INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY

TOPIC ONE: DEFINITIONS OF INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY

Introduction
Welcome to topic one. This topic is aimed at introducing Information
Technology and programming terminologies. You will also learn examples of
Information Technology. The topic is, therefore, designed to prepare you to
have a clear understanding of Information technology forces and principles.
You also learn the key benefits derived from Information Technology as well
as advantages and disadvantages Information Technology.

Topic Time

 Compulsory online reading, activities, self-assessments and practice

exercises [3 hours]
 Optional further reading [1.5 hours]
 Total student input [4.5 hours]

Topic Learning Requirements

 Participation in one chat (at least 5 entries)

 At least two elaborate contributions to the discussion topic. You may also
start your own discussion thread.

 Timely submission of the assignments

Learning Outcomes

By the end of this topic you should be able to:

i. Define information technology and computer programming concepts

ii. Explain examples of information technology and Uses of Computer
Programs.
iii. Explain forces and principles of Information Technology
iv. Key benefits derived from Information Technology
 v. Advantages and disadvantages Information Technology

Topic Content

1.1. Introduction

What is Information Technology?

The Basics – What is data / Information?
Data: Raw facts, figures, and details.
Information: An organized, meaningful, and useful interpretation of data.
Information is data processed for some purpose
Information can only be considered to be 'real’ if it meets certain criteria i.e.
• It must be communicated to the recipient
• It must be in a language that is understood
• It must be in a suitable form
• It must be relevant for achieving some purpose
Information: is any form of communication that provides understandable
and useful knowledge for the person receiving it.
Knowledge: An awareness and understanding of a set of information and
how that information can be put to the best use.
Information technology (IT) is the application of computers and
telecommunications equipment to store, retrieve, transmit and manipulate
data, often in the context of a business or other enterprise.
Information technology is the use of computers and software to manage
information. In some companies, this is referred to as Management
Information Services (or MIS) or simply as Information Services (or IS). The
information technology department of a large company would be responsible
for storing information, protecting information, processing the information,
transmitting the information as necessary, and later retrieving information as
necessary.
IT are set of tools, processes, and methodologies (such as
coding/programming, data communications, data conversion, storage and
retrieval, systems analysis and design, systems control) and associated
equipment employed to collect, process, and present information. In broad
terms, IT also includes office automation, multimedia, and
telecommunications.
Information Technology: Technology that enables information to be used
to produce products and services
Information Technology (IT) to refer to a wide variety of items and abilities
used in the creation, storage, and dispersal of data and information. Its three
main components are computers, communications networks, and know-how.
Information and communication technologies(ICT): stresses the role of
communications and the integration of telecommunications (telephone lines
and wireless signals), computers as well as necessary enterprise software,
middleware, storage, and audio-visual systems, which enable users to access,
store, transmit, and manipulate information.
ICT is also used to refer to the convergence of audio-visual and telephone
networks with computer networks through a single cabling or link system.
1.2 Examples of Information Technology
 Telephone and radio equipment and switches used for voice
communications.
 Traditional computer applications that include data storage and programs
to input, process, and output the data.
 Software and support for office automation systems such as word
processing and spreadsheets, as well as the computer to run them.
 Users' PCs and software.
 Server hardware and software used to support applications such as
electronic mail/groupware, file and print services, database, application/
web servers, storage systems, and other hosting services.
 Data, voice, and video networks and all associated communications
equipment and software.
  Peripherals directly connected to computer information systems used to
collect or transmit audio, video or graphic information, such as scanners
and digitizers.
 Voice response systems that interact with a computer database or
application.
 The state radio communications network.
 Computers and network systems used by teachers, trainers, and students
for educational purposes
 "Open/integrated" computer systems that monitor or automate
mechanical or chemical processes and also store information used by
computer applications for analysis and decision-making, such as a
building management system.
 All operating costs, equipment and staff time associated with supporting
the technology infrastructure of the agency, possibly including items
excluded above, such as video equipment used for technology training
that is included in the information systems cost center for the agency.
1.3 The forces of IT

Figure 1.1: The forces of IT

Computer
A computer is a general purpose, programmable device that is used for the
production and processing of information
Computer: An electronic system that can be instructed to accept, process,
store, and present data and information

Hardware: The computer and its associated equipment.

Program: A set of instructions that directs a computer to perform certain
tasks and produce certain results.
Software: The general term for a set of instructions that controls a computer
or a communications network.
System: A set of components that interact to accomplish a purpose.
Information System: A business information system designed to produce
the information needed for successful management of a structured problem,
process, department, or business.
Computers Are Programmable
 Computers respond to instructions in the form of programs
 Programs are written in order to make computers behave in specific
ways i.e. word
 Processor, systems control
 Programs are stored in the Computer memory
How computers process information
 Computers accept inputs ( i.e. data)
 The input is translated into binary numbers and ‘processed’
 The process produces output (i.e. information)
This sequence can repeat endlessly: outputs can be inputs!
Communications Networks
 Communication: The sending and receiving of data and information
over a communications network.
  Communications Network: A set of locations, or nodes, consisting of
hardware, programs, and information linked together as a system that
transmits and receives data and information.
 Data Communication: The transmission of data and information
through a communications medium.
 Network
 A system of computers, peripherals, terminals, and databases
connected by communication lines.
 LAN—local area network
 WAN—wide area network
 Internet
 Electronic information networks that carry audio, video, and
computer data.
Know-How
• The capability to do something well.
• Information technology know-how consists of:
• Familiarity with the tools of IT; including the Internet
• Possession of the skills needed to use these tools
• An understanding of when to use IT to solve a problem or create
an opportunity
• Example of Business System
Figure 1.2 Business Systems
1.4 The Principles of Information Technology
i) Functions of Information Technology
ii) The Opportunities of Information Technology
iii) Information Technology Is All Around Us, Improving Our Lives
iv) The Responsibilities of Using Information Technology
1) Functions of Information Technology
 Transmission: The computer process of distributing information over
a communications network.
– Electronic Mail, or E-Mail
– Voice Messaging, or Voice Mail

Benefits of Information Technology

Figure 1.3: Benefits of Information Technology
2) The Opportunities of Information Technology
• Helping People
• Solving Problems
– Problem: A perceived difference between an existing condition
and a desired condition.
– Problem Solving: The process of recognizing a problem,
identifying alternatives for solving it, and successfully
implementing the chosen solution.
3) Information technology is all around us to improving our lives
Example of how IT has improve our living standards various
sector of economy
1. Human Resource Development: 1) Provide linkages, coordination
and also providing accreditation between government and IT firms. 2)
Promote activities of IT firms. 3) Research and Development activities
in IT and quality control. 4) Create a pool of highly trained professionals
that drive the next generation of IT development through research and
development efforts in the private and public sectors. 5) Empowering
the labour force with IT skills 6) Encouraging massive local and global
IT skills acquisition through training and re-training in the public and
 private sectors. Electronic Government: 1) Provide stakeholders with
enhanced access to government information. 2) Facilitate enhanced
citizen interaction with public officials and organizations. 3) Enhance
public sector accountability and transparency while minimizing
corruption by opening up government operations to public scrutiny
feedback. 4) Provide communities with developmental opportunities.
Infrastructure Development: 1) Provide leadership direction and vision
to guide IT infrastructure development. 2) Provide equitable access to
all users and stakeholders. 3) Guarantee the privacy, integrity,
accuracy, confidentiality, security, availability and quality of personal
information. 4) Create an ubiquitous and affordable technology with an
“open standard” approach, scalable and capable of adapting to changes.
5) Stimulate the creation and sharing of national and international
knowledge.
2. Education: 1) Re-engineer teaching and learning using IT. 2)
Development of IT education. 3) Provision of adequate instructional
materials, IT driven teaching and learning facilities. 4) Provision of
adequate staff development programmes for sustainable career
structure and job security. 5) Mass capacity building for both teaching
and non-teaching.
 Information technology plays a key role in students being able to
keep their jobs and go to school. Now, most schools offer online
classes that can be accessed on computers or laptops, tablets, and
even mobile phones. A busy student at work can easily check in
or submit assignments while on their lunch break.
 Teachers need to be prepared by staying up to date with
information technology, and this can mean more than just reading
about the latest gadgets. Using technology, teachers can prepare
their students for a future flooded with gadgets including tablets,
mobile phones, computers, and so much more.
 Information technology is helping to prevent more high school and
college dropouts as well. Life events can happen to anyone at any
time, and even high schools are taking advantage of online classes
so that students can continue their education instead of
considering dropping out
3. Health: 1) Deploy and increase access to IT within the National Health
system to improve health delivery and provision. 2) Use IT to improve
network and collaboration in the health sector of the nation. 3) Promote
 the acquisition of IT skills within the health system. 4) Deploy IT to
address major issues of national health threats.
 Improvements in information technology have allowed for great
reform in healthcare. Most medical offices can now send and
receive digital medical information from doctors you’ve had in the
past. Changes like this allow costs to be lowered and increase the
amount of time doctors can spend on patients compared to
paperwork.
 Security improvements with information technology have made it
so that your medical information is secure no matter where it’s
sent. You can even have prescriptions sent digitally to local
pharmacies at most medical offices
 Along with the changing the amount of paperwork required at your
medical office, information technology has also updated the
technology a doctor can use to diagnose or treat you. Using
computerized axial tomography (CAT) or magnetic resonance
imaging (MRI) scans, the doctor can use a computer to create
detailed images of your organs along with creating; images that
show changes in your body chemistry and blood flow. This can be
helpful to find illnesses that aren’t found with blood tests or other
medical tests
4. Awareness, Popularization and Development: 1) Encourage IT
skills acquisition for all officers at all tiers of government. 2) Educate the
work force to use computers within their work environments such as
farmers, nurses, exporters and office-workers. 3) Facilitate research and
development of appropriate and affordable IT. 4) Ensure the integration
of IT into poverty reduction strategies at all tiers of Government.
5. Agriculture: 1) Use IT tools such as Global positioning system (GPS),
Geographic Information system (GIS) software to gather, store, view
and analyses vast amount of data which can be converted to other
usable information media for better farm management, weather
forecasting, water level management and crop production. 2) Use IT
tools that integrate geographical, soil, weather, market and human to
assist the farmer not only to better his lot, but also in getting the very
best out of the soil and of course as bottom line from his/her efforts.
6. Finance
 With all the online purchases going on, it’s important that banks
and security keep tabs on everything to keep everyone safe.
Information technology might just working its hardest with internet
transactions. As more transactions are done, the internet requires
more networks, more computers, and more security programs to
keep its consumers safe. Without information technology, these
purchases would be impossible, and it would be impossible for
banks to keep these purchases secure.
  Information technology has also made it faster and easier than ever
to send or receive money. It’s now also easier to open an online
small business to sell whatever you might want. If you don’t want
to have to file for a domain name, set up a website, and all the
other steps required for registering an online business, you can use
other websites like Amazon, eBay, and Etsy to sell things.
 Information technology also makes it easy for finance to function
on a global level. In this modern age, your credit score and credit
rating is available online securely. This allows lenders, insurance
companies, and businesses to run a quick credit check on you
making it far easier to open credit.
7. Private sector development: 1) Develop an economy characterized
by a large commercial services sector with a reasonably large and
vibrant IT services sector and industry. 2) Develop an economy
characterized by a technology-based knowledge-driven industrial
sector. 3) Develop an economy characterized by a wide-spread
deployment and exploitation of IT within the Society to support the
delivery of health, education, government and social services.
8. Governance and Legislation Framework: 1) Facilitate electronic
communication, governance and commerce. 2) Promote and foster
security in computer networks generally. 3) Maintain the security and
integrity of data, records and information in digital form. 4) Enact and
enforce laws to combat computer crimes. 5) Promote acceptable
standard, authenticity and integrity in IT use nationwide.
9. National security and Law Enforcement: 1) Enhance national
security and law enforcement. 2) Ensure that IT resources are readily
available to promote efficient national development. 3) Create IT
awareness and ensure universal access in order to promote IT diffusion
to all sectors of our national life. 4) Eliminate waste and ensure that
governance and businesses are done in the global standard of using IT
for easier, faster and cheaper delivery of services.
 With so many transactions done online and so much information
available online, it’s important to keep all of that safe. Information
technology makes it possible for your online data to stay secure until
accessed by the proper channels. Using passwords and encryption,
information technology hides your personal digital data away, and the
only way it can be accessed is by companies who have permission from
you.
10. Business
 Using computers and software, businesses use information technology
to ensure that their departments run smoothly. They use information
 technology in a number of different departments including human
resources, finance, manufacturing, and security.
 Using information technology, businesses have the ability to view
changes in the global markets far faster than they usually do. They
purchase software packages and hardware that helps them get their
job done. Most larger businesses have their own information technology
department designed to upkeep the software and hardware
 Information technology has allowed businesses to keep up with the
supply and demand as consumers grow more anxious to have their
items instantly. Using information technology, businesses like Amazon
are working to help busy consumers do their grocery shopping. Just a
few clicks on a website allow the consumer to submit an order, and
information technology sends that order to the company.
11. Research and Development (R&D): 1) Ease the difficulty in
accessing relevant and up-to-date information on research in similar
areas/sectors. 2) Reduce or eliminate duplication of R&D activities by
different bodies in government. 3) Ensure coordination within the
different levels of government. 4) Need for institutionalized relationship
with local and international R& D bodies. 5) Need for IT capacity
building.

4) The Responsibilities of Using Information Technology

• To be Informed
• To Make Proper Use of IT
• To Safeguard
1.5 Key benefits to be derived from developing the national IT sector
1. Catalyst for improved business efficiency: A developed ICT sector will
prove a significant driving force for improved efficiency in the business
sector. Easier transfer and management of information make for more
efficient operations, which results in lower operating costs, a scenario
that benefits merchant and consumer alike.
2. Increased access to government services: A robust IT sector also
benefits governments as it allows for increased connectivity with the
public and increased access by the public to government services. In
 T&T, initiatives such as “IT-connect” enable citizens to access and apply
for Government and state agency programmes and services online.
3. Greater opportunities for citizens: Citizens themselves have much to
gain from a developed IT sector. This as such a scenario allows for
greater access to primary services such as health and education.
4. Education, in particular, can be seen to be made more available to the
public as distance learning and online tuition offer citizens greater
opportunities for self-improvement in an IT-empowered society.
1.5.1 Advantages and Disadvantages Information Technology
Advantages
i) Globalization: With improvements in information technology,
globalization has increased. The world is brought closer, and the world’s
economy is quickly becoming a single interdependent system.
Information can be shared quickly and easily from all over the globe and
barriers of linguistic and geographic boundaries can be torn down as
people share ideas and information with each other.
ii) Communication has become an easier, cheaper, and faster system with
the help of information technology. Using the internet, people can speak
to each other all over the world using video conferencing. Skype and
zoom is one helpful application that allows users to communicate to other
Skype and Zoom users for free e.g. during this period of corona pandemic
most business learning institutions are conducting their business online.
You can also pay a small fee to call or accessing online services.
iii) Social media is also another area of communication available because
of information technology. It’s now easier than ever to share photos and
information about your life with people you know all over the world. This
draws some families closer to family members they don’t get to see as
often.
 iv) Real time/live communication: Most mobile devices also offer some
kind of face to face video communication as well. Using Skype and zoom
or other programs like it, you can call other mobile Skype users for free
to talk face to face. Apple also has Facetime, which allows iPhone users
to talk face to face with other iPhone users.
v) Cost effective: Businesses have become more cost effective for both
themselves and their consumers using information technology. By
streamlining, businesses increase their productivity. This pays out to
greater profits, which allows companies to offer better pay and less
strenuous working conditions.
vi) Reachability: Along with making businesses more cost effective,
information technology allows businesses to be within reach of
consumers 24/7. You can also save money on purchases by buying items
located in different countries.
vii) Job creation: Information technology has also created new jobs.
Programmers, systems analyzers, hardware and software developers,
and web designers all owe their jobs to information technology. Without
such advances, these jobs would not exist.
Disadvantages
i) Unemployment: Unfortunately, along with the creation of new and
interesting jobs, information technology has also led to a rise in
unemployment. By streamlining the business process, job redundancies,
downsizing, and outsourcing has occurred. Many low and middle level
jobs have been turned to other countries, leaving more people
unemployed.
ii) Lack of job security: Many people also credit information technology
with a lack of job security. As new technology is released and jobs
require more and more training, it’s important for employees to stay in
 a learning mode in order to keep their job. Changes in technology make
it difficult for older employees to adapt as quickly as their younger peers.
iii) Lack of privacy: Although information technology continuously works
on making things more secure, there is still a great lack of privacy. Cell
phones have been known to be intercepted, and email addresses can be
hacked. Just recently, the Heart bleed Bug created vulnerability in the
Open SSL cryptographic software library, and many people were
concerned for their internet security and privacy.
iv) Dominant culture: It is also believed that along with opening a great
communication window, information technology has begun to create a
dominant culture. Many believe that the United States holds the most
influence over how teenagers all over the world now act, dress, and
behave simply because of what they can access online. English has
slowly become the primary mode of communication for business and
other communication areas.

In summary, you learned that;

 The world of IT applications in all sectors offers great opportunities for

gross national development; most especially in developing countries
Internet enables users throughout the world to access its (application)
services from anywhere.

 IT enables global economy era facilitates in terms of easy collection,

processing documentation, analysis and presentation of information in
all sectors; Health, Transport, Commerce, Industrial and education.

 IT, through the adoption of mobile phones and internet access makes
distance to be transparent and accessible of information

 IT has direct positive and negative relationship with economic growth in

various sector of economy.
Glossary

Information: is any form of communication that provides understandable

and useful knowledge for the person receiving it.
Information Technology (IT) is the application of computers and
telecommunications equipment to store, retrieve, transmit and manipulate
data, often in the context of a business or other enterprise.
Information and Communication Technologies(ICT): stresses the role of
communications and the integration of telecommunications (telephone lines
and wireless signals), computers as well as necessary enterprise software,
middleware, storage, and audio-visual systems, which enable users to access,
store, transmit, and manipulate information
Computer: An electronic system that can be instructed to accept, process,
store, and present data and information
Information System: A business information system designed to produce
the information needed for successful management of a structured problem,
process, department, or business.
Communications Network: A set of locations, or nodes, consisting of
hardware, programs, and information linked together as a system that
transmits and receives data and information.
Internet: Electronic information networks that carry audio, video and
computer data.

Further Reading

Joseph Farrell, &Carl Shapiro, The Economics of Information Technology: An

Introduction (Raffaele Mattioli Lectures) Cambridge University Press, 2016

H. L. Capron and J. A Johnson, Computers: Tools for an information age, 12th

Edition, Prentice Hall 2018

TOPIC ACTIVITIES

Activity
Visit nearby shop center carry out a survey and identify how IT facilities day
to day activities and transactions

Tip

Identify the type(s) of IT gadget(s) used by shopkeeper and customers in

carry out various shopping activities and transactions.

Assignment

a) The world of IT applications in all sectors offers great opportunities for

gross national development; most especially in developing countries
Internet enables users throughout the world to access its (application)
services from anywhere. Justify this statement using five specify
examples.

b) Explain how IT enables global economy era facilitates in terms of easy

collection, processing documentation, analysis and presentation of
information in following sectors;

i) Health,

ii) Transport,

iii) Commerce,

iv) Industrial and

v) Education.

c) Discuss how IT through the adoption of mobile phones and internet

access makes distance to be transparent and accessible of information

d) ”IT has direct positive and negative relationship with economic and
social growth in various sector of economy”. Qualify the statement citing
five positive and negative examples.
 TOPIC TWO: COMPUTER TECHNOLOGY

Introduction
Welcome to topic one. This topic is aimed at introducing Computer technology
composing of hardware, software, databases, telecommunications,
procedures and people. The components are organized to input, process, and
output data and information. The topic is, therefore, designed to prepare you
to have a clear understanding of the computer technology.

Topic Time

 Compulsory online reading, activities, self-assessments and practice

exercises [3 hours]
 Optional further reading [1.5 hours]
 Total student input [4.5 hours]

Topic Learning Requirements

 Participation in one chat (at least 5 entries)

 At least two elaborate contributions to the discussion topic. You may also
start your own discussion thread.

 Timely submission of the assignments

Learning Outcomes

By the end of this topic you should be able to:

i. Define computer technology

ii. Explain computer technology composition
iii. Outline impacts of computer technology
iv. Explain how computer technology has change working styles in
various sectors
Topic Content

2.1 Introduction
Computer technology is the design and construction of computers to better
help people at work, school, home, etc
Computer technology refers to the design, construction and programming
of computers. This broad definition encompasses a few major areas such as
hardware, software and networking. Advanced areas involve artificial
intelligence, robotics and biomedical forensics.
Computer-based information systems (CBISs) are composed of
hardware, software, databases, telecommunications, procedures, and people.
The components are organized to input, process, and output data and
information.
Computer hardware technology includes the inner workings of computers:
hard drives, central processing units (CPUs) and CD/DVD readers. Much
computer technology for personal computers involves reducing the amount of
space needed to hold memory so that more can fit into a home computer,
giving the user the ability to store more information. There is also computer
technology focused on making CPUs more efficient and longer lasting.
Computer software includes all computer programs regardless of their
architecture; for example, executable files, libraries and scripts are computer
software. Yet, it shares their mutual properties: software consists of clearly
defined instructions that upon execution, instructs hardware to perform the
tasks for which it is designed. Software is stored in computer memory and
cannot be touched.

Computer Applications Technology is the study of the integrated

components of a computer system (hardware and software) and the practical
techniques for their efficient use and application to solve everyday problems.
The solutions to problems are designed, managed and processed via end-user
applications and communicated using appropriate information and
communication technologies (ICTs). ICTs are the combination of networks,
hardware and software as well as the means of communication, collaboration
and engagement that enable the processing, management and exchange of
data, information and knowledge.

Figure 2.1: Computer Applications Technology

Solution development is the actions and processes involved in developing
a computer-based solution by utilizing appropriate tools such as application
packages to solve a variety of problems represented by real-life scenarios. For
Computer Applications Technology these applications are end-user
applications which include word-processing, spreadsheet, database and
presentation applications.
Systems technologies refer to the physical and non-physical components of
a computer system. The components of the system are independent units
which are designed to perform a particular function. These components which
include hardware, peripherals and software components are connected as a
unit to perform the basic functions of a computing system, which include input,
processing, output, storage, communication and transfer of data in an
electronic format.
Network technologies include various network technologies to facilitate the
management and dissemination of digital data from one point to another.
Network technologies also refer to the electronic systems used for electronic
data interchange used to facilitate information dissemination between various
individuals or groups at a single point or dispersed locations.
Internet technologies include the WWW and all interrelated processes in
the digital presentation of multimedia data on a web page. Internet
technologies are defined as a set of related and interconnected technologies
which enable the establishment of global networks, for various purposes such
as collaboration, electronic data interchange, electronic commerce, electronic
communication and social networking.
Information management refers to the techniques and technologies
involved in the collection, storage, processing of data into information that
leads to knowledge and decision-making. It includes the use of appropriate
communication and presentation tools to communicate new knowledge and
recommendations.
Social implications refer to issues relating to the digital age and bridging
the digital divide and include issues that lead to the responsible use of ICTs.
This section of the CAT curriculum should consider the impact the use of
computer technology has on everyday life. Examples
i) ICT influence on life and life styles
ii) ICTs in everyday life
iii) Influences on life and life styles
iv) Economic reasons for using computers
 v) Communication etiquette
vi) Safe Internet and e-mail use
vii) Enhancing accessibility
viii) Computer and human error
ix) Impact of ICTs in the workplace and employment practices
x) Social engineering tricks
xi) Online safety and protection issues
2.2 Computer Hardware

Computer Hardware refers to the physical equipment used for the input,
processing, output, and storage activities of a computer system. It consists of
the following:
i) Input technologies
ii) Central processing unit (CPU)
iii) Memory (primary and secondary storage)
iv) Output technologies
v) Communication technologies
 C.P.U

PROCESSOR
CONTROL Unit

Issues commands to all

elements of computer

ARITHMETIC LOGIC
UNIT (Performs all
arithmetic)

INPUT (Data , OUTPUT

information, (Information
instructions) MAIN MEMORY (MAIN and results)
STORAGE) holds data,
instruction and results of
processing

AUXILLARY STORAGE
(BACKING STORAGE)
supplements main storage

KEY: Data / instruction flow

key: Command / signal

Fig 2.2: The functional components of a computer system. (Von Neumann

model)
This model of the typical digital computer is often called the von
Neumann computer.
• Programs and data are stored in the same memory: primary
memory.
• The computer can only perform one instruction at a time
Notice for the above fig above
 Data normally flows from input devices or backing storage into main
storage main storage to output devices
 The processor performs operations on data from main storage and returns
the results of processing to main storage.
 In some cases, data flows directly between the processor and input or
output devices
 The Arithmetic-Logical Unit (ALU) and control unit combine to form the
processor.
NB: Unit – is a distinct function and not separate hardware components.
 There two types of flow shown in Fig 1.4; solid lines carry data or
instructions but broken lines carry commands or signals.
Data held on backing storage may be input into main memory during
processing, used and brought up to date using newly input data, and then
returned to backing storage.
2.2.1 Input Technologies/Units
Input units consist of devices that translate data into a form the computer can
understand.
Binary information must be presented to a computer in a specific format. This
task is performed by the input unit:
- Interfaces with input devices.
- Accepts binary information from the input devices.
- Presents this binary information in a format expected by the computer.
- Transfers this information to the memory or processor.
Digitizing: The process of taking a visual image, or audio recording and
converting it to a binary form for the computer.
• Used as data for programs to display, play or manipulate the
digitized data.
Connecting Hardware to the computer:
Hardware needs access through some general input/output connection.
Port: The pathway for data to go into and out of the computer from external
devices such as keyboards.
There are many standard ports as well as custom electronic ports designed
for special purposes.
Ports follow standards that define their use.
SCSI, USB: Multiple peripheral devices (chain).
RS-232, IDE: Individual peripheral devices.
Peripheral device: A piece of hardware like a printer or disk drive that is
outside the main computer.
 Hardware needs software on the computer that can service the device.
Device driver: Software addition to the operating system that will allow
the computer to communicate with a particular device.
 Common Basic Technologies for Storing Binary Information:
• Electronic
• Magnetic
• Optical
1) Electronic Circuits
• Most expensive of the three forms for storing binary information.
• A flip-flop circuit has either one electronic status or the other. It
is said to flip-flop from one to the other.
Electronic circuits come in two forms:
 Permanent
 Non-permanent
2) Magnetic Technology
 Two parts to most of the magnetic forms of information storage:
The medium that stores the magnetic information.
Example: Floppy disk. Tiny spots on the disk are
magnetized to represent 0s and 1s.
The device that can “read” that information from the
medium.
The drive spins the disk.
 It has a magnetic sensing arm that moves over the
disk.
Performs non-destructive reading.
3) Optical
• Uses lasers to “read” the binary information from the medium,
usually a disc.
– Millions of tiny holes are “burned” into the surface of the
disc.
– The holes are interpreted as 1s. The absence of holes are
interpreted as 0s.
Input units /technologies are divided into three types:
i) Keyboard hardware
ii) Pointing devices
iii) Source data-entry
Keyboard hardware: this is a device that converts letters, numbers, and
other characters into electrical signals that are machine-readable by the
computer’s processors. It looks like typewriter keyboard, and contains
alphabetical & alphanumeric characters, numbers and other function keys.
Pointing devices: control the position of the cursor or pointer on the screen.
Example are; mice, light-pens, touchpads etc
Source data-entry devices: these refer to menu forms of data-entry devices
that are not keyboards or pointing devices. They create machine-readable
data on magnetic media or paper or feed it directly into the computer’s
processor. They include: scanning devices, sensors, etc

2.2.2 The Central Processing Unit

The central processing unit (CPU) performs the actual computation or
“number crunching” inside any computer. The CPU is a microprocessor (for
example, a Pentium 4 by Intel) made up of millions of microscopic transistors
embedded in a circuit on a silicon wafer or chip. (Hence, microprocessors are
commonly referred to as chips.)
The control unit sequentially accesses program instructions, decodes them,
and controls the flow of data to and from the ALU, the registers, the caches,
primary storage, secondary storage, and various output devices.
The arithmetic-logic unit (ALU) performs the mathematic calculations and
makes logical comparisons. The registers are high-speed storage areas that
store very small amounts of data and instructions for short periods of time.
How the CPU Works
The CPU, on a basic level, operates like a tiny factory. Inputs come in and are
stored until needed, at which point they are retrieved and processed and the
output is stored and then delivered somewhere. Figure 2.1 illustrates this
process, which works as follows:
 The inputs are data and brief instructions about what to do with the
data. These instructions come from software in other parts of the
computer. Data might be entered by the user through the keyboard, for
example, or read from a data file in another part of the computer. The
inputs are stored in registers until they are sent to the next step in the
processing.
 Data and instructions travel in the chip via electrical pathways called
buses. The size of the bus—analogous to the width of a highway—
determines how much information can flow at any time.
 The control unit directs the flow of data and instructions within the chip.
 The arithmetic-logic unit (ALU) receives the data and instructions from
the registers and makes the desired computation. These data and
instructions have been translated into binary form, that is, only 0s and
1s. The CPU can process only binary data.
 The data in their original form and the instructions are sent to storage
registers and then are sent back to a storage place outside the chip,
 such as the computer’s hard drive (discussed below). Meanwhile, the
transformed data go to another register and then on to other parts of
the computer (to the monitor for display, or to be stored, for example).
This cycle of processing, known as a machine instruction cycle, occurs
millions of times per second or more. It is faster or slower, depending on the
following four factors of chip design:
1) The preset speed of the clock that times all chip activities, measured in
megahertz (MHz), millions of cycles per second, and gigahertz (GHz),
billions of cycles per second. The faster the clock speeds, the faster
the chip. (For example, all other factors being equal, a 1.0 GHz chip is
twice as fast as a 500 MHz chip.)
2) The word length, which is the number of bits (0s and 1s) that can be
processed by the CPU at any one time. The majority of current chips
handle 32-bit word lengths, and the Pentium 4 is designed to handle 64-
bit word lengths. Therefore, the Pentium 4 chip will process 64 bits of
data in one machine cycle. The larger the word length, the faster the
chip.
3) The bus width. The wider the bus (the physical paths down which the
data and instructions travel as electrical impulses), the more data can
be moved and the faster the processing. A processor’s bus bandwidth is
the product of the width of its bus (measured in bits) times the
frequency at which the bus transfers data (measured in megahertz). For
example, Intel’s Pentium 4 processor uses a 64-bit bus that runs at 400
MHz. That gives it a peak bandwidth of 3.2 gigabits per second.
4) The physical design of the chip. The distance between transistors is
known as line width. Historically, line width has been expressed in
microns (millionths of a meter), but as technology has advanced, it has
become more convenient to express line width in nanometers (billionths
of a meter). Currently, most CPUs are designed with 180-nanometer
technology (0.18 microns), but chip manufacturers are moving to 130-
nanometer technology (0.13 microns). The smaller the line width, the
more transistors can be packed onto a chip, and the faster the chip.
Advances in Microprocessor Design
Innovations in chip designs are coming at a faster and faster rate, as
described by Moore’s Law. The advances predicted from Moore’s Law come
mainly from the following changes:
 Increasing miniaturization of transistors.
 Making the physical layout of the chip’s components as compact and
efficient as possible (decreasing line width).
 Using materials for the chip that improve the conductivity (flow) of
electricity. The traditional silicon is a semiconductor of electricity—
electrons can flow through it at a certain rate. New materials such as
gallium arsenide and silicon germanium allow even faster electron travel
and some additional benefits, although they are more expensive to
manufacture than silicon chips.
 Targeting the amount of basic instructions programmed into the chip.
There are four broad categories of microprocessor architecture: complex
instruction set computing (CISC), reduced instruction set computing
(RISC), very long instruction word (VLIW), and the newest category,
explicitly parallel instruction computing (EPIC). Most chips are
designated as CISC and have very comprehensive instructions,
directing every aspect of chip functioning. RISC chips eliminate rarely
used instructions. Computers that use RISC chips (for example, a
workstation devoted to high-speed mathematical computation) rely on
their software to contain the special instructions. VLIW architectures
reduce the number of instructions on a chip by lengthening each
instruction. With EPIC architectures, the processor can execute certain
program instructions in parallel. Intel’s Pentium 4 is the first
implementation of EPIC architecture.
Microcontrollers are chips that are embedded in countless products and
technologies, from cellular telephones to toys to automobile sensors.
Microprocessors and microcontrollers are similar except that microcontrollers
usually cost less and work in less-demanding applications. Thus, the scientific
advances in CPU design affect many organizations on the product and service
side, not just on the internal CBIS side.
Control Section
The control section may be compared to a telephone exchange because it uses
the instructions contained in the program in much the same manner as the
telephone exchange uses telephone numbers. When a telephone number is
dialed, it causes the telephone exchange to energize certain switches and
control lines to connect the dialing phone with the phone having the number
dialed. In a similar manner, each programmed instruction, when executed,
causes the control section to energize certain control lines, enabling the
computer to perform the function or operation indicated by the instruction.
The program may be stored in the internal circuits of the computer (computer
memory), or it may be read instruction-by-instruction from external media.
The internally stored program type of computer, generally referred to only as
a stored-program computer, is the most practical type to use when speed
and fully automatic operation are desired.
Computer programs may be so complex that the number of instructions plus
the parameters necessary for program execution will exceed the memory
capacity of a stored-program computer. When this occurs, the program may
be sectionalized; that is, broken down into modules. One or more modules are
then stored in computer memory and the rest in an easily accessible auxiliary
memory. Then as each module is executed producing the desired results, it is
swapped out of internal memory and the next succeeding module read in.
In addition to the commands that tell the computer what to do, the control
unit also dictates how and when each specific operation is to be performed. It
is also active in initiating circuits that locate any information stored within the
computer or in an auxiliary storage device and in moving this information to
the point where the actual manipulation or modification is to be accomplished.
The four major types of instructions are
i) Transfer,
ii) Arithmetic,
iii) Logic,
iv) Control.
Transfer instructions are those whose basic function is to transfer (move)
data from one location to another. Arithmetic instructions are those that
combine two pieces of data to form a single piece of data using one of the
arithmetic operations.
Logic instructions transform the digital computer into a system that is more
than a high-speed adding machine. Using logic instructions, the programmer
may construct a program with any number of alternate sequences. For
example, through the use of logic instructions, a computer being used for
maintenance inventory will have one sequence to follow if the number of a
given item on hand is greater than the order amount and another sequence if
it is smaller. The choice of which sequence to use will be made by the control
section under the influence of the logic instruction. Logic instructions, thereby,
provide the computer with the ability to make decisions based on the results
of previously generated data. That is, the logic instructions permit the
computer to select the proper program sequence to be executed from among
the alternatives provided by the programmer.
Control instructions are used to send commands to devices not under direct
command of the control section, such as input/output units or devices.
Control Unit (Has two locations where numbers are kept)
Instruction Register (Instruction placed here for analysis)
Program Counter (Which instruction will be performed next?)
Pipelining
An instruction pipeline is a technique used in the design of computers to
increase their instruction throughput (the number of instructions that can be
executed in a unit of time). The basic instruction cycle is broken up into a
series called a pipeline. Rather than processing each instruction sequentially
(one at a time, finishing one instruction before starting the next), each
instruction is split up into a sequence of steps so different steps can be
executed concurrently (at the same time) and in parallel (by different
circuitry).
Pipelining increases instruction throughput by performing multiple operations
at the same time (concurrently), but does not reduce instruction latency (the
time to complete a single instruction from start to finish) as it still must go
through all steps. Indeed, it may increase latency due to additional overhead
from breaking the computation into separate steps and worse, the pipeline
may stall (or even need to be flushed), further increasing latency.
Arithmetic-Logic Section
The arithmetic-logic section performs all arithmetic operations-adding,
subtracting, multiplying, and dividing. Through its logic capability, it tests
various conditions encountered during processing and takes action based on
the result. Data flows between the arithmetic-logic section and the internal
storage section during processing. Specifically, data is transferred as needed
from the internal storage section to the arithmetic-logic section, processed,
and returned to the internal storage section. At no time does processing take
place in the storage section. Data may be transferred back and forth between
these two sections several times before processing is completed. The results
are then transferred from internal storage to an output unit, as indicated by
the solid arrow.
i) Operations are executed in the Arithmetic and Logic Unit (ALU).
 Arithmetic operations such as addition, subtraction.
 Logic operations such as comparison of numbers.
ii) In order to execute an instruction, operands need to be brought into the
ALU from the memory.
  Operands are stored in general purpose registers available in the
ALU.
 Access times of general purpose registers are faster than the
cache.
iii) Results of the operations are stored back in the memory or retained in
the processor for immediate use.
2.2.3 Computer Memory
The amount and type of memory that a computer possesses has a great deal
to do with its general utility, often affecting the type of program it can run and
the work it can do, its speed, and both the cost of the machine and the cost
of processing data. There are two basic categories of computer memory. The
first is primary storage, so named because small amounts of data and
information that will be immediately used by the CPU are stored there. The
second is secondary storage, where much larger amounts of data and
information (an entire software program, for example) are stored for extended
periods of time.
Memory Capacity
CPUs process only 0s and 1s. All data are translated through computer
languages (covered in the next chapter) into series of these binary digits, or
bits. A particular combination of bits represents a certain alphanumeric
character or simple mathematical operation. Eight bits are needed to
represent any one of these characters.
This 8-bit string is known as a byte. The storage capacity of a computer is
measured in bytes. (Bits are used as units of measure typically only for
telecommunications capacity, as in how many million bits per second can be
sent through a particular medium.) The hierarchy of byte memory capacity is
as follows:
i) Kilobyte. Kilo means one thousand, so a kilobyte (KB) is approximately
one thousand bytes. Actually, a kilobyte is 1,024 bytes (210 bytes).
 ii) Megabyte. Mega means one million, so a megabyte (MB) is
approximately one million bytes (1,048,576 bytes, or 1,024x 1,024, to
be exact). Most personal computers have hundreds of megabytes of
RAM memory
iii) Gigabyte. Giga means one billion; a gigabyte (GB) is actually
1,073,741,824 bytes (1,024 x 1,024 x 1,024 bytes). The storage
capacity of a hard drive (a type of secondary storage, discussed shortly)
in modern personal computers is often many gigabytes.
iv) Terabyte. One trillion bytes (actually, 1,078,036,791,296 bytes) is a
terabyte.
If your computer has 256 MB of RAM (a type of primary storage), it can store
268,435,456 bytes of data. A written word might, on average, contain 6 bytes,
so this translates to approximately 44.8 million words. If your computer has
20 GB of storage capacity on the hard drive (a type of secondary storage) and
the average page of text has about 2,000 bytes, your hard drive could store
some 10 million pages of text.
Main Memory or Primary storage
Primary storage, or main memory, as it is sometimes called, stores for very
brief periods of time three types of information: data to be processed by the
CPU, instructions for the CPU as to how to process the data, and operating
system programs that manage various aspects of the computer’s operation.
Primary storage takes place in chips mounted on the computer’s main circuit
board (the motherboard), located as close as physically possible to the CPU
chip. As with the CPU, all the data and instructions in primary storage have
been translated into binary code
There are four main types of primary storage: (1) register, (2) random access
memory (RAM), (3) cache memory, and (4) read-only memory (ROM).
1. Registers. As indicated earlier in the chapter, registers are part of the
CPU. They have the least capacity, storing extremely limited amounts
of instructions and data only immediately before and after processing
2. Random access memory (RAM) It stores more information than the
registers and is farther away from the CPU, but it stores less than
secondary storage (the garage) and is much closer to the CPU than is
secondary storage. When you start most software programs on your
computer, the entire program is brought from secondary storage into
RAM. As you use the program, small parts of the program’s instructions
and data are sent into the registers and then to the CPU. Again, getting
the data and instructions as close to the CPU as possible is key to the
computer’s speed, as is the fact that the RAM is a type of microprocessor
chip.
RAM is temporary and volatile; that is, RAM chips lose their contents if
the current is lost or turned off (as in a power surge, brownout, or
electrical noise generated by lightning or nearby machines). RAM chips
are located directly on the computer’s main circuit board or in other
chips located on peripheral cards that plug into the main circuit board.
The two main types of RAM are dynamic RAM (DRAM) and static
RAM(SRAM). DRAM memory chips offer the greatest capacities and the
lowest cost per bit, but are relatively slow. SRAM costs more than DRAM
but has a higher level of performance, making SRAM the preferred
choice for performance-sensitive applications, including the external L2
and L3 caches
3. Cache memory is a type of high-speed memory that a processor can
access more rapidly than main memory (RAM) Cache memory is a place
closer to the CPU where the computer can temporarily store those blocks
of instructions used most often. Blocks used less often remain in RAM
until they are transferred to cache; blocks used infrequently stay stored
 in secondary storage. Cache memory is faster than RAM because the
instructions travel a shorter distance to the CPU.
4. Read-only memory (ROM)is the place (a type of chip) where certain
critical instructions are safeguarded. ROM is nonvolatile and retains
these instructions when the power to the computer is turned off. The
read-only designation means that these instructions can be read only by
the computer and cannot be changed by the user. An example of ROM
instructions are those needed to start or “boot” the computer once it
has been shut off.
5. Flash memory: This technology can be built into a system or installed
on a personal computer card (known as a flash card). These cards,
though they have limited capacity, are compact, portable, and require
little energy to read and write. Flash memory via flash cards is very
popular for small portable technologies such as cellular telephones,
digital cameras, handheld computers, and other consumer products.
Secondary Memory or Auxiliary memory
Secondary storage is designed to store very large amounts of data for
extended periods of time. Secondary storage can have memory capacity of
several terabytes or more and only small portions of that data are placed in
primary storage at any one time. Secondary storage has the following
characteristics:
i) It takes much more time to retrieve data from secondary storage than
it does from RAM because of the electromechanical nature of secondary
storage devices.
ii) It is much more cost effective than primary storage
iii) It can take place on a variety of media, each with its own technology,
as discussed next.
iv) The overall trends in secondary storage are toward more direct-access
methods, higher capacity with lower costs, and increased portability.
 v) It is non-volatile.
Examples of various types of backup memories
a) Magnetic media.
i) Magnetic tape is kept on a large open reel or in a smaller
cartridge or cassette. Although this is an old technology, it
remains popular because it is the cheapest storage medium and
can handle enormous amounts of data. The downside is that it is
the slowest for retrieval of data, because all the data are placed
on the tape sequentially. Sequential access means that the
system might have to run through the majority of the tape, for
example, before it comes to the desired piece of data. Magnetic
media store information by giving tiny particles of iron oxide
embedded on the tape a positive or negative polarization. Recall
that all data that a computer understands are binary. The positive
or negative polarization of the particles corresponds to a 0 or a 1.
ii) Magnetic disks come in a variety of styles and are popular
because they allow much more rapid access to the data than does
magnetic tape. Magnetic disks, called hard disks or fixed disk
drives, are the most commonly used mass storage devices
because of their low cost, high speed, and large storage capacity.
Fixed disk drives read from, and write to, stacks of rotating
magnetic disk platters mounted in rigid enclosures and sealed
against environmental or atmospheric contamination. These disks
are permanently mounted in a unit that may be internal or
external to the computer. All disk drives (including removable disk
modules, floppy disk drives, and optical drives) are called hard
drives and store data on platters divided into concentric tracks.
Each track is divided further into segments called sectors. To
access a given sector, a read/write head pivots across the rotating
 disks to locate the right track, calculated from an index table, and
the head then waits as the disk rotates until the right sector is
underneath it. Every piece of data has an address attached to it,
corresponding to a particular track and sector. Any piece of
desired data can be retrieved in a non-sequential manner, by
direct access (which is why hard disk drives are sometimes
called direct access storage devices).
Disk drive interfaces. To take advantage of the new, faster
technologies, disk drive interfaces must also be faster. Most PCs
and workstations use one of two high-performance disk interface
standards: Enhanced Integrated Drive Electronics (EIDE) or
Small Computer Systems Interface (SCSI). EIDE offers good
performance, is inexpensive, and supports up to four disks, tapes,
or CD-ROM drivesCSI drives are more expensive than EIDE drives,
but they offer a faster interface and support more devices. SCSI
interfaces are therefore used for graphics workstations, server-
based storage, and large databases.

b) Optical storage devices.

Optical storage devices do not store data via magnetism. To record
information on these devices, a pinpoint laser beam is used to burn tiny
holes into the surface of a reflective plastic platter (such as a compact
disk). When the information is read, another laser, installed in the
optical disk drive of the computer (such as a compact disk drive), shines
on the surface of the disk. If light is reflected, that corresponds to one
binary state. If the light shines on one of the holes burned by the
recording laser, there is no reflection and the other binary state is read.
Compared to magnetic media, optical disk drives are slower than
 magnetic hard drives. On the other hand, they are much less susceptible
to damage from contamination and are also less fragile.
Types of optical disks include compact disk read-only memory (CD-
ROM), digital video disk (DVD), and fluorescent multilayer disk (FMD-
ROM).
Compact disk, read-only memory (CD-ROM) storage devices
feature high capacity, low cost, and high durability. However, because
it is a read-only medium, the CDROM can be only read and not written
on. Compact disk, rewritable (CD-RW) adds rewritability to the
recordable compact disk market, which previously had offered only
write-once CD-ROM technology.
The digital video disk (DVD. DVDs have advantages over
videocassettes, including better quality, smaller size (meaning they
occupy less shelf space), and lower duplicating costs. DVDs can also
perform as computer storage disks, providing storage capabilities of 17
gigabytes.
Fluorescent multilayer disk (FMD-ROM) The idea of using multiple
layers on an optical disk is not new, as DVDs currently support two
layers. However, by using a new fluorescent-based optical system, FMDs
can support 20 layers or more. FMDs are clear disks; in the layers are
fluorescent materials that give off light. The presence or absence of
these materials tells the drive whether there is information there or not.
All layers of an FMD can be read in parallel, thereby increasing the data
transfer rate.
c) Memory cards. PC memory cards are credit-card-size devices that
can be installed in an adapter or slot in many personal computers. The
PC memory card functions as if it were a fixed hard disk drive. The
cost per megabyte of storage is greater than for traditional hard disk
storage, but the cards do have advantages. They are less failure prone
 than hard disks, are portable, and are relatively easy to use. Software
manufacturers often store the instructions for their programs on a
memory card for use with laptop computers.
d) Expandable storage. Expandable storage devices are removable
disk cartridges. The storage capacity ranges from 100 megabytes to
several gigabytes per cartridge, and the access speed is similar to that
of an internal hard drive. Although more expensive than internal hard
drives, expandable storage devices combine hard disk storage capacity
and diskette portability. Expandable storage devices are ideal for backup
of the internal hard drive.
Enterprise Storage Systems
An enterprise storage system is an independent, external system with
intelligence that includes two or more storage devices. These systems are an
alternative to allowing each host or server to manage its own storage devices
directly. Enterprise storage systems provide large amounts of storage, high-
performance data transfer, a high degree of availability, protection against
data loss, and sophisticated management tools
There are three major types of enterprise storage subsystems: redundant
arrays of independent disks (RAIDs), storage area networks (SANs), and
network-attached storage (NAS).
a) Redundant array of independent disks. Hard drives in all computer
systems are susceptible to failures caused by temperature variations,
head crashes, motor failure, controller failure, and changing voltage
conditions. To improve reliability and protect the data in their enterprise
storage systems, many computer systems use redundant arrays of
independent disks (RAID) storage products. RAID links groups of
standard hard drives to a specialized microcontroller. The
microcontroller coordinates the drives so they appear as a single logical
drive, but they take advantage of the multiple physical drives by storing
 data redundantly, thus protecting against data loss due to the failure of
any single drive.
b) Storage area network. A storage area network (SAN) is an
architecture for building special, dedicated networks that allow rapid and
reliable access to storage devices by multiple servers. Storage over
IP, sometimes called IP over SCSI or iSCSI, is a technology that uses
the Internet Protocol to transport stored data between devices within a
SAN. Storage visualization software is used with SANs to graphically
plot an entire network and allow storage administrators to view the
properties of, and monitor, all devices from a single console.
c) Network-attached storage. A network-attached storage (NAS)
device is a special purpose server that provides file storage to users who
access the device over a network. The NAS server is simple to install
(i.e., plug-and-play), and works exactly like a general-purpose file
server, so no user retraining or special software is needed.
Storage Service Providers (SSPs)
Storage Service Providers (SSPs), also called storage-on-demand or
storage utilities, provide customers with the storage capacity they require as
well as professional services including assessment, design, operations, and
management. Services offered by SSPs include primary online data storage,
backup and restorability, availability, and accessibility. SSPs offer the
advantages of implementing storage solutions quickly and managing storage
around-the-clock, even if the storage devices are located at the customer’s
data center. However, there is some increased security risk associated with
moving an enterprise’s data off-site.

Productivity
Hardware technology can affect both personal and organizational productivity.
Businesses need to assess whether employees’ personal productivity is likely
to increase as microprocessor power and speed increase.
Similarly, as primary storage capacity increases, what advantages come your
way? A trend in software is to make each new version more complex.
Consider, for example, the differences in Microsoft Office 2013 This software
suite has so many more instructions that it cannot run well on machines with
less than 256 MB RAM.
To take advantage of the newer software, you need to upgrade machines. You
also need to invest considerable time to understand whether the new
innovations will help you, and then you must master them. The learning curve
that comes with new machines and software typically comes with a cost to
your productivity, at least in the short term. And perhaps by the time you
master a new generation of technology, it will be obsolete. Multiply this
decision by the number of employees who will use the new software, and you
have an issue of organizational productivity to solve.
At the same time, the cost of computers is decreasing while the power is
increasing. Is the workforce prepared to take advantage of these more
powerful machines? How would your business measure the anticipated
increases in productivity? You would need to be able to measure or somehow
quantify the changes in organizational productivity in order to make a
reasoned cost–benefit decision.
2.2.4 Output technologies
These are output devices that translate information processed by the
computer into a form that human can understand. They are divided into:
 Softcopy output
 Hard copy output
 Other output devices
Softcopy output devices: these are output devices that show programming
instructions and data as they are being input and information after it is
processed. Examples monitor, flat panel display, etc.
Hard Copy output devices: These are devices that print characters,
symbols, and perhaps graphics on paper or another hard copy medium.
Examples are: printer, plotters, etc.
Other output devices: These refer to output hardware for sound output,
voice output, video output, virtual reality, and simulation devices. This
includes: speaker, etc.
2.2.5 Communication Technologies
Communication technology, including traditional and digital means like
mobile phones or the Web, require experts for their proper functioning amidst
a world that depends on remaining connected for business and social
purposes. Communication technology influences business and society by
making the exchange of ideas and information more efficient. Communication
technology specialists design and maintain technical systems of
communication, according to the needs of a specific business, industry or
market. Examples of communication technologies include:
1) Social media platforms allow people to create personal pages, post
profile images and updates on their lives, and create a friend list of
people who can see your updates. The first social media platform was 6
Degrees, which was launched in 1997. MySpace was launched in 2003
and became the first mainstream social media platform. It was the most
popular social media platform in the world between 2005 to
2008. Facebook took over from MySpace as the most used social media
platform and remains used by billions around the world today. Twitter
is another large social media site used to quickly share short thoughts
to people around the web. Major corporations, public figures and
 governments use Twitter to quickly share updates and in-the-moment
responses to sensitive issues of public importance.
2) Blogs are personal websites where people can publish or ‘log’
information for others with an internet connection to read – all around
the globe.A blog is usually a personal website where someone shares
regular long-form posts about their lives or hobbies. More professional
or commercialized blogs are run by media organizations, companies
seeking publicity, or professional bloggers who monetize through
advertising or affiliate marketing.
Blogs revolutionized mass communication. Before blogs you
needed to get a publishing company to print and market your writing
around the world at great expense.

3) Vlogs are “video logs”. They emerged as an extension of blogging after

increased bandwidths enabled regular people to post video online. The
typical vlog style involves the vlogger using a handheld camera or
camera on their computer monitor to record themselves speaking. Some
vlogs, however, are high production with complex graphics and
recording teams. The first vlog was published in 2000 when Adam
Kontras posted a video on his blog for his family and friends to view.
With the emergence of YouTube in 2005, blogging became increasingly
popular. YouTube gave everyday people the ability to upload and embed
videos online. Another facilitating factor was the emergence of cheap
Smartphone cameras.

4) Live video is an extension of vlogging that has responded to online

content consumers’ needs for immediacy and authenticity. Live video
was integrated onto the YouTube video sharing platform in April 2011.
Competitor network Facebook introduced Facebook Live in August
2015.Live video has the benefit of synchronicity in communication. On
 YouTube, for example, the live vlogger can read live community
comments appearing on-screen in real time and respond to their
comments or questions mid-stream. An important element of live video
stream is the capacity for video to be played, paused and rewound in
real time. A video is not uploaded as a standalone packet of data that
can only be viewed once it has been completely downloaded on the
receiver’s end. Instead, the data is downloaded, buffered and played in
real time.

5) Conferencing and Live Lecture Technology: Sophisticated

conferencing technology helps workplaces communicate across long
distances. Today, live conferencing technology tends to use live video
alongside complex speaker systems. Examples of common affordances
of conferencing technology include:

 360 degree cameras. Cameras automatically detect who is speaking

then display the current speaker’s face.
 Microphone and speaker capacities to allow anyone in a room to
speak clearly to people on the other end of the conference
call.Some of favorite online collaboration tools also allow users to
interact by sharing computer screens. A conference can have a
brainstorming screen on which all members of the conference can
write from their computers

6) Group Wikis: A wiki is a website where anyone can edit and add
content. The most famous wiki is, of course, Wikipedia. Wikis allow
collaborative crowd sourcing of information. This can help members of
the wikis to amass a lot of information in a short period of time. The
collective knowledge that is stored on Wikis can be accessed at ease by
all users, allowing the creation of a ‘hive mind’. Hive minds are
 knowledge or information stored and accessed by a community of
people.
7) Group Forums: A group forum allows people to post questions and
answers for others to respond to. Many forums are sorted by topics,
such as Reddit, which allows people with shared interests to
communicate with one another. Group forums are also commonly used
in education where online schools have students respond to a stimulus
question each week. Another benefit of forums is that people can reply
to each other’s’ comments to create a long-form conversation between
individuals online. The full conversation is recorded in comments and
replies, leaving a paper trail of conversations which can be great for
tracking the progress of the group’s thinking.
8) Tablet computers: The sleek, modern tablet computers that we enjoy
today emerged around 2008-2010 with the emergence of big players
like Android and Apple into the tablet computer market. The emergence
of tablet computers was made possible by technological advances that
saw the requisite technologies both compact and cheap enough for the
mass market. Key challenges included creating small and affordable
touch screen technology and compact long life battery packs. Tablets
are now widely used as a portable device that fits in the market between
a Smartphone that’s carried in the pocket and a laptop that usually
requires its own bag. Tablets easily fit into carry bags, are sufficiently
lightweight for carefree travel, and are powerful enough to make video
phone calls, take photos, and carry out light personal computing tasks
9) PodcastsPodcasts are packets of audio information that can be
uploaded and stored on cloud technology ready for anyone to download
and listen to at-will. A podcast can be automatically downloaded onto a
smartphone through RSS feeds so that fans of a podcast series can get
the latest episodes at-will.Podcasts emerged out of radio technology.
 Whereas radio is transmitted through radio waves, podcasts are
transmitted through the more agile and feature-rich internet. This has
provided features such as downloads at-will rather than forcing people
to tune in at a specific point in time Podcasting has also given people
the chance to access audio of their favorite topics from around the globe.
Whereas radio tends to appeal to the widest possible audience in a
specific geographical location (where it is transmitted), podcasts tend to
appeal to a dispersed community of people interested in specific topics,
such as ‘true crime’, ‘politics’, or ‘comedy’. Publication of podcasts is
also available to anyone with a computer and microphone. It is therefore
very similar to other examples of communication technologies in this list
(see for example: blogs). While once communicating messages to large
audiences was restricted to the powerful, now we can all share our
message from behind our computer screens.
10) Wearable Technology: Wearable technologies help make
communication easier than ever. A wearable technology is any
information technology that is carried on the body. Examples include:
 Smart Watches
 Smart Glasses
 Exercise bracelets
Smart Watches allow people to use voice commands to control
them. With internet connections, wearable technology can provide
quick answers to questions that we ask them, make hands-free
phone calls, and help you keep spoken-word memos and notes
throughout the day.
Exercise bracelets and other wearable health trackers tap into
people’s bodies to measure vital signs and sleep rhythms. These
bracelets can automatically send data to exercise trainers and
 medical professionals to provide quick and accurate updates on the
health profile of the wearer.
Smart Glasses can integrate augmented reality into a person’s
everyday life. When a user is wearing smart glasses, they can have
the glasses project data like their travel speed or internet search data
directly onto their retina. They usually also allow people to make
phone calls through voice commands. Most smart glasses
technologies also allow users to communicate with them through eye
movements, blinks or hand movements.
11) Smart speakers are computerized personal assistants placed around
offices and homes in order to help people complete tasks hands-free.
They are usually activated using a hot word, like ‘Hey Computer’ or
‘OK Google’. Smart speakers can hear people from distances, allowing
people to use the speakers while still going about their business. Once
activated by a hot word, the user asks the device questions or
provides voice commands such as ‘turn out the lights’, ‘add this to the
shopping list’ or ‘play a song’. Furthermore, smart speakers can be
hooked into phone lines and internet lines to allow people to ask
search engine questions via voice command or make phone calls while
going about their daily lives.

12) WebChat: While web chat has been around since the early days of
the internet, it has experienced a resurgence in recent years for
business to consumer (B2C) communication. Early web chat software
included MSN messenger which was embraced by adolescents and
young adults as a way of chatting with friends during the early 2000s.
With the rise of Facebook and Facebook messenger, MSN messenger
declined and was disbanded in 2012.Smartphone apps have made
web chat an increasingly popular form of instant communication
between friends. However, it has also recently been used by
 companies as a means of offering “web chat support” to customers
seeking help with their products. Web chat support for business to
consumer interactions is a viable alternative to phone helpline
support. It enables customers to go about their daily lives and get a
notification whenever the support team has a new piece of
information, rather than waiting on hold on the phone

13) Email:While email has been around since at least the 1970s, it
makes this list because of its continuing relevance in the 21st
Century. Email in fact outdates the internet by several decades. Early
emails were sent via closed-circuit LAN networks in government and
university databases. The first email using the ‘@’ symbol to direct
the message to the correct servers was used in 1971. Perhaps most
emblematic of email’s increased relevance to our lives is the growing
rate of ‘paperless billing’. Whereas once we would have received bills
via post, most business to consumer (B2C) billing and invoicing is
done via email today. Email has also rendered alternatives like Fax
almost irrelevant in the 21st Century.
2.2.6 Changing work styles
Advances in miniaturization of microprocessors and memory devices are
ushering in ever-smaller computing and communication devices that can
assist employees in achieving a productive, nontraditional work style. This is
particularly true for employees who work largely out of the office. Whether at
home or on the road, employees can stay connected to the home office and
keep their efforts coordinated with organizational goals via the cellular
telephone, modem and portable computers of one style or another. All of these
devices are enabled by advances in these technologies. The issue the
organization must consider is whether these new work styles will benefit
employees and the firm as a whole. In particular, does the firm know how to
manage these new work styles?
2.2.7 New Products and services
Because the cost of computing power continues to decline as per Moore’s
Law, organizationsmay find that supercomputers are affordable and
justifiable. With a supercomputer, business organizations can tackle
increasingly sophisticated problems, from forecasting to product development
to advanced market research. Similarly, advances in miniaturization of
microcontrollers, microprocessors, and memory devices can also drive the
development of new products and services for your firm. Is the organization
ready and able to take advantage of these advances? What new products and
services would advances in hardware make possible for the business?
2.2.8 Improved communications
Multimedia is often thought of as the basis for an entertainment system, with
limited use in the business world. Increasingly, organizations recognize that
multimedia capability is an important aspect of knowledge management and
communication. When integrated with a firm’s network and/or the Internet,
multimedia technology makes possible incredibly rich communication and
knowledge sharing throughout the organization, as well as with the rest of the
world. Many commercial Web sites feature multimedia, making video, audio,
graphic, and textual information available to all who visit. Multimedia
presentations are now the standard for excellence in the business world, and
anyone who has to sell a product, service, or idea benefits from exploiting this
technology.
In summary, you learned computer technologies as well as computer
hardware as follows:-
a) Computer technologies
i) Solution Development
ii) Systems Technologies
iii) Network Technologies
iv) Internet Technologies
 v) Information Management
vi) Social Implications of computer technologies
b) Computer hardware parts/ components
i) Central processing unit (CPU)
ii) Memory (primary and secondary storage)
iii) Input technologies
iv) Output technologies
v) Communication technologies
Also you have learned
a) Computer technologies and computer hardware contribution in form of
improving productivity in various sector
b) Computer technologies and computer hardwarecontribution in changing
working styles
c) Contribution of computer technologies and computer hardware
innovations leading to new products and services
d) Contribution of computer technologies and computer hardware towards
improving communication
Glossary
Computer technology refers to the design, construction and programming
of computers. This broad definition encompasses a few major areas such as
hardware, software and networking. Advanced areas involve artificial
intelligence, robotics and biomedical forensics.
Solution development is the actions and processes involved in developing
a computer-based solution by utilizing appropriate tools such as application
packages to solve a variety of problems represented by real-life scenarios.
Systems technologies refer to the physical and non-physical components of
a computer system.
Network technologies include various network technologies to facilitate the
management and dissemination of digital data from one point to another.
Internet technologies include the WWW and all interrelated processes in
the digital presentation of multimedia data on a web page.
Information management refers to the techniques and technologies
involved in the collection, storage, processing of data into information that
leads to knowledge and decision-making.
Social implications refer to issues relating to the digital age and bridging
the digital divide and include issues that lead to the responsible use of ITs.
Computer-based information systems (CBISs) are composed of
hardware, software, databases, telecommunications, procedures, and people.
The components are organized to input, process, and output data and
information.
Hardwarerefers to the physical equipment used for the input, processing,
output, and storage activities of a computer system.
Further reading
Joseph Farrell, &Carl Shapiro, The Economics of Information Technology: An
Introduction (Raffaele Mattioli Lectures) Cambridge University Press, 2016

H. L. Capron and J. A Johnson, Computers: Tools for an information age, 12th

Edition, Prentice Hall 2018

https://web.stanford.edu/class/cs101/hardware-1.html
https://www.law.berkeley.edu/files/chp1.pdf
https://www.docsity.com/en/lecture-notes/computer-science/information-
and-computer-technology/
https://www.tutorialspoint.com/computer_fundamentals/computer_software
.htm

TOPIC ACTIVITIES
Use the concepts you have learnt in this topic to compare and relate human
and computer Information Processing.
Assignment
a) Discuss strategic issues that link hardware design and innovation to
competitive strategy
b) Innovations in chips designs are coming at a faster and at a faster rate
that microprocessor complexity would double every two years. One of
the changes is the amount of basic instructions sets programmed into
the chip. Briefly explain the broad factors that determine the speed of
microprocessor.
c) The chief executive officer has realized that the main storage of
computer system cannot handle the volume of data required for office
work. He has been advised by information technology expert to acquire
alternative backup storage systems.
i) State any two alternative backup storage systems
ii) Illustrate the difference between backup storage systems in (i)
d) Computer programs may be so complex that the number of instructions
and parameters may exceed the memory capacity. Explain how these
programs complexities are handled using stored program concept.
e) Discuss how multimedia presentations are now the standard for
excellence in the business world and anyone who has to sell a product,
service, or idea benefits from exploiting this technology.
f) Explain how advances in miniaturization of microprocessors and
memory devices are ushering in ever smaller computing and
communication devices that can assist users in achieving a productive,
non-traditional work styles.