Course Title: Wind Energy Technology

Course No: ESE 6109

Course teacher : Nibir Mondol
Assistant Professor
Department of ESE , KUET.
 Syllabus of This Course:

Introduction to wind energy;

Wind resource estimation: Methodologies for resource
assessment and sources of uncertainty;

Different types of wind turbine: Darrious, horizontal and vertical

axis wind turbine;

Effect of different angles on moments of wind turbine;

fundamental of wind turbine design and operation;

Generation of power: mechanism for integrating wind
energy developments for electricity generation and
distribution;

Efficiency and performance of wind turbine. Tower,

alignment of turbine shaft. Recent development of wind
turbine;

Hybrid systems: solar and wind turbine.

 Definitions and Units

1) Wind passage (L (m)):

The distance that wind (air mass) covers over a given
period of time (t).
2) Instantaneous wind speed (Vi (m/s)):
Wind speeds change very quickly, and the numerical
expression for instantaneous wind speed (Vi) at time (t) is expressed as
follows:

where ΔL is the distance the wind travels from one time (t) to another (t +Δt) (m) and Δt
is the short period since the initial time (t) (s). The maximum instantaneous wind speed
(peak gust) is the maximum observed instantaneous wind speed over a specified period of
time.
3) Average wind speed (Vm (m/s)):
The numerical expression for the average wind speed (Vm)
at time (t), in m/s, is defined as follows:

where L is the distance the wind travels from one time (t0) to another (t0 + t)
(m), Vi is the instantaneous wind speed (m/s), and t is the measurement period
since the initial time (t0) (s).
4) Starting threshold speed (V0 (m/s)):
The lowest wind speed at which a rotating anemometer mounted in
its normal position starts to turn continuously.
5) Response length (Ld (m)):
The distance that an air mass moving through a rotating anemometer
travels in a given time period (time constant) required for the output of an
anemometer’s sensor to reach 63% of the equilibrium wind speed after a step
change. The numerical expression for the response length Ld is defined as
follows:
6) Critical damping:
The damping actuated when the direction of a wind vane changed stepwise
reaches equilibrium with the fastest transient response without overshoot.

7) Overshoot (θ):
The amplitude of a wind vane’s deflection when it oscillates
after release from the initial displacement.
 Units
A number of different units are used to indicate wind speed, including
meters per second (m/s), kilometres per hour (km/h), miles per hour (mph),
feet per second (ft/s) and knots (kt). In synoptic reports, the average wind
speed measured over a period of 10 minutes is reported every 0.5 meters
per second (m/s) or in knots (kt).
 Wind Estimation
If a measuring instrument becomes faulty or is not available, wind can be estimated by visual
means such as observing smoke as a guide to wind speed and using the Beaufort Scale.
It is also possible to estimate wind direction by observing the flow of smoke or the movement
of a flag. Streamers at airports can also be used when the wind speed is high enough.

When wind is monitored visually, the following points should be noted:

* Stand directly under the indicator to eliminate any perspective-related errors.
* Do not mistake local eddies resulting from the surrounding conditions (buildings, for
example) for the general wind direction.
* Do not use the direction of cloud movement as an indicator even if their altitude seems low.
Beaufort Scale
 Measurement of wind
A precise knowledge of the wind characteristics at the prospective sites
is essential for the successful planning and implementation of wind
energy projects. The basic information required for such an analysis is
the speed and direction of the prevailing wind at different time scales.
Ecological factors may often be helpful in identifying a candidate site
for wind power project. Wind data from the nearby meteorological
stations can give us a better understanding on the wind spectra available
at the site. However, for a precise analysis, the wind velocity and
direction at the specific site has to be measured with the help of accurate
and reliable instruments.
 Ecological indicators
Eolian features may be used as indicators for strength of the wind prevailing in an area. Eolian
features are the formations on land surface due to continuous strong wind. Sand dunes are one
example for the eolian formation. The sand particles, picked up and carried by the wind flow, are
deposited back when the wind speed is lower. The size of the particle thus carried and deposited
along with the distance can give us an indication on the average strength of the wind in that region.
Other types of eolian features are playa lake, sediment plumes and wind scours. More information on
the use of eolian features for locating windy areas is available in.

Another way to identify a windy site is to observe the biological indicators. Trees and bushes get
deformed due to strong winds. The intensity and nature of this deformation depends on the strength
of wind.
Fig: Biological rating scales for the wind speed
 wind measurement technology

Site selection is the first crucial step in the practical development of wind
farms. Investors decide whether or not to invest on the basis of wind
resource assessment reports known colloquially as “bankable reports”.
Typically these bankable reports require a rigorous assessment of wind
conditions over a twelve-month period before an investment proceeds.
Industry experts suggest that existing wind measurement technology for on-
land installations is not up to the task of providing sufficient data or
providing an accurate assessment of a site’s wind resource potential. This is
due, in part, to the low resolution of the data that is collected on wind speed
and direction and the inability of extant technologies to account sufficiently
for turbulence.
 History of Anemometer
An anemometer is a device for measuring wind speed, and is a common weather station
instrument.
The word anemometer comes from the Greek anemos and literally means the measurement
of the wind.
The first known and documented literature on anemometry is credited to Leon Ballista
Alberti an Italian architect in 1450 who designed and produced the first known swinging
plate anemometer .
In 1664 another variant known as the deflection anemometer was demonstrated by Robert
Hooke, and redesigned in 1744 by Roger Pickering.
In 1833 the British meteorologist E.D. Archibald used kites to lift anemometers to a height
of 500 meters to measure wind speed.
The Irish inventor, Dr John Thomas Robinson, had a major breakthrough
with the invention of the simple cup anemometer in 1846.
Robinson’s design is recognisable as the ubiquitous four cup
anemometer.
With some modifications, this variation is the preferred measuring
instrument for the wind generation industry as specified in the EN 61400-
12-1 Standard.
In 1889 the English meteorologist William Henry Dines presented a
prototype of the first pressure tube anemometer at a committee meeting
of the Royal Meteorological Society . This anemometer was the first
instrument used to measure both velocity and direction of wind, and it
was based on pressure tube measurements and a rotating vane to keep the
tube aligned to the wind.
horizontal axis wind turbine vertical wind turbine
 Fig: Airfoil lift and drag

An airfoil or aerofoil is the cross-sectional shape of a wing, blade, or sail. An airfoil-

shaped body moving through a fluid produces an aerodynamic force..
Drag Force(D) :The component parallel to the direction of motion is called drag force.

Lift Force (L): The component of this force perpendicular to the direction of motion is
called lift.
 List of the main anemometer types
Anemometers can be divided into two classes: those that measure the wind's speed, and those that measure the wind's
pressure; but as there is a close connection between the pressure and the speed, an anemometer designed for one will give
information about both. main anemometers are

1.Rotational anemometers (cup anemometers and propeller anemometers)

2. Pressure type anemometers (pressure tube anemometers, pressure plate anemometers

and sphere anemometers)

3. Thermoelectric anemometers (hot wire anemometers and hot plate anemometers)

4. Phase shift anemometers (ultra sonic anemometers and laser doppler anemometers)
 General Characteristics of Instruments

The important parameters and concepts of instrumentation and measurement

systems are reviewed below. This review is divided into three sections:

1. system components;
2. characterization of measurements;
3. instrument characteristics.
 System Components

Sensors: A sensor is a device, such as a cup of an anemometer or a hot wire, which

reacts to changes in the environment. For example, the cup reacts to the force of the
wind, whereas the hot wire reacts to the wind flow via a temperature response.
Transducers: A transducer is a device which converts energy from one form to
another. In the case of wind measurement, it usually refers to the device that
converts a mechanical motion to an electrical signal.
Signal Conditioners: Signal conditioners supply power to the sensor when required,
receive the signal from the sensor, and convert it to a form that can be used by a
recorder for display.
Recorders: Recorders are devices that store and/or display the data obtained by the
sensor/transducer/ signal conditioner combination.
 Characterization of Measurements

Accuracy and Precision: Accuracy and precision are two measures of instrument system
performance that are often treated ambiguously. The accuracy of an instrument refers to the
mean difference between the output of the instrument and the true value of the measured
variable. Precision refers to the dispersion about that mean. For example, an instrument
may produce the same measured value every time, but that value may be 50% off. Thus,
that system has high precision, but low accuracy.
Error: Error is the difference between the indication and the true value of the measured
signal.
Reliability: The reliability of an instrument is a measure of the likelihood that it will
continue to perform within specified limits of error for a specified time under specified
conditions. The best indicator of reliability is the past performance of similar instruments.
In general, simple and rugged instruments with fewer parts are more reliable than those
with a large number of parts.
Repeatability: The repeatability of an instrument is the closeness of agreement
among a number of consecutive measurements of output for the same input
value, provided the measurements are made under the same conditions.
Reproducibility: The closeness of agreement among measurements of the
same quantity where the individual measurements are made under different
conditions defines measurement reproducibility.
 Instrument Characteristics
Time Constant: The period required for a sensor to respond to 63.2% of a stepwise
change in an input signal defines its time constant.
Distance Constant: The distance constant is the length of air flow past a sensor required
to cause it to respond to 63.2% of a step change in speed. It is calculated by multiplying
the sensor time constant by the average speed of the wind. Standard cup anemometers
can have distance constants as high as 10 m, depending on their size and weight. Small,
lightweight cup anemometers, used for turbulence measurements, have distance constants
between 1.5 and 3 m. For lightweight propeller anemometers, the distance constant is
close to 1 m.
Response Time: The response time is the time required for an instrument to register a
designated percentage (usually 90% or 95%) of a step change in the variable being
measured.
Sampling Rate :The sampling rate is the frequency (Hz) at which the signal is measured.
It can be a function of the data collection system.
Resolution: Resolution is defined as the smallest unit of a variable that is detectable
by the sensor. As an example, a sensor may have a resolution of 0.1 m/s or 1 m/s
depending on the instrument. The type of recorder used may also limit the
resolution.
Sensitivity :The sensitivity of an instrument is the ratio of the full-scale output of an
instrument to the full-scale input value.
 Direction Measurement

Hotwire anemometer can also be used for measuring the direction of

flow with the sensors including several thermal resistances. These
resistors are placed to determine the flow of direction by the hot wire
anemometer from a dissimilar heat emission.
The flow direction can be recorded in two otherwise three dimensions
based on the number as well as hot wires arrangement/hot film
elements. The wind direction can be determined by the weather vanes
over the rooftops that are two-dimensional. Similarly, for the
measurement of 3-dimensional, the plane is perpendicular toward the
cardinal way that is also taken into account.
Advantages
The advantages of a hot wire anemometer include the following.

Less cost, Spatial separation , High-frequency response, Signal analysis, Small size, Accuracy
is good

Disadvantages

The disadvantages of a hot wire anemometer include the following.

High turbulence intensity, Breakage of Probe, Liquid flows, Intrusive Technique, Signal noise
Heat transfer & Aerodynamic problems
Heat transfer among the probe as well as surfaces
 Wind direction

Wind vanes were used to identify the wind direction in earlier day’s anemometers. However,
most of the anemometers used today have provisions to record the direction of wind along
with its velocity. A typical arrangement to measure the wind direction used with cup
anemometers is shown.
Information on the velocity and direction of wind, in a combined form, can be presented in
the wind roses. The wind rose is a chart which indicates the distribution of wind in different
directions.
 Analysis of wind data

For estimating the wind energy potential of a site, the wind data collected from the
location should be properly analyzed and interpreted. Long term wind data from the
meteorological stations near to the candidate site can be used for making
preliminary estimates. This data, which may be available for long periods, should be
carefully extrapolated to represent the wind profile at the potential site. After this
preliminary investigation, field measurements are generally made at the prospective
location for shorter periods. One year wind data recorded at the site is sufficient to
represent the long term variations in the wind profile within an accuracy level of 10
per cent.
Modern wind measurement systems give us the mean wind speed at the site,
averaged over a pre-fixed time period. Ten minutes average is very common as
most of the standard wind analysis software's are tuned to handle data over ten
minutes. This short term wind data are further grouped and analyzed with the
help of models and software's to make precise estimates on the energy
available in the wind. The data are grouped over time spans in which we are
interested in. For example, if we want to estimate the energy available at
different hours, then the data should be grouped in an hourly basis. The data
may also be categorized on daily, monthly or yearly basis.
Fig: Wind roses showing the distribution of frequency, velocity and energy in different directions