Energy Reports 7 (2021) 254–265

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Energy Reports
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/egyr

Energy consumption analysis of a parallel PHEV with different

configurations based on a typical driving cycle
∗
Hai Liu a , Jingyu Zhao a , Tong Qing a , Xiaoyu Li b , , Zaizhou Wang c
a
Tianjin Key Laboratory of Power Transmission and Safety Technology for New Energy Vehicles, School of Mechanical Engineering, Hebei University
of Technology, Tianjin 300401, China
b
National Engineering Laboratory for Electric Vehicles, School of Mechanical Engineering, Beijing Institute of Technology, Beijing 100081, China
c
Hebei Normal University, Yuhua District, Shijiazhuang, 050024, China

article info a b s t r a c t

Article history: Representative driving cycles and specific vehicle types play an important role in analyzing energy
Received 30 September 2020 consumption to provide valuable references for manufacturers and government inspections. In this
Received in revised form 3 December 2020 study, a parallel plug-in hybrid electric vehicle with different driven configurations is employed to
Accepted 20 December 2020
analyze energy consumption under a typical driving cycle. Specifically, a typical driving cycle of Tianjin
Available online 23 December 2020
is constructed by integrating the clustering and Markov chain algorithms. Considering the various
Keywords: layouts of energy systems in plug-in hybrid electric vehicles, three different driven configurations (P2,
Plug-in hybrid electric vehicle P3, P4) of the parallel plug-in hybrid electric vehicle are established. Finally, the energy consumptions
Hybrid vehicle configuration of the different configurations are analyzed under the proposed typical driving cycle and the compared
China Automotive Test Cycle China Automotive Test Cycle. Results of two driving cycles demonstrate that the fuel consumption
Typical driving cycle
of the P3 configuration is lower than that of the P2 and P4 configurations, respectively, while the
Energy consumption analysis
purely electric driving range of the P3 configuration is longer than the other two configurations,
respectively. These results provide a basis for the formulation of China’s new light vehicle emission
standards and reduce exhaust emission by making the vehicles more economically suitable for the
road conditions in Tianjin.
© 2020 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND
license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).

1. Introduction 1.2. Literature review of driving cycles

1.1. Background and motivation The driving cycles are associated with specific environmental
conditions such as traffic density, thus the driving cycles are
With the growing economy and technologies, environmental different from country to country. For instance, Qu et al. (2019)
pollution and energy crises have attracted worldwide attention. compared the conventional driving cycles with New European
Electrified transportation is regarded as a significant approach Driving Cycle (NEDC), Federal Test Procedure (FTP-75), World-
to balance energy and environmental issues (Du et al., 2017; Li wide Harmonized Light Vehicles Test Cycle (WLTC), etc., and the
et al., 2020). The plug-in hybrid electric vehicles (PHEVs) take results showed that there were significant differences among the
the advantage of traditional internal combustion engines and driving cycles. Lin and Niemeier (2003) collected driving data
purely electric vehicles, which can efficiently save fuel consump- of three regions in California. They found that the driving cycle
tion compared with traditional vehicles (Hao et al., 2020). Ad- is affected the acceleration, deceleration, uniform speed, and
ditionally, the proper energy management strategy has largely idling speed of the different regional changes. Andre et al. (2006)
affected on PHEVs for increasing the driving range but reduc- adopted general and special driving cycles to test 30 passenger
ing energy (Wang et al., 2019). Moreover, energy management vehicle emission levels, but it is difficult to cover all the vehicles
strategies are determined by the configurator and driving con- that will lead to testing results, and the actual driving cycle does
ditions (Xu et al., 2020; Zhang et al., 2019a). Hence, it is im- not match. Therefore, it is important to develop the driving cycle
perative to consider both configurator and driving conditions for for improving the accuracy of prediction energy consumption.
energy consumption. As we all know, there exists little literature Seers et al. (2015) developed specific driving cycles based on
reported the related research. the vehicle types and the results indicate that they had higher
fuel consumption and emissions than the FTP-75 driving cycle.
∗ Corresponding author. It has been shown that the construction of operating conditions
E-mail address: [email protected] (X. Li). representing actual local conditions ensures that test results are

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.egyr.2020.12.036
2352-4847/© 2020 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-
nc-nd/4.0/).
H. Liu, J. Zhao, T. Qing et al. Energy Reports 7 (2021) 254–265

Nomenclature Subscripts
h Neighborhood radius
Abbreviation
i Current time
CATC China Automotive Test Cycle j Any other time
CD Charge Depletion n Number of feature variables
CVT Continuously Variable Transmission
CS Charge Sustaining
DP Dynamic Programming
demonstrate that the traditional NEDC driving cycle underesti-
ECE Economic Commission for Europe
mates most vehicular emissions (by 5%, 5%, 22%, and 47% for
FTP-75 Federal Test Procedure fuel, CO2 , HC, and NOx , respectively) while overestimating CO
NEDC New European Driving Cycle by 8%. Fotouhi and Montazeri-Gh (2013) have constructed dif-
OBD On-Board Diagnostics ferent driving cycles of cities in Tehran, which can better reflect
PC Principle Components the characteristics of actual driving and obviously differ from
PHEV Plug-in Hybrid Electric Vehicle traditional driving cycles. Separate driving cycle for cities better
SOC State of charge reflect. Liu and Ding (2000) investigated the driving cycle of five
WLTC Worldwide Harmonized Light Vehicles cities in China, finding that a single driving cycle deviates from
Test Cycle local driving characteristics. Therefore, it is imperative to develop
a driving cycle for urban roads in China. In this regard, driving
Symbols cycles have been established in line with local characteristics for
ai Acceleration at time i many cities in China, such as Shanghai and Hefei. A comparative
study revealed that it is feasible and practical to construct specific
∆d Velocity interval represented
driving cycles (Hu et al., 2015; Shi et al., 2011).
Ck kth eigenvalue of the candidate condi-
Typically, NEDC conditions are based on fuel consumption and
tion
emissions at a constant speed. NEDC test results thus differ from
Gk Statistical result of the kth eigenvalue of actual results. China has a vast territory and its regional road
the class database conditions vary widely, and the NEDC standard cannot refer to
M Number of divided states other actual conditions. Therefore, China confirmed the adoption
MAD Mean absolute deviation of the WLTC in the national sixth standard as a transition from
nij Total number of data points for the 2017, and planned to fulfill a Chinese vehicle test cycle based on
current i and next states j actual driving data until 2025. Compared with other major cities,
ni Total number of data points in current Tianjin as a metropolis that has obvious differences in its level
state i of road facilities and traffic density. It is therefore necessary to
dt Time interval between two adjacent construct a driving cycle of Tianjin that meets regional character-
data points istics and provides the more important reference data for vehicle
xjp pth parameter value of the jth sample manufactures to design and develop new products.
Generally, there are two common methods, including cluster
rd Random number
analysis (Qin et al., 2016; Dong et al., 2013) and stochastic pro-
xp Statistical mean of the pth parameter
cesses based on Markov chains (Jiang et al., 2009; Bishop et al.,
zjp Normalized value of xjp 2012), to construct driving cycles. Specifically, the cluster method
spp Statistical variance of the pth parameter is applied to classify the sample data, and then the Markov
Sij Probability of transition from the cur- chains algorithm is employed to analyze the sample space and
rent state i to the next state j establish a state transition matrix based on the vehicle speed.
Si State value at time i Finally, a complete representative working condition is randomly
SOCmin Minimum state of charge generated.
Te-max Maximum motor torque
Treq Required vehicle torque 1.3. Literature review of PHEV control strategy
T Engine torque
The vehicle control strategy is central to hybrid vehicle tech-
uij Calculation region
nology, which is defined based on the position of the drive motor
v̂i Velocity estimation at time i
in the hybrid drive system and named P0, P1, P2, P3, and P4 (Dong
vi Value corresponding to the state Si et al., 2019). To improve the fuel economy of the P2 configuration
vij jth velocity value in neighborhood h hybrid system, Zhou et al. (2015) analyzed the working mode of
W Kernel function the hybrid power system and comprehensively considered the
δij Velocity weighting coefficient external characteristics of the engine, the characteristics of the
power battery, and the efficiency of the electric drive system.
The hardware-in-the-loop simulation test of the parallel hybrid
vehicle under the Economic Commission for Europe (ECE) driving
consistent with actual operating conditions, while the method cycle shows that the overall fuel consumption under the control
of constructing the driving cycle can affect the test results (Lin strategy is 20% lower than the original vehicle fuel consumption.
Liao (2017) simulated the different driving modes of the P2 con-
and Niemeier, 2002; Hu et al., 2019). The typical driving cycle
figuration through the torque coordinated control and concluded
of the specific country is different from the traditional driving that the torque coordinated control strategy has certain reference
cycles. Ho et al. (2014) developed a driving cycle for Singapore value for the effectiveness and practicability of the switching of
and compared the proposed driving cycle with NEDC. The results the three classic driving modes of the P2 configuration. Ning and
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Tian (2017) studied the coordinated control of the engine starting 2-month driving records with 165,166 sample data are selected
process based on the P2 configuration motor. The sliding friction from the collected data. The collected data include the terminal
process of the dual-clutch gearbox is used to reduce the im- number, positioning time, longitude, latitude, speed, battery volt-
pact, and the torque control and coordination of the dual-clutch age, battery current, motor speed, and state of charge. As shown
gearbox are carried out through PID (proportional, differential, in Fig. 1, the coverage area of one taxis is presented including
integral) algorithm to reduce the impact during engine starting. expressways, main roads, secondary roads, and branch roads, as
Finally, the validity of theoretical research is verified through well as the downtown area and airport area. The test system
vehicle testing. Guo et al. (2018) studied the cooperative control comprises of two parts, which are called driving data acquisi-
of hybrid power system with P2 configuration. By analyzing the tion equipment and a data management platform of the China
characteristics of the P2 configuration power system, they divided Automotive Technology Research Center (CATRC), respectively.
the driving conditions of hybrid electric vehicles into pure electric Additionally, the data acquisition equipment consists of two parts
driving, pure engine driving, engine powering the motor, paral- including a Global Positioning System (GPS) and the On-Board Di-
lel running of engine and motor, and braking energy feedback. agnostics (OBD) signal. Specifically, the vehicle and motor speeds
Through constructing the P2 hybrid control system coordinated are sampled from the OBD interface and other data, including the
control structure, to implement the mode conversion between longitude and latitude, are obtained by GPS devices. The sampling
different cases to the car, pure-electric to parallel drive mode frequency set as 1 Hz by the driving data acquisition equipment
conversion and pure engine driven to braking energy feedback and the collected information is coded according to a unified data
mode transformation as an example, analysis of key control mode protocol and sent to the data management platform in real-time
conversion process, and through the vehicle test results verify the through the General Packet Radio Service (GPRS).
effectiveness of the control. This paper points out the difficulties
of switching and controlling between different driving conditions 2.2. Establishment of a short-trip database
of P2 hybrid electric vehicle and analyzes and tests the switching
and controlling between pure motor to parallel driving mode and Typically, the driving processes are affected by many factors
pure engine driving mode to energy feedback mode. such as driving behavior, acceleration, and deceleration during
Yao et al. (2015) studied P2 and P3 configuration analysis the operation period. Based on different characteristics, the driv-
of plug-in hybrid electric vehicles. The differences between P2 ing process usually can be classified into origin–destination frag-
configuration and P3 configuration were compared in terms of ments, short-trip fragments, and kinematic fragments three parts.
physical characteristics and technical complexity. The functions Specifically, the origin–destination fragments refer to driving pro-
that P2 configuration can achieve are pointed out: engine start- cess from origin to destination, short-trip fragment is a driving
ing and stopping, pure electric drive, pure engine drive, engine segment from the start point of one idle to the start point of the
motor parallel drive, engine charging battery, braking energy next idle, and kinematic fragment denotes constant velocity or a
recovery. Functions of P3 configuration: engine starts and stops, certain range of acceleration in one driving process. In this study,
pure engine drive, pure electric drive, engine motor parallel drive, the short-trip method is applied to slice the driving data, which
braking energy recovery. Wang et al. (2015) considered a Con- primarily includes four driving characteristics, namely the accel-
tinuously Variable Transmission (CVT) parallel hybrid vehicle, eration, deceleration, cruise speed, and idling time, as shown in
comparatively analyzed the characteristics of P2 and P3 configu- Fig. 2. The validation data are extracted to construct the short-trip
rations, calculated and off-line optimized the system efficiencies sample database according to the driving characteristics.
of the two configurations in typical working mode, conducted a To avoid noise interference, the kernel density function of
simulation for the NEDC under working conditions, and found Epanechnikov is used to filter the original velocity curve for
that the fuel consumptions of P2 and P3 configurations are basi- obtaining the effective short trip (Brady and O’Mahony, 2016).
cally the same at low speed while the cumulative fuel consump- The basic principle of the proposed filter method is to take a
tion of the P2 configuration is slightly lower than that of the P3 certain neighborhood of the current time as the calculation region
configuration. Yang et al. (2016) adopted a Dynamic Program- uij , assign different weighting coefficients to other data points in
ming (DP) algorithm and simulated the fuel economies of P1 and the neighborhood, and obtain the estimation for the current time
P2 single-motor hybrid configuration schemes. They found that through weighted summation. The kernel function W is used to
P2 consumes about 6.68% less fuel than P1, and further improve- calculate the weighting coefficient in the form:
ments were made through their proposed speed coupling, which {
3
(1 − u2ij ), ⏐uij ⏐ ≤ 1
⏐ ⏐
reduces fuel consumption by 13.82% relative to the consumption W (uij ) = (1)
4
of the P1 configuration. 0, other
i−j
1.4. Original contributions uij = (2)
h
The present paper establishes a typical driving cycle for actual where i is the current moment; h is the neighborhood radius of i
roads in Tianjin, China. The control strategies and configurations at the current time; j is any other time involved in the calculation
of a PHEV are developed using MATLAB for a typical driving cycle for the neighborhood of i.
and the China Automotive Test Cycle (CATC). The purpose of this The weighted coefficient δij of velocity data points in neigh-
paper is to study the differences between different configurations borhood h is defined as:
and the impact of different configurations on automobile fuel W (uij )
economy, which is of reference value for other scholars and δij = ∑i+h (3)
k=i−h W (uij )
automotive structural designers.
The estimated velocity v̂i at current time i is:
2. Establishment of a typical driving cycle i+h
∑
v̂i = (δij vj ) (4)
2.1. Data collection
j=i−h

The data of driving cycles are collected from five taxis with au- where vj is the jth velocity value in neighborhood h; v̂ is the
tonomous driving about one year in Tianjin, China. In this study, filtered result of the kernel function.
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Fig. 1. Map of the data collection region.

Fig. 2. Example of data segments.

The acceleration of current time i is calculated as: is imperative to unify the scale of the characteristic parameter
v̂i − v̂i−dt in the sample space. First, the standardization of characteristic
âi = (5) parameters is introduced as follows:
dt
where dt is the time interval between two adjacent data points. xjp − xp
The filtered short-trip samples are analyzed with feature param- zjp = √ (6)
spp
eters, and a short-trip sample database is established with 12,151
data in the sample space. where xjp is the pth parameter value of the jth sample; xp is the
statistical mean of the pth parameter, spp is the statistical variance
2.3. Classification statistics of the database driving characteristics of the pth parameter, and zjp is the standardized value of xjp .
After standardization, 20 principal component variables are
Many feature parameters are describing short trips and some
analyzed by using the PCA method. The results of the PCA method
may have a linear correlation. Principal component analysis (PCA)
is adopted to reduce the number of feature parameters and sim- demonstrate that the variances are all less than 1 after the sixth
plify the calculation, and the short-trip sample space is converted principal component variable. The cumulative contribution rate
to a matrix of the main component score for cluster analysis. of the first three principal component variables reaches 83.8%,
Owing to different units in various characteristic parameters, it which indicates that the first three variables that can reflect
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most of the change in the sample space. Hence, the three prin- Table 1
cipal component variables constitute the matrix of the principal Comparison of the constructed cycle and sample population.

component score. Parameter name Sample Typical Deviation

population driving cycle
Using MATLAB software and the K-means clustering algo-
Maximum vehicle speed (km/h) 87.3 83.4 4.47%
rithm, the data was pre-divided into K groups, and then K objects
Average vehicle speed (km/h) 21.40 20.62 3.78%
were randomly selected as the initial clustering center. Then the Maximum vehicle acceleration (m/s2 ) 2.45 2.43 0.82%
distance between each object and each seed clustering center Average vehicle acceleration (m/s2 ) 0.49 0.47 4.08%
was calculated, and each object was assigned to the clustering
center closest to it. The cluster centers and the objects assigned
to them represent a cluster. For each sample assigned, the cluster
center of the cluster is recalculated according to the existing relative to the overall database. The method of constructing the
objects in the cluster. This process is repeated until a termination representative working conditions will be a detailed description
condition is met. The termination condition can be that no (or in the next section.
minimum number) objects are reassigned to different clusters, no (1) Starting from state 1 and regarding this state as the current
(or minimum number) cluster centers change again, and the error state, the state transition probability matrix is used to determine
sum of squares is locally minimum. Cluster analysis is performed the next state value. The procedure is repeated until the gen-
on the matrix of the principal component score in Fig. 3, the erated state sequence has the specified duration and returns to
short-trip samples are divided into three types: congestion driv- state 1.
ing cycle, urban unimpeded driving cycle, and suburban driving (2) The obtained state sequence is converted into a speed
cycle. In order to visually inspect the classification effect, the sequence, which is treated as a candidate working condition. The
sample scatters distribution diagram of the first three principal conversion formula is as follows:
components is drawn. Various statistical characteristics will be v i = [(Si − 1) + rd] ∆d (9)
analyzed and analyzed accordingly.
where ∆d is the velocity interval represented by the current
2.4. Construction and comparison of driving cycles state; rd is a random number subject to a uniform distribution,
and its value range is [0,1]. Si is the state value at time i; vi is the
The present paper adopts a method based on the Markov chain velocity value corresponding to the state Si .
stochastic process to construct a representative driving cycle. The (3) The characteristic parameter values are calculated, and the
Markov chain is a process in which a mathematical theory is used results are compared with class statistical results. If the mean
to build a random model that has Markov properties. The Markov absolute deviation is within 10%, the case qualifies as being
properties express that the next state depends entirely on the representative and the iteration ends; otherwise, the procedure
current state, and not on the previous or subsequent state. During returns to state 1 and restarts the iterative calculation. In this
the driving process, the vehicle speed at the next moment is only study, the selected characteristic parameters comprise of eight
related to the current speed, which indicates that the changing specific parameters include the average speed, the standard de-
process of the speed vehicle can be modeled as a Markov chain viation of the speed, the standard deviation of acceleration, the
Zhang et al. (2019b). Hence, the fundamental principle of this average acceleration, and deceleration, and the acceleration and
method is to treat the speed–time series of a short-trip vehicle as deceleration ratio in the driving segment. The mean absolute
a completely random process. First, divide the series into various deviation B is calculated as follows:
∑n
speed intervals, where each speed interval represents a different |Ck − Gk |
k=1
speed state and then convert the vehicle speed to a speed state B= (10)
n
in state–time series. Because the next state is only related to
the current state, once the transition probability between two where Ck is the kth eigenvalue of the candidate condition; Gk is
adjacent states is determined and the state transition probability the statistical result of the kth eigenvalue of the class database;
matrix is established using the formula (7), in which a set of n is the number of feature variables; B is the mean absolute
random state sequences can be randomly generated. The state deviation.
sequence is then converted into a speed sequence, and a set of The obtained class representative working conditions are com-
driving cycles can meet the characteristics of the sample space. bined in the order of class 1, class 2, and class 3. Finally, a
The state transition probability matrix is expressed as: representative typical driving cycle is obtained as shown in Fig. 4,
and the total working time is 1800 s.
S11 S12 ··· S1M
⎡ ⎤
In order to verify whether the construction driving cycle is
⎢ S21 S22 ··· S2M ⎥ consistent with the overall characteristics of the database, this
⎣ ..
S = (Sij )M ×M = ⎢ .. .. ⎥ (7) paper compares the statistical results of the two characteristic
. . .
⎦
parameters, as shown in Table 1. After calculation, the average
SM1 SM2 ··· SMM
absolute deviation of the two is 3.78%, which is far below the
nij
Sij = (8) 10% deviation requirement in the program. The deviation of each
ni parameter value is within 10%, which is small and stable. Thus,
where M is the number of divided states; Sij is the transition the construction driving cycle can accurately reflect the overall
probability from the current state i to the next state j; the value of characteristics and can be used as representative driving cycles
Sij is obtained from the Maximum Likelihood Estimate; nij denotes for subsequent analysis.
the total number of data points for the current i and next states China’s regulations on automobile fuel consumption and emis-
j; ni is the total number of data points at current state i. sions have long adopted the European driving cycle. Road traffic
Use MATLAB software to program and generate representative conditions have changed greatly with the rapid growth of car
working conditions for each type of short-strip samples, and then ownership in China. The actual average traveling speed, fuel con-
combine them into representative working conditions with a total sumption, and emissions of vehicles greatly differ from laboratory
time of about 1800 s. The duration of each type of representa- certification results. As the most basic efforts of vehicle develop-
tive driving cycle is determined by the proportion of each part ment and evaluation, China has carried out in-depth research and
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Fig. 3. Typical driving cycle.

Fig. 4. Typical driving cycle.

Table 2 shows that the driving times of the CATC and typical driving cycle
Main parameters of CATC and typical driving cycle.
are the same. Meanwhile, the maximum vehicle speed is 30.6
Parameter name CATC Typical driving cycle
km/h lower in the typical driving cycle than in the CATC. This is
Driving time (s) 1800 1800 because the typical driving cycle is based on urban roads, where
Maximum vehicle speed (km/h) 114 83.4
Average vehicle speed (km/h) 29.13 20.62
the vehicle speed is lower, while the CATC was established for
Maximum vehicle acceleration (m/s2 ) 1.93 2.43 overall road conditions in China. The average vehicle speed is
Average vehicle acceleration (m/s2 ) 0.36 0.47 8.51 km/h lower in the typical driving cycle than in the CATC.
Idling percentage (%) 23.3 26.7 The maximum and average acceleration are respectively 0.5 and
0.1 m/s2 higher in the typical driving cycle than in the CATC.
The acceleration and deceleration of the vehicles are greater in
formulated the CATC, which represents the actual road driving the typical driving cycle. The idling speed is 3.38% higher in the
cycle in China. The CATC driving cycle shown in Fig. 5, the main typical driving cycle than in the CATC, indicating that the CATC
parameters of the CATC and typical driving cycle are presented in features smoother running. In summary, there are appreciable
Table 2. differences between the typical driving cycle and CATC, with
In order to compare the overall road condition in China with the CATC poorly reflecting the actual driving characteristics of
the actual road condition in one of the typical cities, Table 2 vehicles in Tianjin. Therefore, it is necessary to consider the
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Fig. 5. CATC driving cycle.

effects of regional differences in ensuring the accuracy of energy

consumption test results. The present study constructs represen-
tative working conditions that meet the driving characteristics of
typical cities in China.
In this section, a sample driving database of passenger cars in
Tianjin is established, and the typical driving cycle is established
based on the method of clustering and Markov. Compared with
CATC, the typical driving cycle differs greatly from CATC in terms
of maximum speed, average speed, and maximum acceleration,
which accurately reflect the actual driving characteristics of Tian-
jin. Therefore, it is necessary to establish a typical driving cycle
for a certain city.

3. Model and simulation

3.1. Design of the control strategy

A rule-based control strategy has the characteristics of logical

clarity, real-time applicability, and robustness and is often used
in the development of commercial-level vehicle controllers (Deng Fig. 6. Working mode switching diagram.
et al., 2013).
The rules laid out in this paper are presented in Fig. 6, the Table 3
establishment of an energy control strategy is independent of Switch rules of the mode.
configuration and energy consumption analysis. where Treq is the Mode Engine Motor Switching condition
required vehicle torque, SOCmin is the minimum state of charge, Pure electric Off Electric SOC > SOCmin & Treq < Te-max
and Te-max is maximum motor torque. The expression for Treq is Driving charging On Generator SOC < SOClow
as follows: Hybrid drive On Electric SOC > SOCmin & Treq > Te-max
Energy recovery Off Generator Treq < 0 & V > 15 km/h
CD ∗ A 2 du
Treq = (Gf + ua + Gi + δ m )/r (11)
21.15 dt
If the current SOC is greater than SOCmin , Treq is greater than
0 and Treq is less than Te-max , the control strategy is the pure control strategy sends commands to the sub-controllers of the
electric mode. When SOC is greater than SOCmin , Treq is greater power system, outputs vehicle speeds, and feeds real-time vehicle
than 0 and Treq is greater than Te-max , the control strategy is hybrid information back to the hybrid control system.
drive mode. Meanwhile, when SOC is greater than SOCmin , Treq is
less than 0 and speed less than 15 km/h, the control strategy is 3.3. Simulation
friction brake mode. In addition, if the present SOC is greater than
SOCmin , Treq is less than 0 and speed greater than 15 km/h, the
According to the control concept established in the previous
control strategy is energy recovery mode. When SOC is less than
section, MATLAB is applied to establish the Simulink control
SOCmin , the control strategy is driving charging mode. The mode
switching conditions, motor type, and engine status are given in model and load a DLL file into the control strategy module in the
Table 3. simulation software for simulation. Three driven configurations of
vehicle models P2, P3, and P4 are built in the simulation software.
3.2. Modeling of the hybrid control system The schemes of three driven configurations are described in Fig. 8.
In terms of power parameter matching of the whole vehicle,
The overall architecture of the model is shown in Fig. 7. The the motor parameters cannot be consistent owing to different
driver sends control commands to the hybrid control system configurations and different motor positions. Therefore, the mo-
by controlling the accelerator pedal and brake pedal opening tor parameters of vehicles are referred to Qing et al. (2019), but
according to the target speed of the driving cycle. The developed other simulation parameters are kept consistent as far as possible.
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Fig. 7. Overall architecture of a hybrid vehicle model.

Fig. 8. Hybrid electric vehicle motor distribution.

Table 4 4. Results and discussion

Main parameters of the simulation.
Components Parameters P2 P3 P4
The fuel consumption under the CATC and typical driving cycle
Curb weight (kg) 1538 for case A is shown in Fig. 9. The fuel consumption of the P3
Vehicle
Frontal area (m3 ) 2.47
configuration is lower than that of the P2 and P4 configurations
Displacement (ml) 1498
by 0.05 and 0.27 L/100 km, respectively, under the CATC. Under
Engine Max power (kW) 76
Max speed (r/min) 5800 the typical driving cycle, the fuel consumption of the P3 configu-
Max power (kW) 110 114 96 ration is lower than that of the P2 and P4 configurations by 0.07
Electric machine and 0.18 L/100 km, respectively. The fuel consumption of P3 is
Max torque (N m) 200 339 250
Battery Capacity (kWh) 11.3 lowest for the CATC and typical driving cycle. Under the same
Gearbox Gear ratio 0.5–2.8 configuration, the fuel consumption in the typical driving cycle is
lower than that in the CATC. Fuel consumption of the P2, P3, and
P4 configurations are respectively 0.01, 0.03, and 0.08 L/100 km
higher in the CATC than in the typical driving cycle. Therefore,
The main parameters of different configurations are given in
the adoption of the typical driving cycle has the largest effect on
Table 4.
the fuel consumption of the P4 configuration.
According to China’s PHEV energy evaluation national recom- The fuel consumption under the CATC and typical driving cycle
mended standard GB/T 19753 for the light hybrid electric vehicle for case B is presented in Fig. 10. The fuel consumption of the
energy consumption test method (China National Standardization P3 configuration is lower than that of the P2 and P4 configura-
Administration Committee, 2013), endurance testing is divided tions by 0.17 and 0.44 L/100 km under the CATC, respectively.
into case A and case B and a constant speed of 50 km/h. Cases Under the typical driving cycle, the fuel consumption of the P3
configuration is less than the other configurations by 0.12 and
A and B respectively correspond to the charge-depletion stage
0.39 L/100 km, respectively. Under the same configuration, the
and charge-sustaining stages of the PHEV. Case A is defined as the
fuel consumption in the typical driving cycle is lower than that in
state of the highest charge of the energy storage device at the end the CATC. The fuel consumptions of P2, P3, and P4 configurations
of charge while case B is defined as the state of the lowest charge in the CATC are respectively 0.11, 0.06, and 0.01 L/100 km higher
of the energy storage device at the end of operational discharge. than those in the typical driving cycle. The proposed typical
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Fig. 9. Fuel consumption of case A.

Fig. 10. Fuel consumption of case B.

Fig. 11. Pure electric driving range in different configurations.

driving cycle thus has the largest effect on the P2 configuration, range of the P3 configuration is 1.6 and 4.3 km greater than
which contrasts with the case A. that of the P2 and P4 configurations, respectively. The purely
Pure electric driving range is tested at a constant speed of electric ranges of P2, P3, and P4 configurations in the CATC are
50 km/h and SOC from 100% to 0%. As shown in Fig. 11, under respectively 2, 3.4, and 2.2 km lower than that of the typical
the CATC, the purely electric range of the P3 configuration is 0.2 driving cycle. The adoption of the typical driving cycle thus has
and 3.1 km greater than that of the P2 and P4 configurations, the largest effect on the P3 configuration. P3 configuration pure
respectively. Under the typical driving cycle, the purely electric driving range is the highest because it has no transmission loss. P4
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is the lowest because there is no deceleration mechanism. Under

low speed and large torque conditions, the motor efficiency is
low.
Since the motor parameters of different configurations are
different, the motor energy consumption performance cannot de-
scribe the influence of configuration on fuel economy. To further
analyze the effects of the three configurations at the charge-
sustaining stage for the vehicle’s economy, the distributions of
the engine operating points of the three configurations under dif-
ferent driving cycles for case B are employed to reflect operation
efficiency, as shown in Figs. 12 and 13.
As shown in Fig. 12, the working percentages of the P2, P3,
and P4 configuration engines are respectively 18.8%, 20.08%, and
19.19% under the CATC. In a total of 1800 s of cycle conditions,
the P3 configuration engine has the longest working time, but
the operating points are most concentrated in the engine’s high-
efficiency zone, with the operating speed ranging 1000–3300
r/min.
The figures show that under the typical driving cycle, the
working percentages of P2, P3, and P4 configurations are 24.35%,
33.89%, and 20.22%, respectively. Similar to the situation under
the CATC, the P3 configuration engine has the longest working
time, but the operating points are most concentrated in the
engine high-efficiency zone, with the operating speed ranging
1000–3300 r/min.
As can be seen from the above two figures, when the con-
figuration is the same, the working ratio of the engine is 5.54%,
13.81%, and 1.03% higher in the typical driving cycle than in
the CATC, which is mainly due to greater acceleration and de-
celeration in the typical driving cycle requiring more engine
and motor cooperation. The P2-configuration motor is located
between the engine and transmission. At low speeds, the torque
of the motor passes through the transmission, which increases
the torque output to the wheel side. The P3-configuration motor
is located on the output shaft of the transmission. Compared with
the case for the P2-configuration motor, the driving efficiency is
higher and the braking energy recovery rate is higher for the P3-
configuration motor. In the P4 configuration, the motor is placed
on the drive axle, but because the motor directly drives the half
shaft, the speed is limited, and the actual driving efficiency is
not as good as the actual driving efficiencies of the P2 and P3
configurations.

5. Conclusions

Different configurations of parallel PHEV models based on ac-

tual urban road cycle conditions and rule-based control strategies
were established. The effects of different configurations on fuel
consumption and pure electric driving range were analyzed for a
typical driving cycle and the CATC. The main findings of the paper
are as follows. (1) The typical driving cycle was established based
on the actual road conditions of Tianjin. The maximum speed and
acceleration are different from the values of CATC, which shows
that the condition of urban roads is different from the whole.
(2) The fuel consumption of the P3 configuration is lower than
that of the P2 and P4 configurations under the typical cycle and
CATC. The main reason is that engine operating points of the P3
configuration are most concentrated in high-efficiency areas. The
fuel consumption of PHEV in the typical cycle is lower than the
Fig. 12. Distribution of engine operating points under the CATC: (a) P2, (b) P3,
value of CATC, which has no relationship with the configurations (c) P4.
of PHEV. (3) The effect of test conditions is different on the fuel
consumption of P2, P3, and P4 compared with the typical driving
cycle and CATC. In cases A and B, the configuration of P2 and P4
configurations, which has without the driving cycle. However,
is most affected by the driving cycle. (4) The P3 configuration
had a higher pure electric driving range than the P2 and P4 the typical driving cycle thus has the largest effect on the P3
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electric mode. The purely electric range of P3 in the CATC is 3.4

km lower than that of the typical driving cycle.

CRediT authorship contribution statement

Hai Liu: Conceived of the presented idea and designed the

model and the computational framework. Jingyu Zhao: Veri-
fication the analytical methods. Tong Qing: Conceived of the
presented idea and designed the model and the computational
framework. Xiaoyu Li: Helped supervise the project. Zaizhou
Wang: Helped supervise the project.

Declaration of competing interest

The authors declare that they have no known competing finan-

cial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared
to influence the work reported in this paper.

Acknowledgment

This research was supported by the National Key R&D Program

of China (Grant No. NO. 2018YFB0106403).
All authors approved the version of the manuscript to be
published.

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