohydrates are precursors for many organic compounds (fats, amino acids).
3. Carbohydrates (as glycoproteins and glycolipids) participate in the structure of cell membrane
and cellular functions such as cell growth, adhesion and fertilization.
4. They are structural components of many organisms. These include the fiber (cellulose) of
plants, exoskeleton of some insects and the cell wall of microorganisms.
5. Carbohydrates also serve as the storage form of energy (glycogen) to meet the immediate
energy demands of the body.
CLASSIFICATION OF CARBOHYDRATES
Carbohydrates are often referred to as saccharides (Greek: sakcharon–sugar). They are
broadly classified into three major groups— monosaccharides, oligosaccharides and
polysaccharides. This categorization is based on the number of sugar units. Mono- and
oligosaccharides are sweet to taste, crystalline in character and soluble in water, hence they are
commonly known as sugars.
Monosaccharides
Monosaccharides (Greek: mono-one) are the simplest group of carbohydrates and are often
referred to as simple sugars. They have the general formula C n(H2O)n, and they cannot be further
hydrolysed. The monosaccharides are divided into different categories, based on the functional
group and the number of carbon atoms.
Aldoses : When the functional group in monosaccharides is an aldehyde CHO, they are known
as aldoses e.g. glyceraldehyde, glucose.
Ketoses : When the functional group is a keto R2C= O group, they are referred to as ketoses e.g.
dihydroxyacetone, fructose.
Based on the number of carbon atoms, the monosaccharides are regarded as trioses (3C), tetroses
(4C), pentoses (5C), hexoses (6C) and heptoses (7C). These terms along with functional groups
are used while naming monosaccharides. For instance, glucose is an aldohexose while fructose is
a ketohexose.
Oligosaccharides
Oligosaccharides (Greek: oligo-few) contain 2-10 monosaccharide molecules which are liberated
on hydrolysis. Based on the number of monosaccharide units present, the oligosaccharides are
further subdivided to disaccharides, trisaccharides etc.
Polysaccharides
Polysaccharides (Greek: poly-many) are polymers of monosaccharide units with high molecular
weight (up to a million). They are usually tasteless (non-sugars) and form colloids with water.
The polysaccharides are of two types – homopolysaccharides and heteropolysaccharides.
D- and L-isomers
The D and L isomers are mirror images of each other. The spatial orientation of H and OH
groups on the carbon atom (C5 for glucose) that is adjacent to the terminal primary alcohol
carbon determines whether the sugar is D- or L-isomer. If the OH group is on the right side, the
sugar is of D-series, and if on the left side, it belongs to L-series. The structures of D- and L-
glucose based on the reference monosaccharide, D- and L-glyceraldehyde (glycerose) are
depicted in Fig.2.1. It may be noted that the naturally occurring monosaccharides in the
mammalian tissues are mostly of D-configuration. The enzyme machinery of cells is specific to
metabolise D-series of monosaccharides.

DISACCHARIDES
Sucrose
Sucrose (cane sugar) is the sugar of commerce, mostly produced by sugar cane and sugar beets.
Sucrose is made up of α-D-glucose and β- D-fructose. The two monosaccharides are held
together by a glycosidic bond (α 1 & β2), between C1 of α-glucose and C2 of β-fructose. The
reducing groups of glucose and fructose are involved in glycosidic bond, hence sucrose is a non-
reducing sugar. Sucrose is an important source of dietary carbohydrate. It is sweeter than most
other common sugars (except fructose) namely glucose, lactose and maltose. Sucrose is
employed as a sweetening agent in food industry. The intestinal enzyme—sucrase—hydrolyses
sucrose to glucose and fructose which are absorbed.

Lactose
Lactose is more commonly known as milk sugar since it is the disaccharide found in milk.
Lactose is composed of β-D-galactose and β -Dglucose held together by β (1 4) glycosidic
bond. The anomeric carbon of C1 glucose is free, hence lactose exhibits reducing properties and
forms osazones (powder-puff or hedgehog shape). Lactose of milk is the most important
carbohydrate in the nutrition of young mammals. It is hydrolysed by the intestinal enzyme
lactase to glucose and galactose.

POLYSACCHARIDES
Polysaccharides (or simply glycans) consist of repeat units of monosaccharides or their
derivatives, held together by glycosidic bonds. They are primarily concerned with two important
functions-structural, and storage of energy. Polysaccharides are of two types
1. Homopolysaccharides on hydrolysis yield only a single type of monosaccharide. They are
named based on the nature of the monosaccharide. Thus, glucans are polymers of glucose
whereas fructosans are polymers of fructose.
2. Heteropolysaccharides on hydrolysis yield a mixture of a few monosaccharides or their
derivatives.
HOMOPOLYSACCHARIDES
Starch
Starch is the carbohydrate reserve of plants which is the most important dietary source for higher
animals, including man. High content of starch is found in cereals, roots, tubers, vegetables etc.
Starch is a homopolymer composed of D-glucose units held by α-glycosidic bonds. It is known
as glucosan or glucan.
Starch consists of two polysaccharide components-water soluble amylose (15-20%) and a water
insoluble amylopectin (80-85%). Chemically, amylose is a long unbranched chain with 200–
1,000 D-glucose units held by α(1  4) glycosidic linkages. Amylopectin, on the other hand, is a
branched chain with α (1  6) glycosidic bonds at the branching points and α(1 4) linkages
everywhere else (Fig.2.13). Amylopectin molecule containing a few thousand glucose units
looks like a branched tree (20–30 glucose units per branch).
Starches are hydrolysed by amylase (pancreatic or salivary) to liberate dextrins, and finally
maltose and glucose units. Amylase acts specifically on α(1  4) glycosidic bonds.
Glycogen
Glycogen is the carbohydrate reserve in animals, hence often referred to as animal starch. It is
present in high concentration in liver, followed by muscle, brain etc. Glycogen is also found in
plants that do not possess chlorophyll (e.g. yeast, fungi). The structure of glycogen is similar to
that of amylopectin with more number of branches. Glucose is the repeating unit in glycogen
joined together by α(1 4) glycosidic bonds, and α(1 6) glycosidic bonds at branching points
(Fig.2.14). The molecular weight (up to 1 x 0 8) and the number of glucose units (up to 25,000)
vary in glycogen depending on the source from which glycogen is obtained.
Cellulose
Cellulose occurs exclusively in plants and it is the most abundant organic substance in plant
kingdom. It is a predominant constituent of plant cell wall. Cellulose is totally absent in animal
body. Cellulose is composed of β-D-glucose units linked by β (1  4) glycosidic bonds
(Fig.2.15). Cellulose cannot be digested by mammals— including man—due to lack of the
enzyme that cleaves β-glycosidic bonds (α- amylase breaks α bonds only). Certain ruminants and
herbivorous animals contain microorganisms in the gut which produce enzymes that can cleave
β-glycosidic bonds. Hydrolysis of cellulose yields a disaccharide cellobiose, followed by β-D-
glucose. Cellulose, though not digested, has great importance in human nutrition. It is a major
constituent of fiber, the non-digestable carbohydrate. The functions of dietary fiber include
decreasing the absorption of glucose and cholesterol from the intestine, besides increasing the
bulk of feces.

Lipids:
Lipids may be regarded as organic substances relatively insoluble in water, soluble in organic
solvents (alcohol, ether etc.), actually or potentially related to fatty acids and utilized by the
living cells. Unlike the polysaccharides, proteins and nucleic acids, lipids are not polymers.
Further, lipids are mostly small molecules.
Functions of lipids
Lipids perform several important functions
1. They are the concentrated fuel reserve of the body (triacylglycerols).
2. Lipids are the constituents of membrane structure and regulate the membrane permeability
(phospholipids and cholesterol).
3. They serve as a source of fat soluble vitamins (A, D, E and K).
4. Lipids are important as cellular metabolic regulators (steroid hormones and prostaglandins).
5. Lipids protect the internal organs, serve as insulating materials and give shape and smooth
appearance to the body.
FATTY ACIDS
Fatty acids are carboxylic acids with hydrocarbon side chain. They are the simplest form of
lipids.
Occurrence
Fatty acids mainly occur in the esterified form as major constituents of various lipids. They are
also present as free (unesterified) fatty acids. Fatty acids of animal orgin are much simpler in
structure in contrast to those of plant origin which often contain groups such as epoxy, keto,
hydroxy and cyclopentane rings.
CHOLESTEROL
Cholesterol, exclusively found in animals, is the most abundant animal sterol. It is widely
distributed in all cells and is a major component of cell membranes and lipoproteins. Cholesterol
(Greek: chole–bile) was first isolated from bile. Cholesterol literally means ‘solid alcohol from
bile.
Functions of cholesterol:
Cholesterol is a poor conductor of heat and electricity, since it has a high dielectric constant. It is
present in abundance in nervous tissues. It appears that cholesterol functions as an insulating
cover for the transmission of electrical impulses in the nervous tissue. Cholesterol performs
several other biochemical functions which include its role in membrane structure and function, in
the synthesis of bile acids, hormones (sex and cortical) and vitamin D.
Proteins
Proteins are the most abundant organic molecules of the living system. They occur in every part
of the cell and constitute about 50% of the cellular dry weight. Proteins form the fundamental
basis of structure and function of life.
Origin of the word ‘protein’
The term protein is derived from a Greek word proteios, meaning holding the first place.
Berzelius (Swedish chemist) suggested the name proteins to the group of organic compounds
that are utmost important to life. Mulder (Dutch chemist) in 1838 used the term proteins for the
high molecular weight nitrogen-rich and most abundant substances present in animals and plants.
Functions of proteins
Proteins perform a great variety of specialized and essential functions in the living cells. These
functions may be broadly grouped as static (structural) and dynamic.
Structural functions:
Certain proteins perform brick and mortar roles and are primarily responsible for
structure and strength of body. These include collagen and elastin found in bone matrix, vascular
system and other organs and keratin present in epidermal tissues.
Dynamic functions:
The dynamic functions of proteins are more diversified in nature. These include proteins
acting as enzymes, hormones, blood clotting factors, immunoglobulins, membrane receptors,
storage proteins, besides their function in genetic control, muscle contraction, respiration etc.
Proteins performing dynamic functions are appropriately regarded as the working horses of cell.
Elemental composition of proteins
Proteins are predominantly constituted by five major elements in the following proportion.

Carbon: 50 – 55%
Hydrogen: 6 – 7.3%
Oxygen: 19 – 24%
Nitrogen: 13 – 19%
Sulfur: 0 – 4%
Besides the above, proteins may also contain other elements such as P, Fe, Cu, I, Mg, Mn, Zn
etc.
The content of nitrogen, an essential component of proteins, on an average is 16%.
STANDARD AMINO ACIDS
As many as 300 amino acids occur in nature— of these, only 20—known as standard amino
acids are repeatedly found in the structure of proteins, isolated from different forms of life—
animal, plant and microbial. This is because of the universal nature of the genetic code available
for the incorporation of only 20 amino acids when the proteins are synthesized in the cells. The
process in turn is controlled by DNA, the genetic material of the cell. After the synthesis of
proteins, some of the incorporated amino acids undergo modifications to form their derivatives.
AMINO ACIDS
Amino acids are a group of organic compounds containing two functional groups— amino and
carboxyl. The amino group (—NH2) is basic while the carboxyl group (—COOH) is acidic in
nature.
General structure of amino acids
The amino acids are termed as α-amino acids, if both the carboxyl and amino groups are
attached to the same carbon atom, as depicted below

The α-carbon atom binds to a side chain represented by R which is different for each of the 20
amino acids found in proteins. The amino acids mostly exist in the ionized form in the biological
system (shown above).
Classification of amino acids
There are different ways of classifying the amino acids based on the structure and chemical
nature, nutritional requirement, metabolic fate etc.
Essential or indispensable amino acids:
The amino acids which cannot be synthesized by the body and, therefore, need to be
supplied through the diet are called essential amino acids. They are required for proper growth
and maintenance of the individual. The ten amino acids listed below are essential for humans
(and also rats): Arginine, Valine, Histidine, Isoleucine, Leucine, Lysine, Methionine,
Phenylalanine, Threonine, Tryptophan.
The two amino acids namely arginine and histidine can be synthesized by adults and not
by growing children, hence these are considered as semi–essential amino acids.
Non-essential or dispensable amino acids:
The body can synthesize about 10 amino acids to meet the biological needs, hence they
need not be consumed in the diet. These are—glycine, alanine, serine, cysteine, aspartate,
asparagine, glutamate, glutamine, tyrosine and proline.
STRUCTURE OF PROTEINS
Proteins are the polymers of L-amino acids. The structure of proteins is rather complex which
can be divided into 4 levels of organization (Fig.4.4)
1. Primary structure: The linear sequence of amino acids forming the backbone of proteins
(polypeptides).
2. Secondary structure: The spatial arrangement of protein by twisting of the polypeptide
chain.
3. Tertiary structure: The three dimensional structure of a functional protein.
4. Quaternary structure: Some of the proteins are composed of two or more polypeptide chains
referred to as subunits. The spatial arrangement of these subunits is known as quaternary
structure.
[The structural hierarchy of proteins is comparable with the structure of a building. The
amino acids may be considered as the bricks, the wall as the primary structure, the twists in a
wall as the secondary structure, a full-fledged self-contained room as the tertiary structure. A
building with similar and dissimilar rooms will be the quaternary structure]. The term protein is
generally used for a polypeptide containing more than 50 amino acids. In recent years,
however, some authors have been using ‘polypeptide’ even if the number of amino acids is a
few hundreds. They prefer to use protein to an assembly of polypeptide chains with quaternary
structure.

Peptide bond
The amino acids are held together in a protein by covalent peptide bonds or linkages. These
bonds are rather strong and serve as the cementing material between the individual amino acids
(considered as bricks).
Formation of a peptide bond: When the amino group of an amino acid combines with the
carboxyl group of another amino acid, a peptide bond is formed (Fig.4.5). Note that a dipeptide
will have two amino acids and one peptide (not two) bond. Peptides containing more than 10
amino acids (decapeptide) are referred to as polypeptides.