Primary memory

Primary Memory
Primary memory is memory that is directly accessible to the CPU. It holds programs and data
that the CPU is currently working with. Primary memory is also called internal memory,
immediate access memory or primary storage. Primary memory consists of RAM, ROM and
Cache.
a. Random Access Memory
Random access memory also called “main memory” is the temporary storage space that a
computer loads programs and user data into when it is running. It is the computer’s working
space. It is read/write meaning that data can be read from and written onto it. RAM is also
volatile meaning that everything held in it is lost when power is switched off. Two types of
RAM exist: Static RAM and dynamic RAM.
✓ Static RAM (SRAM) holds data as long as power is on. It does not need to be refreshed.
✓ Dynamic RAM (DRAM) on the other hand needs to be refreshed every 2ms otherwise the
contents will be lost.
Static RAM is faster and more expensive than dynamic RAM. Due to its cost it is not used as
main memory but rather for cache memory. Main memory is therefore dynamic RAM.
Read Only Memory
Read only memory is a kind of memory whose contents can only be read by the computer.
Data found in ROM is written by the manufacturer and cannot be modified by the user. It is
useful for holding data that never changes like the “boot” or start-up program which is run
when the computer is switched on. ROM is non-volatile. There are four types of ROM:
• MROM: Masked Read Only Memory is hardwired and pre-programmed
ROM. Any content that is once written cannot be altered anyhow.
• PROM: Programmable Read Only Memory can be modified once by the user.
The user buys a blank PROM and writes the desired content but once written
content cannot be altered.
• EPROM: Erasable and Programmable Read Only Memory- Content can be
changed by erasing the initial content which can be done by exposing EPROM
to UV radiation. This exposure to ultra-violet light dissipates the charge on
ROM and content can be rewritten on it.
• EEPROM: Electrically Erasable and Programmable Read Only
Memory: Content can be changed by erasing the initial content which could be
easily erased electrically. However, one byte can be erased at a time instead of
deleting in one go. Hence, reprogramming of EEPROM is a slow process.
An example of ROM on a PC is the BIOS software (Basic Input Output System) that enables
the computer to start up

CACHE MEMORY
Cache memory is a smaller and faster memory between the CPU and main memory, which
stores copies of data from the most frequent memory locations. It stores copies of data that is
frequently used by the CPU, hereby reducing the average time to access memory. Cache is
static RAM and is usually organized in levels: Level 1 (L1) cache, Level 2 and Level 3 cache.
Level 1 cache is closest to the CPU or within it. L2 and L3 cache are outside it.
When the CPU needs to access memory, cache memory is examined. If the data is found in
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cache, it is read from it. Otherwise, main memory is accessed. When the CPU refers to
memory and finds the data in cache, it is said to be a HIT. Otherwise, it is a MISS.

Secondary Memory

This type of memory is also known as external memory or non-volatile. It is slower

than the main memory. These are used for storing data/information permanently. CPU
directly does not access these memories, instead they are accessed via input-output routines.
The contents of secondary memories are first transferred to the main memory, and then the
CPU can access it.
Characteristics of Secondary Memory
• These are magnetic, solid state and optical memories.
• It is known as the backup memory.
• It is a non-volatile memory.
• Data is permanently stored even if power is switched off.
• It is used for storage of data in a computer.
• Computer may run without the secondary memory.
• Slower than primary memories.
Magnetic devices

• Magnetic devices, such as hard disk drives and tapes, use magnetic fields to
magnetise tiny individual sections of a metal spinning disk. Each tiny section
represents one bit. A magnetised section represents a binary '1' and a demagnetised
section represents a binary '0'. These sections are so tiny that disks can
contain terabytes (TB) of data.
• Magnetic hard disk drives can be internal - a component within the computer - or
external portable devices. Internal hard drives are used for everyday storage and
external ones are suitable for backing up home computer systems.
• Magnetic devices are low cost, high in capacity and durable. However, they are
susceptible to damage if dropped. They are also vulnerable to magnetic fields - a
strong magnet might erase the data the device holds.

Optical devices

Optical devices such as CDs, DVDs and Blu-ray discs use a laser to scan the surface of a
spinning disc made from metal and plastic. The disc’s surface is divided into tracks, with
each track containing many flat areas and hollows. The flat areas are known as lands and the
hollows as pits.

Optical storage devices such as CDs and DVDs are suitable for storing multimedia files.
The storage type is added to the end of the device name to show what type of media it is. For
example, a CD-R is a recordable CD, and a DVD-ROM is a read-only DVD.

Solid State Devices

Solid state technology is used in storage media such as solid state drives (SSD) and
USB flash drives. The technology is called solid state as it does not have any moving parts,
unlike magnetic and optical devices. Solid state devices are popular because they use low
power, have high access speed and are durable, making them portable. A USB flash drive is
suitable for moving small files from work to home. Example of such devices include:
Flash Drive, Memory Card, Secure Digital Disk:

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 ➢ Head to head comparison between HDDs and SSDs

SSD HDD

Full Form: Solid State Drive Full Form: Hard Disk Drive

Movement: It is a solid drive and no Movement: It is a moving drive and the

movement occurs while its functioning hard disk spins when it is functioning

Speed: It has faster processing speed Speed: The processing speed is low in
comparison to SSD

Latency: It has low latency Latency: It has high latency

Storage – When it comes to capacity, SSDs Storage – HDDs can go anywhere from 250
for computers are available in 120 GB to 4 GB to 14 TB
TB capacities

R/W Time: It has a shorter Read/Write time R/W Time: It has a longer Read/Write time

Weight: In terms of weight, SSD is lighter Weight: HDD is heavier

in comparison to HDD. This is because no
external mechanics or motor is attached to
the drive

Power Consumption: No motion results in Power Consumption: Because of the

less use of electricity or power while using spinning platters, more electricity and power
these is consumed

Cost: It is a modern storage drive and is Cost: It is a traditional storage drive and a
costlier bit cheaper in comparison to SSD

Size: It is smaller in size Size: It is larger in size

Safety: SSD is more reliable in comparison Safety: In case of any error in the drive, the
to HDD entire HDD may crash and result in loss of
data. This makes it less reliable

Computer Memory size

Data is stored in computer memory. Amount of data stored in memory is
dependent on its size. The following terms define the memory units:

Bit

• Bit is a binary digit used to represent the data in the computer.

• A bit refers to one of the two possible values either 0's or 1's.
• Bit is the smallest measurement unit of a computer.

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N i b b l e : A nibble is defined as a group of 4 bits.

B y t e : A byte is a group of 8 bits referred to as the smallest unit of the

computer memory.

W o r d : A word is defined as a group of the fixed size of bits.

• Computer memory stores the data in the form of a word.

• The number of bits in a word is called word length or word size.
• Word length can vary from computer to computer.
• Common word length used in computers are 1, 8, 16, 32, 64 and 96 bits.
• Modern computers use the word length of 32 bits or 64 bits.

Memory hierarchy Design and characteristics

The memory is characterized on the basis of two key factors: capacity and access
time. Other factors include the performance and the cost per bit. Capacity is the amount of
information (in bits) that a memory can store. Access time is the time interval between the
read/ write request and the availability of data. The lesser the access time, the faster is the
speed of memory. Ideally, we want the memory with fastest speed and largest capacity.
However, the cost of fast memory is very high. The computer uses a hierarchy of memory
that is organized in a manner to enable the fastest speed and largest capacity of memory.

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This Memory Hierarchy Design is divided into 2 main types:
1. External Memory or Secondary Memory: Comprising of Magnetic Disk,
Optical Disk, Magnetic Tape i.e. peripheral storage devices which are accessible
by the processor via I/O Module.
2. Internal Memory or Primary Memory: Comprising of Main Memory, Cache
Memory & CPU registers. This is directly accessible by the processor.
With respect to CPU, the memory is organized as follows
• Registers are placed inside the CPU (small capacity, high cost, very high speed)
• Cache memory is placed next in the hierarchy (inside and outside the CPU)
• Primary memory is placed next in the hierarchy
• Secondary memory is the farthest from CPU (large capacity, low cost, low speed)

THE CPU (CENTRAL PROCESSING UNIT)

A Central Processing Unit is also called a processor, central processor, or

microprocessor. It carries out all the important functions of a computer. It receives
instructions from both the hardware and active software and produces output accordingly. It
stores all important programs like operating systems and application software. CPU also
helps Input and output devices to communicate with each other. Owing to these features of
CPU, it is often referred to as the brain of the computer.

CPU is installed or inserted into a CPU socket located on the motherboard. Furthermore, it is
provided with a heat sink to absorb and dissipate heat to keep the CPU cool and functioning
smoothly.

Generally, a CPU has three components:

❖ ALU (Arithmetic Logic Unit)

❖ Control Unit (CU)
❖ Memory or Storage Unit (Registers and L1 Cache)

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 ❖ Control Unit:

It is the circuitry in the CPU which makes use of electrical signals to instruct the
computer system for executing already stored instructions. It takes instructions from memory
and then decodes and executes these instructions. So, it controls and coordinates the
functioning of all parts of the computer. The Control Unit's main task is to maintain and
regulate the flow of information across the processor. It does not take part in processing and
storing data. It acts as a supervisor and, controls and coordinates the activity of the other units
of computer.

CU coordinates the input and output devices of a computer. It directs the computer to
carry out stored program instructions by communicating with the ALU and the registers. CU
uses the instructions in the Instruction Register (IR) to decide which circuit needs to be
activated. It also instructs the ALU to perform the arithmetic or logic operations. When a
program is run, the Program Counter (PC) register keeps track of the program instruction to
be executed next. CU tells when to fetch the data and instructions, what to do, where to store
the results, the sequencing of events during processing etc. CU also holds the CPU’s
Instruction Set, which is a list of all operations that the CPU can perform.

❖ Arithmetic Logic Unit

ALU consists of two units: arithmetic unit and logic unit.
• The arithmetic unit performs arithmetic operations on the data that is made available
to it. Some of the arithmetic operations supported by the arithmetic unit are: addition,
subtraction, multiplication and division.
• The logic unit of ALU is responsible for performing logic operations. Logic unit
performs comparisons of numbers, letters and special characters. Logic operations
include testing for greater than, less than or equal to condition.
ALU performs arithmetic and logic operations, and uses registers to hold the data that is
being processed.

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 ❖ CPU Registers
Registers are high-speed storage areas within the CPU, but have the least storage
capacity. Registers are not referenced by their address, but are directly accessed and
manipulated by the CPU during instruction execution. Registers store data, instructions,
addresses and intermediate results of processing. Registers are often referred to as the CPU’s
working memory. The data and instructions that require processing must be brought in the
registers of CPU before they can be processed. For example, if two numbers are to be added,
both numbers are brought in the registers, added and the result is also placed in a register.
Registers are used for different purposes, with each register serving a specific purpose.
Some of the important registers in CPU are as follows
✓ Accumulator (ACC) stores the result of arithmetic and logic operations.
✓ Instruction Register (IR) contains the current instruction most recently fetched.
✓ Program Counter (PC) contains the address of next instruction to be processed.
✓ Memory Address Register (MAR) contains the address of next location in the
memory to be accessed.
✓ Memory Buffer Register (MBR) temporarily stores data from memory or the data to
be sent to memory.
✓ Data Register (DR) stores the operands and any other data.

CPU Clock Speed

The clock speed of a processor is the number of instructions it can process in any given
second, measured in gigahertz (GHz).

For example, a CPU has a clock speed of 1 Hz if it can process one piece of instruction
every second. Extrapolating this to a more real-world example: a CPU with a clock speed
of 3.0 GHz can process 3 billion instructions each second.

CPU Cores

A processor with two cores is called a dual-core processor; with four cores, a quad-
core; six cores, hexa-core; eight cores, octa-core.

Some CPUs can virtualize two cores for every one physical core that's available, a
technique known as Hyper-Threading. Virtualizing means that a CPU with only four cores
can function as if it has eight, with the additional virtual CPU cores referred to as
separate threads. Physical cores, though, do perform better than virtual ones.

Unlike hyper-threading, there are no tricks here — a dual-core CPU literally has two central
processing units on the CPU chip. A quad-core CPU has four central processing units, an
octa-core CPU has eight central processing units, and so on.

This helps dramatically improve performance while keeping the physical CPU unit small so it
fits in a single socket. There only needs to be a single CPU socket with a single CPU unit
inserted into it not four different CPU sockets with four different CPUs, each needing their
own power, cooling, and other hardware. There’s less latency because the cores can
communicate more quickly, as they’re all on the same chip.

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The performance at which software programs operate depends on how powerful the CPU is.
The main manufacturers are Intel, and AMD in computers and Qualcomm (SnapDragon),
MediaTek, Samsung (Exynos), and Apple Bionic are in mobile devices, each of them has
its own type of Central Processing Unit.

Intel has been making class leading processors for computers for a long time now. They
overcame a period where AMD reigned as king by releasing their line of Core 2 processors
in 2006. Now Intel has a new line of processors called the Core I series. The i3, the i5 and the
i7.

• CORE i3 is a basic level processor type of the new generation launched by Intel. All
Core i3s are dual-core processors. They have a Clock speeds ranging from 2.93 to
3.06 GHz. They possess 3MB of cache.
• CORE i5– i5-Dual core has a 32 nm fabrication, 4 MB cache is present in i5. The
range of their clock speeds is between 3.2 to 3.6 GHz for Dual cores.
• i5 Quad Core. Quad cores clock speeds of 2.4 and 2.66 GHz. Turbo Boost
technology Supported, don’t support Hyperthreading and don’t have an Integrated
Graphics Processor. They have 6MB - 8MB of cache
• CORE i7-High end processor. They are also the fastest and the most expensive in the
lot. Total 4 Cores are present as they are quad core. The range of clock speeds is 1.06
GHz to 3.20 GHz, 8MB of cache is given. The IGP [Integrated Graphics] on Core i7
processors can also reach a higher maximum clock speed of 1350 MHz
Presentation and roles of programs, their applications.

The Machine or Instruction Cycle

The machine or instruction cycle describes how machine instructions are repeatedly
fetched, decoded and executed, one machine instruction at a time, until an instruction to
HALT is encountered. Before an instruction can be fetched, it must be placed into memory as
well as related data, from an input or secondary storage device. Once the necessary data and
instructions are in memory, the central processing unit performs the following four
steps for each instruction:

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1. The control unit fetches (gets) data and instructions from memory.
2. The control unit decodes the instructions i.e. determines what they mean, and directs that
the necessary data be moved to the arithmetic-logic unit.
3. The arithmetic-logic unit then executes the instruction on the data. That is, the ALU is
given control and performs the actual operation on the data.
4. The arithmetic-logic unit stores the result of this operation in memory or in a register.
The Instruction Cycle
Steps 1 and 2 together are called instruction time or I-time and steps 3 and 4 together are
called execution time or E-time. The combination of I-time and E-time is called the machine
or instruction cycle or the fetch-decode execute cycle. The length of time taken to fetch-
decode-execute an instruction is measured in clock cycles

Instruction Set Architecture

Another notable digital computer architecture is the Instruction Set Architecture. The
architecture holds a collection of instructions that the processor renders and surmises. It
consists of two instruction sets: RISC (Reduced Instruction Set Computer) and CISC
(Complex Instruction Set Computer).Both CISC and RISC approaches primarily try to
increase the performance of a CPU.

CISC: This kind of approach tries to minimize the total number of instructions per program,
and it does so at the cost of increasing the total number of cycles per instruction.
RISC: It reduces the cycles per instruction and does so at the cost of the total number of
instructions per program.

a) Reduced Instruction Set Computer or RISC Architecture

The fundamental goal of RISC is to make hardware simpler by employing an instruction set
that consists of only a few basic steps used for evaluating, loading, and storing operations. A
load command loads data but a store command stores data.

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Characteristics of RISC:
1. It has simpler instructions and thus simple instruction decoding.
2. More general-purpose registers.
3. The instruction takes one clock cycle in order to get executed.
4. The instruction comes under the size of a single word.
5. Pipeline can be easily achieved.
6. Few data types.
7. Simpler addressing modes.
b) Complex Instruction Set Computer or CISC Architecture
The fundamental goal of CISC is that a single instruction will handle all evaluating, loading,
and storing operations, similar to how a multiplication command will handle evaluating,
loading, and storing data, which is why it’s complicated.
Characteristics of CISC:
1. Instructions are complex, and thus it has complex instruction decoding.
2. The instructions may take more than one clock cycle in order to get executed.
3. The instruction is larger than one-word size.
4. Lesser general-purpose registers since the operations get performed only in the memory.
5. More data types.
6. Complex addressing modes.

Example: Suppose we need to add two different 8-bit numbers:

1. CISC approach: There would be a single instruction or command for this, such as ADD,
that would perform the task.
2. RISC approach: In this case, the programmer would write the very first load command in
order to load data in the registers. Then it would use a suitable operator and store the obtained
result in the location that is desired.
The add operation here is divided into parts, namely, operate, load, and store. Due to this,
RISC programs are much longer, and they require more memory to get stored, even though
they require fewer transistors because the commands are less complex.

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Computer Bus Types

A computer bus is a common pathway through which information is connected from

one component to another. Computers comprise of many internal and external components.
In order for these components to communicate with each other, a bus is used. This pathway is
used for communication and can be established between two or more computer components.
In simple words, a computer bus is a set of parallel conductors, which may be conventional
wires, copper tracks on a Printed Circuit Board, or microscopic aluminium trails on the
surface of a silicon chip.

Types of Computer Bus

A modern-day computer system can be viewed as comprising just two types of buses. These
are the System Bus and the I/O Bus or Expansion Bus.

a. System Bus
The system bus is a pathway composed of cables and connectors used to carry data
between a computer microprocessor and the main memory. the computer system buses can
be classified on the basis of type of data being transmitted as Data bus, Address Bus and
Control Bus.

• The Data Bus: the data bus carries data between the CPU and memory or peripherals.
During a write operation, data is carried from the CPU and during a read operation,
data is carried into the CPU. This means that the data bus is bidirectional. The width
of the data determines the maximum number of bits, which can be transferred
simultaneously between two modules.
• Address bus: is used to specify a physical memory address. This can include primary
memory (e.g. RAM and ROM) secondary memory (e.g. hard disk drives) and any
other connected devices. Monitors, printers, scanners, and keyboards will all be
mapped to memory. The width of the address bus determines the amount of memory
that can be addressed. A 32-bit bus can address 4,294,967,296 (2 ^ 32) bytes of
memory. This explains the 4 GB memory restriction on 32-bit operating systems.

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 • Control bus: Control bus carries commands from and returns status signals to the
microprocessor. These lines are used for the transmission of commands and timing
signals (which validate data and address) between the system modules.

b. I/O Bus or Expansion Bus

Short for input/output. This is a bus made up of the electronic pathways that connect the
different external devices, such as a printer, storage, monitors, keyboard, mouse, etc.

Thus I/O bus connects various peripheral devices to the CPU – these are connected to the
system bus via a ‘bridge’ implemented in the processor’s chipset. The term I/O is used to
describe any program, operation or device that transfers data to or from a computer and to or
from a peripheral device.

Other names for the I/O bus include expansion bus, external bus or host bus. An expansion
bus typically comprises a series of slots on the motherboard into which cards are inserted.
The common expansion bus types include:
Expansion Bus Types
• ISA – Industry Standard Architecture
• EISA – Extended Industry Standard Architecture
• MCA – Micro Channel Architecture
• VESA – Video Electronics Standards Association
• PCI – Peripheral Component Interconnect
• PCMCIA – Personal Computer Memory Card Industry Association (Also
called PC bus)
• AGP – Accelerated Graphics Port
• SCSI – Small Computer Systems Interface.
• USB – Universal Serial Bus
• FireWire

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The System unit and ports

Definition: A port is a physical docking point that is embedded on the computer system to
make connection with external or peripheral terminals to the PC. It helps to transfer all data
and information from program to PC over the internet, so it is also known as
“Communication Port“.
Computer port acts as interface or a point of connection in between the PC and its external
device like as keyboard, mouse, pen-drives, monitor or display unit, printer, speaker, flash
drive etc. Mostly, computer ports are available on the rear side of computer, but few ports can
be presented on the front side as based on the computer design.
Features of Computer Ports
• Multiple external devices can be attached to the PC with using ports and cables.
• These slots are presented on the motherboard where user can attach directly external
device or through cables.
• External devices such as mouse, keyboard, monitor, microphone, speakers, etc, they
can be connected via these ports.

Some examples of Computer Ports

✓ PS/02 Port

PS/2 connector is developed by IBM for connecting mouse and keyboard. It was introduced
with IBM’s Personal Systems/2 series of computers and hence the name PS/2 connector. PS/2
connectors are color coded as purple for keyboard and green for mouse. PS/2 is a 6-pin DIN
connector. These ports are replaced today by USB ports.

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 ✓ Serial Port

A serial port is an interface through which peripherals can be connected using a serial
protocol which involves the transmission of data one bit at a time over a single
communication line. The most common type of serial port is a D-Subminiature or a D-sub
connector that carry RS-232 signals.

✓ Parallel Port

A parallel port, on the other hand, is an interface through which the communication between
a computer and its peripheral device is in a parallel manner i.e. data is transferred in or out in
parallel using more than one communication line or wire. Printer port is an example of
parallel port
✓ Game Port

Mostly, game ports are used to make connection to game devices (Joystick) to a computer.
But, now it is replaced by USB.

✓ Firewire Port

Firewire port was introduced by Apple. This port helps to connect camcorders and video
equipment to the PC. It is able to transfer massive amount of data at the fastest transmission
rate (400 to 800 megabits per seconds).There are three types such as 4-Pin FireWire 400
connector, 6-Pin FireWire 400 connector, and 9-Pin FireWire 800 connector.

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 ✓ Power Connector

It is three-pronged plug, and it is used to connect PC’s power cable that plugs into wall
socket.

✓ VGA Port

VGA stands for “Video Graphic Array“, and it is a 3 row with 15-pin connector that is
mostly available in various video cards, PC, projectors, monitors, laptops, high definition
TVs, etc.
Now these days, LCD and LED monitors are available in VGA ports, but these ports are not
capable to deliver high picture quality because it can carry only analogue video signals up to
a resolution of 648X480. As per demand of graphic quality kept growing, VGA ports were
replaced by HDMI and Display Ports.VGA port was developed by IBM in 1987.

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 ✓ USB Port

USB stands for “Universal Serial Bus“, and it is very versatile in use. USB ports are used for
many objectives such as to exchange data, connect peripheral devices (printers, keyboards,
external hard drives, mice, scanners), as well as interface for charging devices like as smart
phones, digital cameras, etc.USB port was released in 1997.
Types of USB ports are:
• USB Type A: It is a 4-pin connector, and it has many versions of types like as USB
ports: USB 1.1 (transmission rate of 12Mbps), USB 2.0 (transmission rate of
480Mbps) and USB 3.0. USB 3.0 is blue color coded and this port can support rate of
data transmission of 400Mbps. USB 3.1 is capable to support the data rate up to
10Gbps.
• USB Type C: It is advance design along with 24-pin, as well as it can manage a
current of 3A. It is also used for those devices which are needed for fast charging.
USB Type C was introduced by USB Implementers Forum (USB-IF).

✓ RJ-45

RJ-45 stands for “Registered Jack 45“, and it also known as other alternative names like as
Ethernet port, network jack, or RJ45 jack. RJ-45 connector has 8-pin; accordingly to RJ45
cable comprises eight separate wires of different colours. RJ-45 is an Ethernet style network
port that is embedded on the computer system and other network devices like as hub,
repeater, routers, switches, etc. It allows your PC to make communication along with other
multiple computers and networking components.
RJ-45 ports are designed with two LEDs for indicating transmission and other packet
detection.

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 ✓ e-SATA

e-SATA stands for “external Serial AT Attachment“, and this connector is used for getting
to interface with external mass storage devices. e-SATA is replaced with modern connector is
known as e-SATAp (Power e-SATA).

✓ 3.5 mm Audio Jack

This port looks like a small round connector, and this audio jack is mostly presented on the
computer, laptop, phone, etc. It is used to attach wired speakers and headphone, and it allows
to pin shaped plug from earphone, speaker, etc.

✓ DVI (Digital Video Interface) Port

DVI port acts as interface in between the CPU and monitor. It is designed for providing high
speed and quality video, and it delivers the transmission of lossless digital video signals and
to alter analogue digital video signal transmission via VGA technique.
DVI port has three variants like as namely DVI-I, DVI-D & DVI-A.
• DVI-I integrated analogue and digital signals

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 • DVI-A can support analog signals.
• DVI-D supports only digital signals.

✓ HDMI Port

HDMI is an abbreviation of High Definition Media Interface. HDMI is a digital interface to

connect High Definition and Ultra High Definition devices like Computer monitors, HDTVs,
Blu-Ray players, gaming consoles, High Definition Cameras etc.HDMI can be used to carry
uncompressed video and compressed or uncompressed audio signals. The HDMI port of type
A is shown below.

The HDMI connector consists of 19 pins and the latest version of HDMI i.e. HDMI 2.0 can
carry digital video signal up to a resolution of 4096×2160 and 32 audio channels. There are
two types:

Mini HDMI: It looks like a regular HDMI port with 19-pin, but it is smaller in size compared
to other HDMI port.

Micro HDMI: It is also 19-pin port, but its pin-out design is totally different.

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 ✓ RCA Port

This port is developed to allow composite video and stereo signals which are transmitted by
three cables, they are known as RCA cable. It has three color coded plugs which helps to
connect to three respectively colored jacks of RCA connector. Red jack supports the stereo
channel, white supports the middle stereo channel, and last yellow can support the composite
video.

✓ Component Video

This is an interface that allows to divide video signal into three channels, and this component
video consists the three color coded slots like as Red, Blue, and Green. Every slot grabs and
then transfers the corresponding component of video signal. It helps to provide high quality
video compared to composite video and can support both digital and analogue signals.

✓ microSD Card Reader port

microSD Card Reader port are mostly used in smart phones and cameras, and it can have
huge data storage capacity with their small size.

✓ SD Card Reader port

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An SD Card Reader port also helps to move data from an SD card. Normally, these ports are
embedded on the computers and laptops.

✓ Display Port

It is a interface that allows to transmit a video and audio from a device to display screen. It
has replaced traditional interfaces like as DVI and VGA. It is a 20-pin connector that helps to
deliver a better resolution compared to DVI port. This display ports are installed on the PC,
tablets, monitors, laptops, etc.

Overview of the motherboard or the mainboard

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1. RAM chip and RAM slot

2. CPU Chip and Socket

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 3. Expansion slots

Expansion slots allow the installation of extra components. Peripheral Component

Interconnect (PCI), are used to install network cards, sound cards or modems.
AGP slots accommodate video cards with additional capabilities and PCI express (PCIe)
cards to connect host bus adapters (HBAs) for expanded storage and cards for additional USB
and Firewire ports.

PCI stands for Peripheral Component Interconnected and is an attached hardware component
of the motherboard that enables you to connect various hardware components such as
modems, disk controllers, NIC cards, Sound Cards, graphics cards, SSD add-on cards, RAID
cards, and additional USB and serial ports without having to add or replace the motherboard.

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If your motherboard only has a limited number of ports and slots for connecting various types
of hardware devices, such as graphics cards (AGP ports), you can connect these cards using
PCI slots and gain the same advantage as if they were installed on the motherboard.
Similarly, if your computer system only has a limited number of USB ports and you want
more, you can buy a USB PCI card to add more USB ports to your system

Prior to the introduction of PCI in 1992, ISA and EISA were used for the same purpose. Later
in 2004, the PCIe slot was invented, and it has now replaced PCI, AGP, and ISA slots.

AGP Slot (Accelerated Graphics Port Slot) is a type of expansion slot similar to a PCI slot,
although it is mostly used for graphics cards. Intel was the first to introduce it in 1996. This
expansion slot is easily identifiable because it is usually brown in colour.

4. The ROM chip

5. The Chipset

The chipset determines how system hardware and buses interact with the CPU and other
components. It also determines how much memory can be added to a motherboard and what
type of connectors the motherboard will have.

23
Current chipsets are made up of two distinct components: the Northbridge (NB) and
Southbridge (SB).

Northbridge is also known as Memory Controller Hub or Host Bridge. It is the

motherboard's primary controller, directing traffic to and from the CPU. As a result, the
northbridge chip has an impact on the computer's performance. Because it performs a lot of
processing, it usually comes with a heatsink.

Characteristics of North Bridge:

• It connects southbridge to the CPU.

• It handles and communicates faster components on the motherboard like Main
Memory, AGP, PCIe, ROM, and CPU.
• It acts as a controller for bus speed on the motherboard.
• Generally, it does lots of work with the CPU, so it is located near to the CPU
generally with the heatsink.
• It is a core component and is directly connected to the CPU.

In some processors of Intel, all the functioning of northbridge is performed by the CPU.

The southbridge is an IC chip that manages and controls IO functionality on the

motherboard. It does not have direct communication with the CPU, unlike Northbridge. It
typically handles low-speed devices due to its slower communication speed. The CPU
sends an instruction to the northbridge, which then sends it to the southbridge. It is linked to
the PCI bus, ISA buses, IDE buses, audio, serial devices such as a mouse, keyboard, USB
ports, and so on, as well as a SATA hard disk connector.

In size, it is smaller than the northbridge. And in some southbridge, we can find a heatsink
attached to it.

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 6. CMOS
CMOS stands for "Complementary Metal Oxide Semiconductor" and is found in both
laptop and desktop PCs in the form of a small circular coin. CMOS stores a variety of system
data such as the current system clock, date, time, pulses, commonly used hardware settings,
BIOS configuration settings, BOOT sequences, BIOS master/admin password, GPU
(Graphics Processing Unit), and virtualization settings, power management, and so on.
They can save those sets for a longer period of time, ranging from 2 to 10 years. Because it is
constantly holding all of the above-mentioned settings, CMOS works even when your system
is turned off.

7. Power supply plug

The primary function of the Motherboard's Power Supply plug is to supply power to the
Motherboard and its attached components and peripherals.

fig. Power Supply Box provides power to the motherboard and devices like
HDD, CDROM, Floppy etc

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 8. The Heatsink

Heatsinks use a thermal conductor to reduce heat generated and prevent overheating from
hardware components like CPU, GPU, northbridge, southbridge, RAM modules, etc. In
general, that component that generates heat requires a heatsink.

CPU has to perform a large number of tasks every second. While performing large tasks, it
generates heat. and if heat is not maintained then the processor will destroy itself. The
thermal conductor carries heat away from the CPU into fins that provide a large surface area
for the heat to dissipate throughout the rest of the computer, thus cooling both the heat sink
and processor. Both a heat sink and a radiator require airflow and, therefore, both have fans
built in.

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Computer Software
Software is a set of programs (sequence of instructions) that allows the users to perform a
well-defined function or some specified task.

Software is responsible for directing all computer-related devices and instructing them
regarding what and how the task is to be performed. However, the software is made up of
binary language (composed of ones and zeros), and for a programmer writing the binary code
would be a slow and tedious task. Therefore, software programmers write the software
program in various human-readable languages such as Java, Python, C#, etc. and later use the
source code.

Characteristics and features of computer software

1. Portability: This means the software can be moved from one platform to another
without having any issues. The computer software can be installed on different
platforms and work without problems.
2. User-friendly: Good software should be simple and easy for users to learn and use.
To achieve user-friendliness software can adopt the use of a graphic user interface
(GUI) that has commonly known icons. It can also implement common keyboard
shortcuts for easy navigation.
3. Maintainability: Computer software when developed are not perfect, they have
errors. Good software then should allow for updates to remove and deal with bugs.
4. It
Security:
should be
software
able to should
withstand
offer
hacking
maximum
or any
security
other type
for all
ofdata
manipulation
that it usestotoget
analyze.
access.
5. Reliability: the software should be able to be relied upon given a certain condition for
a given period of time. It can deliver required results even under extreme operating
conditions.
6. Software efficiency: good software should be able to optimally use other computer
resources well. It should efficiently utilize, a processor, main memory, and storage
space.
8. Intangible: Software is said to be an intangible part of a computer. They can only be
seen but not touched. They can be operated on and used but you cannot be able to say
physically this is software.

Types of Software

Softwares are broadly classified into two types: System Software and Application
Software.
I. System Software
System software is a computer program that helps the user to run computer hardware
or software and manages the interaction between them. Essentially, it is software
that constantly runs in the computer background, maintaining the computer hardware
and computer's basic functionalities, including the operating system, utility software,
and interface. In simple terms, you can say that the system acts as a middle man that checks
and facilitates the operations flowing between the user and the computer hardware.
System software is not limited to the operating system. They also include the basic I/O
system procedures, the boot program, assembler, computer device driver, etc. This software
supports a high-speed platform to provide effective software for the other applications to
work in effortlessly. Therefore system software is an essential part of your computer

27
system. They are the first thing that gets loaded in the system's memory wherever you
turn on your computer. System software is also known as "low-level software" because
the end-users do not operate them. Companies usually employ the best software development
programmers who can deploy efficient system software.
The further classifications of system software are as follows:

1. Operating System
The operating system is the most prominent example of system software that acts as
an interface between the user and system hardware. It is a group of software that handles
the execution of programs and offers general services for the application that runs over
the computer. There are various types of operating systems available in the market, such as
embedded operating systems, real-time OS, distributed OS, single or multi-user operating
system, mobile, Internet, and various others. Some of the commonly used examples of
operating systems are indicated in the above figure
2. Device Drivers
In computing, the device driver is a type of software that operates or controls
some specific hardware devices linked to your system. They provide a software interface
to hardware devices allowing computer operating systems and other applications to fetch
hardware functions without knowing the exact specifications of the hardware. Some common
examples of such device drivers that connect hardware devices (printers, sound cards,
network cards, hard disks, floppy disk, keyboard, mouse, etc.) to a system easily are as
indicated above.
3. Firmware
In electronic systems and computing, firmware is a type of permanent software
embedded in the system's ROM (read-only memory) to provide low-level control for
some particular system device hardware. It is a set of instructions that are stored
permanently on your computer's hardware device.
4. Programming language translators: Specifically, system software helps convert high-
level language code (human-readable language code) into simple machine-level code

28
(Machine language is a language that can directly communicate with the hardware of your
computer. The language includes strings of 0s and 1s, which are binary digits or bits) and
vice versa. This conversion is usually performed using programming language translators or
processors.
Programming language translators help convert computer programs written in high-level
programming languages such as Java, C , C++, Python etc (also called source code) into
instructions that can be interpreted by machines as object-level code or machine code.
Despite simplifying the code, programming language translators also help to perform tasks
such as: assigning data storage, obtaining diagnostic reports, obtaining source code and other
details related to the program, identifying system errors during runtime or rectifying etc.
Examples of programming language translators are:
✓ Compilers: translate instructions written in a high-level language into machine
language instructions
✓ Interpreters: translates and executes instructions written in a high-level language
into machine language instructions one line at a time.
✓ Assembler: The Assembler is a Software that converts an assembly language code to
machine code. Assembly language is a low-level programming language. One
instruction of the assembly language program directs exactly one operation to the
computer. However, the assembly language is close to the machine language but is
quite simpler than machine language. As assembly language uses mnemonics to
represent instructions.
Features of assembly language are:

• It uses mnemonics to write instructions.

• Addresses used in the instructions are symbolic, not absolute.
• The mnemonics used in assembly language are easy to understand and readable by
programmers.
• Finally, it facilitates declaring data and reserving memory.

5. Utility
Utility software is developed to provide support in analyzing, optimizing, along
configuring and maintaining a computer. The job of the utility program is to offer support
to the system infrastructure. Though the system will work even if it doesn't have any utility
software, the right kind of utility software enhances its performance and makes it more
reliable.
II. Application Software
Application programs or software applications are end-user computer programs
developed primarily to provide specific functionality to the user. The applications
programs assist the user in accomplishing numerous tasks such as doing online research,
completing notes, designing graphics, managing the finances, watching a movie, writing
documents, playing games, and many more. Therefore, many software applications are
designed and developed every year by companies as per the demand and requirements of the
potential users. The application software can either be designed for a general-purpose or
specially coded as per the requirements of business cooperation.
Today there are varieties of application software available in the market. Given below are
some of the popular examples:

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a. Word Processors
Word processor applications are globally used for documentation, making notes, and
typing data. It also helps the end-users store and format data. They also enable the users to
print their documents.
Some examples of Word Processor software's are as indicated in the figure above
b. Database Software
Database software is used to create, manage, modify and organize a massive amount of
data quickly retrieved. Another name for database software is Database Management
System (DBMS). Such software helps companies in their data organization. Common
examples of Database Software's are as indicated in the above figure.
c. Multimedia Software
This software enables the users to play, create or record images, music, and video
files. Different graphic designing companies widely use multimedia software to make
animation, images, posts, packaging, marketing creative, gif, or even video editing. Due to
their popularity and increasing demand, every software product development corporation has
massive avenues in creating and upgrading them. Common examples of Database Software's
are given in above figure.
d. Web Browsers
These are a type of software that is globally used to browse the Internet. Web browsers help
the users in positioning as well as fetching data across the web. Common examples of
web browsers are given in above figure.
However, there also occurs another classification of the software that exists on the
basis of their availability and shareability. The classification is given below:

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1. Freeware
As the name suggests, Freeware software is available free of cost for an unlimited
time. Any user can easily download their respective software from the Internet and start
using them instantly without paying any charges or fees. Software development
companies mostly design and develop freeware software as a strategy to reach out to more
people. Typical examples of Freeware Software are : Adobe Reader, Zoom, Skype, ImgBurn
,Audacity, Whatsapp ,Anydesk

2. Shareware
Shareware software is readily available on the Internet to download on a fixed
trial basis. It is distributed freely with a set time limit, and at the end of the trial period, the
user is asked either to pay the fee or uninstall the software. Some shareware, mainly
including the gaming softwares, have a fixed trial based on the counts an application is
opened rather than the number of days it has been installed on the system. Some of the
popular examples for Shareware Software: Adobe Acrobat, Adobe Photoshop, WinZip, PHP
Debugger, AnyDVD

3. Open-source
People usually get confused with freeware and open-source, but both are different.
Though both the software are available on the Internet free of cost with the only difference
that open source software is available online along with their source code. It means the user
can change, transform, and even can add additional features to them. Based on their services,
they can be chargeable as well free of cost. Some of the popular examples for open-source
Software: Mozilla Firefox, MySQL, Thunderbird, OpenOffice, ClamWinantivirus, Apache
Web Server

4.Closed-Source

It is also called proprietary software. It is a type of computer software that does not
distribute source code or native code. No authorized moderation is allowed in closed source
software. The source of closed source software is kept completely private and encrypted.
Examples include Skype, Google Earth, WinRaR, Microsoft windows, Microsoft office etc

5. Middleware
As the name suggests, it is a type of computer software that usually mediates between
application and system software, or between two different application softwares. For

31
instance, middleware helps Microsoft windows interact with MS word or Ms excel. Examples
include Game engines, Transactions , Application framework.
Some basic information about the Operating system
A. Operating system Structure

An operating system contains a kernel and a shell

a.Kernel

3. It is the control module of an operating system. It is that part of the OS that loads first
and remains in the main memory.
4. It is a bridge between applications and the actual data processing done at the hardware
level.
5. It is responsible for memory management, process and task management, and disk
management. Thus, kernel’s primary function is to manage the computer’s resources
and allow other programs to run and use these resources.
6. Kernel provides the lowest level abstraction layer for various resources like processes
and I/O devices that application software must control to perform it function.

When a user gives command for performing any operation, then the request goes to the shell.
The shell translates these human programs into machine language and then transfers the
request to the kernel. The kernel receives the request from shell, processes it and displays the
result on the screen. All these functions are performed by kernel in a transparent manner.

❖ Types of Kernel

There are mainly five types of Kernel, which are given below:
1. Monolithic Kernels
In a monolithic kernel, the same memory space is used to implement user services and
kernel services. As it uses the same memory space, the size of the kernel increases,
increasing the overall size of the OS. The execution of processes is also faster than other
kernel types as it does not use separate user and kernel space. Examples of Monolithic
Kernels are Unix, Linux, Open VMS, XTS-400, etc..
2. Microkernel
In this, user services and kernel services are implemented into two different address
spaces: user space and kernel space. Since it uses different spaces for both the services, so,
the size of the microkernel is decreased, and which also reduces the size of the OS.
Microkernels are easier to manage and maintain as compared to monolithic kernels. Still, if
there will be a greater number of system calls and context switching, then it might reduce the
performance of the system by making it slow.
These kernels use a message passing system for handling the request from one server to
another server. Examples of Microkernel are L4, AmigaOS, Minix, K42, etc.
3. Hybrid Kernel
Hybrid kernels are also known as modular kernels, and it is the combination of both
Monolithic and Microkernels. It takes advantage of the speed of monolithic kernels and the
modularity of microkernels.

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A hybrid kernel can be understood as the extended version of a microkernel with additional
properties of a monolithic kernel. These kernels are widely used in commercial OS, such as
different versions of MS Windows. Examples of Hybrid Kernel are Windows NT,
Netware, BeOS, etc.
4. Nanokernel
As the name suggests, in Nanokernel, the complete code of the kernel is very small,
which means the code executing in the privileged mode of the hardware is very small. Here
the term nano defines a kernel that supports a nanosecond clock resolution.
Examples of Nanokernel are EROS etc.
5. Exokernel
Exokernel is still developing and is the experimental approach for designing OS.
This type of kernel is different from other kernels as in this; resource protection is kept
separated from management, which allows us to perform application-specific customization.

b. Shell

A shell is a software that provides an interface for users of an operating system which
provides access to the services of a kernel. The name shell originated from shells being an
outer layer of interface between the user and the internals of the operating system ( the
kernel).

OS shells are divided into two categories: command line and graphical. Command line shell
is used in MS-DOS and graphical shells are used in windows that provides GUI facilities.
However mostly used operating systems nowadays such as windows and linux have both the
command line and the GUI.

❖ Command Processor

It is that part of an operating system which receives and executes operating system
commands. Whenever a command prompt is displayed the command processor waits for a
command. After the user enters a command, the command processor makes sure that
command is valid and then executes it or issues an error message. For an OS with graphical
user interface, the command processor interprets mouse operations and executes the
appropriate command.

❖ Graphical User Interface

It is provided so that the user does not need to remember tedious syntax of the command
language, instead pointing to an option by means of a mouse can do his/her job.

B. Functions of an operating system

1. Process Management
A process is a program in execution. A process needs certain resources, including CPU time,
memory, files, and I/O devices, to accomplish its task. The operating system is responsible
for the following activities in connection with process management.
• Process creation and deletion.

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• process suspension and resumption.
• Provision of mechanisms for process synchronization and process communication
2. Main-Memory Management
Memory is a large array of words or bytes, each with its own address. It is a repository of
quickly accessible data shared by the CPU and I/O devices. Main memory is a volatile
storage device. It loses its contents in the case of system failure. The operating system is
responsible for the following activities in connections with memory management:
• Keep track of which parts of memory are currently being used and by whom.
• Decide which processes to load when memory space becomes available.
• Allocate and de-allocate memory space as needed.
3. File Management
A file is a collection of related information defined by its creator. Commonly, files represent
programs (both source and object forms) and data. The operating system is responsible for
the following activities in connections with file management:
• File creation and deletion.
• Directory creation and deletion.
• Support of primitives for manipulating files and directories.
• Mapping files onto secondary storage.
• File backup on stable (non-volatile) storage media.
4. I/O System Management
The I/O system consists of:
• A buffer-caching system
• A general device-driver interface
• Drivers for specific hardware devices

5. Secondary Storage Management

Since main memory (primary storage) is volatile and too small to accommodate all data and
programs permanently, the computer system must provide secondary storage to back up main
memory. Most modern computer systems use disks as the principle on-line storage medium,
for both programs and data. The operating system is responsible for the following activities in
connection with disk management:
• Free space management
• Storage allocation
• Disk scheduling
6. Protection System
Protection refers to a mechanism for controlling access by programs, processes, or users to
both system and user resources. The protection mechanism must:
a. distinguish between authorized and unauthorized usage.
b. specify the controls to be imposed.
c. provide a means of enforcement.

C. Types of Operating Systems

Some widely used operating systems are as follows:

1. Single-user Operating System
A Single-User Operating System, as the name implies, is one that allows a single user to
perform only one task at a time. This type of OS is designed to enhance the user experience
and gives less priority to CPU utilization. Examples include DOS, Windows 3x, Windows
95, 97, and 98.

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 2. Batch Operating System
This type of operating system does not interact with the computer directly. There is an
operator which takes similar jobs having the same requirement and group them into batches.
It is the responsibility of the operator to sort jobs with similar needs.
The system puts all of the jobs in a queue on the basis of first come first serve and then
executes the jobs one by one. The users collect their respective output when all the jobs get
executed.
The purpose of this operating system was mainly to transfer control from one job to another
as soon as the job was completed. It contained a small set of programs called the resident
monitor that always resided in one part of the main memory. The remaining part is used for
servicing jobs.
Examples of Batch based Operating System: Payroll System, Bank Statements, etc.

3. Multiprogramming Batch Operating System

In Multiprogramming Batch Operating System, the Operating system first selects the job, and
after selecting the job, it begins to execute one of the jobs from memory. When this job
requires an I/O operation operating system, it switches to another job (operating system and
CPU always busy). In this, the jobs present in memory are always minimum than the jobs
present in the job pool.
If different jobs are ready to execute at the same time, then the job is selected for CPU
scheduling. In a simple batch operating system, sometimes CPU is idle and doesn’t perform
any task, but in the multiprogramming batch operating system, CPU is busy and will never sit
idle and always keeps on processing.
4. Multiprocessor Operating System
A Multiprocessor Operating System means the use of two or more processors within a single
computer system. These multiple processors are in close communication and share the
memory, computer bus, and other peripheral devices. These systems are known as tightly
coupled systems. It offers high speed and computing power. In Multiprocessor operating
system, all the processors work by using a single operating system.

5. Time-Sharing Operating Systems or multitasking OS

Each task is given some time to execute so that all the tasks work smoothly. Each user gets
the time of CPU as they use a single system. These systems are also known as Multitasking
Systems. The task can be from a single user or different users also. The time that each task
gets to execute is called quantum. After this time interval is over OS switches over to the next
task.
Examples of Time-Sharing OSs are: Multics, Unix, etc.

6. Distributed Operating System

These types of the operating system is a recent advancement in the world of computer
technology and are being widely accepted all over the world. Various autonomous
interconnected computers communicate with each other using a shared communication
network. Independent systems possess their own memory unit and CPU. These are referred to
as loosely coupled systems or distributed systems. These system’s processors differ in size
and function. The major benefit of working with these types of the operating system is that it

35
is always possible that one user can access the files or software which are not actually present
on his system but some other system connected within this network i.e., remote access is
enabled within the devices connected in that network.
Types of Distributed Operating System
There are two types of Operating System:

1. Client-server Systems.
2. Peer-to-Peer system.

Examples of Distributed Operating System are- LOCUS, Solaris, windows server 2003,
windows server 2012 etc

7. Network Operating System

These systems run on a server and provide the capability to manage data, users, groups,
security, applications, and other networking functions. These types of operating systems
allow shared access of files, printers, security, applications, and other networking functions
over a small private network. One more important aspect of Network Operating Systems is
that all the users are well aware of the underlying configuration, of all other users within the
network, their individual connections, etc. and that’s why these computers are popularly
known as tightly coupled systems. Some network operating systems are Linux, Unix,
Microsoft Windows Server, and Novel Netware, and BSD (Berkeley Software
Distribution), etc.

8. Real-Time Operating System –

These type of OSs serve real-time systems. The time interval required to process and respond
to inputs is very small. This time interval is called response time. The Real-time operating
system is used when a large number of events are processed in a short interval of time. A
real-time operating system is different from another operating system because, in this, time
concept is the most crucial part. It is based on clock interrupts. In the real-time system, the
process is executed on the basis of priority. The high priority process always executes first.
When a high priority process enters into the system, the low priority process preempts to
serve a high priority process. Example of the real-time operating system: Medical imaging
systems, Industrial system, Nuclear reactors control scientific experiments, Traffic
controlling signal, Military software system, Airline resolution system, Networked
multimedia systems, Internet telephony,
9. Embedded Operating System
An embedded operating system is a specialized operating system designed to perform a
specific task for a device that is not a computer. Examples of Embedded Operating Systems:
• The operating system of ATMs.
• The operating system in Elevators..
10. Mobile OS
Mobile operating systems are those OS which is especially that are designed to power
smartphones, tablets, and wearable devices. Some most famous mobile operating systems are
Android and iOS, but others include BlackBerry, Web, and watchOS.

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D. Advantages of Operating System

• User Friendly: In comparison to a command-line interface, the GUI provides a

significantly more user-friendly interface. It has a variety of icons, buttons,
menus, and other graphical representations, all of which are simple to
comprehend. As a result, consumers may easily engage with the system and
communicate with it.
• Security: It is the responsibility of an operating system to ensure the security of
any data stored within it. This is accomplished by encrypting data bit by bit.
Furthermore, most operating systems include a security suite pre-
installed. Windows, for example, has a security tool called Windows Defender
that aggressively removes viruses and other malicious files. Users can also utilize
their own anti-malware software for this reason.
• Sharing Resources: The operating system also allows users to share resources
with one another. Printers, fax machines, modems, and players are examples of
such resources. Aside from that, the operating system permits the transmission of
various files, including videos, photos, and programs, to linked devices.
Additionally, if data must be exchanged between numerous individuals, the
email service can be used.
• Hardware Accessibility: Users can rapidly access hardware capabilities in the
operating system. Thanks to a graphical user interface, Users do not need to
write lines of code to access hardware, unlike in a command-line interface.
• Multitasking: Another key element of an operating system is multitasking.
Users can execute multiple tasks at the same time using the operating system. It
is not necessary to close one window in order to open another.

E. Disadvantages of Operating System

• Expensive: There are some open-source platforms available, such as Linux.

However, some operating systems are prohibitively expensive. Users can also
use free operating systems, but they are generally more difficult to run than
others. On the other hand, operating systems with GUI functionality and other
built-in features, such as Microsoft Windows, are very expensive.
• Virus Threat: Operating systems are vulnerable to viral attacks. It is not
uncommon for many people to download malicious software packages onto their
systems, causing the operating system to halt and slow down.
• Complexity: Some operating systems are complex because the language used to
create them is unclear and poorly defined. If an error occurs in the operating
system, the user is unable to resolve the problem.
• System Failure: The operating system is the heart of the computer system, and if
it fails for any reason, the entire system will crash.

37