ELECTRONICS & INSTRUMENTATION ENGINEERING/

INSTRUMENTATION AND CONTROL ENGINEERING

[2nd Year, 4th Semester]

SUBJECT: ELECTRONIC MEASURING INSTRUMENTS

MODULE: 1

TOPIC: Different Measuring Instruments

SYLLABUS

1.1 Comparison between Analog and Digital Measuring

Instrument

1.2 Rectifier type voltmeter ,True RMS type Analog voltmeter

1.3 Ramp type DVM , Dual Slope Integrating type DVM

1.4 Q Meter-Application and error

prepared by: Rupa Chatterjee

Lecturer in Electronics & Instrumentation Engineering

APC RAY POLYTECHNIC

 1.1 Comparison between Analog and Digital measuring Instrument

Analog Instrument Digital Instrument

1) The output varies continuously with 1) The output varies in discrete steps
input quantity (to be measured) is with input quantity (to be measured)is
known as analog instrument. known as digital instrument.
2) The accuracy, resolution are less and 2) The accuracy resolution are more
power consumption is more. and power consumption is less.
3)The display unit consists of pointer 3) The display unit consists of
and scale arrangement , involving LED/LCD/Plasma display with no
moving parts and so moving part and so It is not sensitive to
It is very sensitive to movement and movement and rough handling.
rough handling. 4) There is no possibility of human error
4) There is a possibility of human error , and instrument error (parallax error) as
instrument error (parallax error) and there are no moving parts.
error due to mechanical parts. 5) Powerful mathematical processing
5) Different sections of analog and programmable operation of
instruments are designed by hardware, software allows modification of
so modification of function of function of instrument which increases
instrument is not easily possible thus flexibility and reliability of instrument.
flexibility and reliability of the 6) Interfacing of multiple inputs can be
instrument is less. done as per requirement of process
6) Interfacing of multiple inputs is not control industry.
easy. 7) It has high input impedance so no
7) It has generally low input impedance loading effect.
so it may cause loading effect. 8) As the storage information in the
8) As the storage information is in the form of binary bits, the output of such
form of continuous variation of instrument can interface directly with
periodic/non periodic) or physical computer or other storage device.
quantity, the output of such instrument
cannot interface directly with computer
or other storage device.
 1.2 RECTIFIER TYPE VOLTMETER

Rectifier instruments are used for measurement of AC voltage and currents. A

PMMC instrument in a rectifier circuit indicates the corresponding DC value;
finally the meter is calibrated in terms of RMS voltage of the input signal.

There are two types of rectifier instruments

i) Half wave rectifier type voltmeter

ii) Full wave rectifier type voltmeter

HALF WAVE RECTIFIER TYPE AC VOLTMETER

Half wave rectifier instruments use silicon or germanium diodes to convert
alternating current into a series of unidirectional current pulses. These current
pulses produce positive deflection when pass through a PMMC instrument.

Input Signal Half Wave Rectifier Instrument Output of Meter

The figure shows half wave rectifier based instrument. Pure sinusoidal signal
(whose rms value is to be measured) having peak value V p is applied at the input
terminals. The half wave instrument consists of an ideal diode, a multiplier
resistance RS and a PMMC meter having resistance Rm. The series connected
multiplier resistor limits the current flow through the PMMC instrument. When
the input sinusoidal signal is positive, diode conducts and current will flow
through the meter. Diode is reverse biased for negative input of sinusoidal signal
and does not conduct. The resulting current waveform is a discontinuous series of
positive half cycles. The meter deflection is proportional to the average current
which 0.318 times peak current is. But the actual current (or voltage) to be
indicated in ac measurements is normally the rms quantity which is 1.57(form
factor of half-wave rectifier is 1.57) times the average value. Since there are direct
relationships between rms, peak and average values, the meter scale can be
calibrated to indicate rms voltage. The average current of half wave rectifier is
given by Iav= =0.318xIp Where Ip is the peak value of current.

The multiplier resistance Rs is given by Rs=0.45x – Rm

.
or Iav=

The AC sensitivity of half wave rectifier is Sac=0.45 ⁄ I where Ifsd is the full scale
deflection current and the average value of voltage Vdc=0.45xVrms

Rectifier type of instrument is used only for pure sinusoidal waveform. The
voltage vs. current characteristic of a diode is nonlinear at low value of current. To
keep the meter scale linear the diode should operate in the linear region that is
for relatively high value of current. The lower part of the ac scale of a low range
rectifier type voltmeter is often crowded, separate low voltage calibrated scale is
provided for this purpose. The effect of low current can be countered by
connecting a shunt resistor Rsh parallel with the meter. The following drawbacks
exist in the circuit.

a) In the negative half cycle of the input , reverse current flows in the circuit ,
thereby reducing the overall average value of current. The meter therefore
gives low reading.
b) In the negative half cycle, the diode may breakdown due to a large reverse
voltage if it is not selected for appropriate rating.
To overcome the problems discussed above, in practical half wave rectifier
voltmeter, another diode D2 is used which bypasses the negative half cycle
current . The figure shows a practical half wave voltmeter circuit. In the positive
half cycle diode D1 is forward biased and conducts. Thus average current
corresponding to input voltage passes through the meter. In the negative half
cycle of input, diode D2 is forward biased and diode D1 is reversed biased .Then
current passes through diode D2 and multiplier resistance Rs to the input. Thus
no current will flow through the meter.

To overcome the effect of nonlinearity and increase average current through the
diode D1, a shunt resistance is connected in parallel with the meter. If the value
of meter resistance is equal to the shunt resistance that is R sh=Rm , the average
current through the diodeD1 becomes double that is 2Iav .Then the value of
multiplying resistor becomes

Rs=o.45Vrms/(2Iav) - (Rd+Rsh||Rm) where Rd is the forward resistance of diode.

The AC sensitivity is now defined as Sac= 0.45/2Ifsd thus ac sensitivity of the

practical rectifier instrument is further reduced.

FULL WAVE RECTIFIER VOLTMETER

Full-wave rectifier instruments use silicon or germanium diodes to convert
alternating current into a series of unidirectional current pulses. These current
pulses produce positive deflection when pass through a PMMC instrument. The
full wave rectifier type of instrument consists of a bridge rectifier having four
number of diodes D1,D2,D3 & D4. The bridge rectifier is connected to an AC signal
(whose rms value is to be measured) through a multiplier resistance R S .

The series connected multiplier resistor limits the current flow through the PMMC
instrument. The meter resistance of PMMC is denoted by R m in the circuit. When
the input sinusoidal signal is positive, diodes D3 and D4 conduct causing current
to flow through the meter from top to bottom. When the sinusoidal input goes
negative , diodes D1 and D2 conduct and current again flow through the meter
from top to bottom i.e from positive to negative terminal of the meter. The
resulting current waveform is a continuous series of positive half cycles. The
meter deflection is proportional to the average current which is 0.636 times peak
current Ip. But the actual current(or voltage) to be indicated in AC measurements
is normally the rms quantity which is 0.707 of the peak value or 1.11( form factor
of full wave rectifier is 1.11) times the average value. Since there are direct
relationships between rms ,peak and average values , the meter scale can be
calibrated to indicated rms voltage. The average current Iav of full wave rectifier is
given by

Iav= =0.636Ip

Where Ip is the peak value of current.

The multiplier resistance Rs is given by Rs=0.9x – Rm

or Iav=0.9xVrms/(Rs+Rm)

The AC sensitivity of fullwave rectifier is Sac=0.9 ⁄ I where Ifsd is the full scale
deflection average current and the average value of voltage becomes Vav=0.9xVrms

Rectifier type of instrument is used only for pure sinusoidal waveform and the
instrument has a linear scale for higher value of current. At low value of forward
current , the ac scale of a low range voltmeter is often crowded, separate low
voltage calibrated scale is provided for this purpose. The effect can be countered
by using a shunt resistance.

MULTIRANGE RECTIFIER VOLTMETER

Rectifier instrument with a multiple number of workable voltage range can be
designed. The circuit consists of number of multipliers together with selector
switch . Different current or voltage ranges are selected by changing the position
of selector switch and the corresponding value of full scale deflection current can
be calculated.

The figure shows an AC voltmeter of a commercial multimeter.

Disadvantage
The rectifier instrument is only accurate for the waveform on which they are
calibrated. Since calibration assumes pure sine wave , the presence of harmonics
gives erroneous readings. The rectifier instrument is sensitive to temperature
change, therefore the instrument readings are affected by large variation of
temperature. Frequency also affects the operation of the rectifier element which
shows capacitive properties at high frequency. The sensitivity of the rectifier type
of instrument for AC operation is lower than that of a DC instrument .

1.2 TRUE RMS TYPE ANALOG VOLTMETER

Complex waveform can be measured accurately with a true rms voltmeter.

The indication of true rms voltmeter is produced by sensing the heating power
which is proportional to the square of the rms value of the input ac signal to
be measured.

Here thermocouple is used to measure the rms value of input waveform.

The heating current is supplied by the output of an ac amplifier. The input of

the ac amplifier is provided by the ac input signal which is to be measured.
Now the heat generated in the heater circuit is proportional to the square of
rms value of input signal .

To measure the heating effect , a thermocouple is placed very close to heating

element. A thermocouple is a junction of two dissimilar metals whose output
voltage is a function of temperature difference of two junctions of the
thermocouple.

As the thermocouple output is proportional to the heat generated in heating

element, so finally the output of thermocouple is proportional to the square of
rms value of input voltage.
One drawback in this technique is that the thermocouple shows nonlinear
characteristic. To overcome this difficulty,two thermocouples are used in the
same thermal environment. The input thermocouple is called measuring
thermocouple and the other which is connected in the feedback path is called
balancing thermocouple.

The effect of nonlinearity of the measuring thermocouple in the input circuit is

cancelled by similar nonlinear effects of the balancing thermocouple connected
in the feedback circuit. The two thermocouple elements form part of a bridge in
the input circuit of a D.C. amplifier.

The unknown ac input voltage is amplified and applied to the heating element
of the measuring thermocouple. The application of heat produces an output
voltage that upsets the balance of the bridge. The unbalance bridge is amplified
by the dc amplifier and fed back to the heating element of the balancing
thermocouple, so that the voltage outputs of both thermocouples are the same.

At this point the dc current in the heating element of the feedback

thermocouple is equal to the ac current in the input thermocouple. The dc
current is therefore directly proportional to the effective or rms value of the
input voltage and is indicated on the meter movement in the output circuit of
the dc amplifier.

The true rms value is measured independently of the waveform of the ac signal,
provided that the peak excursions of the waveform do not exceed the dynamic
range of the ac amplifier.

This instrument can be used for indicating the AC signal of wide frequency
range. True rms voltmeter has high accuracy and sensitivity with low power
consumption. Most true rms instrument can measure voltage of 100µV to
300V within a frequency range of 10Hz to 10MHz .
Limitation

Power loss may occur due to poor efficiency of thermal conversion.

1.3 DIGITAL VOLTMETERS (DVM)

Digital Voltmeters (DVM) are measuring instruments that convert
analog voltage into a digital Signal or numeric readout. This digital
readout can be displayed on the front panel or also used as an
electrical digital output signal.

RAMP TYPE DVM

The operating principle is to measure the time that a linear ramp

takes to change the input level to the ground level or vice versa.
This time period is measured with an electronic time interval
counter and the count is displayed as a number of digits on the
display. The ramp may be positive or negative. In this case a
negative ramp has been selected.

At the beginning of the measurement a ramp voltage starts

(counter is reset to zero) and sampled rate multivibrator gives a
pulse which initiates ramp generator. The ramp voltage is
continuously compared with the voltage that is being measured. At
the instant when two voltages become equal, a coincidence circuit
generates a pulse which opens a gate i.e. output generator
generates a start pulse. The ramp continues until the second
comparator circuit senses that the ramp has reached zero value.
The ground comparator compares the ramp with ground. When the
ramp voltage equals zero or reaches ground potential, the ground
comparator generates stop pulse. The output from this comparator
closes the gate. The time duration of the gate opening is
proportional to the input voltage value.

In this time interval between the start and stop pulse, the gate
opens and the oscillator circuit drives the counter. The magnitude
of the count indicates the magnitude of the input voltage and the
counted value is displayed . Therefore the voltage is converted into
time and the time count represents the magnitude of voltage.

The sample rate multivibrator determines the rate of cycle of

measurement. A typical value is 5 measuring cycles per second with
an accuracy of + 0.005% of the reading. The sample rate circuit
provides an initiating pulse for the ramp generator to start its next
ramp voltage. At the same time a reset pulse is generated, which
resets the counter to the zero state.

Any DVM has a fundamental cycle sequence which involves

sampling, displaying & reset sequence.

Advantages & Disadvantages

The ramp circuit is easy to design and its cost is low. The single
ramp required excellent characteristics regarding linearity of the
ramp and time measurement. Large errors are possible when noise
is superimposed on the input signal. Input filters are required with
this type of converter.
 1.3 DUAL SLOPE INTEGRATING TYPE DVM

The dual slope integrating digital voltmeter converts analog signal

into digital signal. It uses dual slope analog to digital converter,
other digital processing circuits and light emitting diode (LED) or
liquid crystal display(LCD) for displaying the measurement. The
dual slope analog to digital converter operates on the principle of
integrating the unknown input voltage and then comparing the
integration times with the integrating time of a reference voltage.
The basic way is to use two(dual) slopes-one slope corresponding to
input voltage and the another slope is corresponding to reference
voltage. The figure shows the block diagram of the dual slope
voltmeter.
The input voltage ei and a reference voltage er are connected to an
integrator circuit through switches Si and Sr respectively. At the
start, a pulse resets the counter and the Flip flop output to logic
level zero. The switch Si corresponds to input signal ei is closed and
the switch Sr is open. The capacitor begins to charge corresponding
input voltage ei. As soon as the integrator output exceeds zero, the
comparator output changes state, which opens the gate so that the
oscillator clock pulses are fed to counter. When the ramp voltage
starts, the comparator goes to state1, the gate opens and clock
pulse drives the counter. As the counter reaches the maximum
count, i.e. the counter is made to run for a time 't1', in this case the
counter reaches to value ‘9999’, on the next clock pulse all digits
becomes ‘0000’ & the counter activates the Flip Flop to logic level
'1'. This activates the drive section of the switch, e i is disconnected
and –er is now connected to the integrator. The integrator output
will have a negative slope which is constant, i.e. integrator output
now decreases linearly to 0 volts. Comparator output status
changes again and locks the gate. The discharge time t2 is now
proportional to the input voltage. The counter indicates the count
during time t2 when the negative slope of the integrator reaches
zero, the comparator switches to state 0 and the gate closes, i.e. the
capacitor c is now discharged with a constant slope. As soon as the
comparator input (zero detector) finds output of integrator circuit is
zero that is e0 is zero, the counter is stopped. The pulses counted by
the counter thus have a direct relation with the input voltage.

During charging the output of the integrator becomes

e0=- ∫ 𝑒 𝑑𝑡 = - 𝑡 ……(1)

During discharging the output of the integrator becomes

e0 = ∫ −𝑒 𝑑𝑡 = - 𝑡 …..(2)

Subtracting equation (2) from (1)

e0- e0=- 𝑡 -(- 𝑡 )

therefore 𝑡 = 𝑡 or ei=ert2/t1

If the oscillator time period is equal to T and the digital counter

indicates n1 and n2 counts for the time interval t1 and t2 respectively
then

ei=ern2T/(n1T)= ern2/n1…..(3)

As n1 and er are constant let er/n1 is equal to k1 then ei=k1n2 …..(4)

From equation (3) it is clear that the accuracy of the measured

voltage is independent of the integrator time constant. The time t1
and t2 are measured by the count of the clock given by the numbers
n1 and n2 respectively.

The clock oscillation period T, n1 and er are constant, then equation

(4) indicates that the accuracy of the method is independent of the
oscillator frequency.

The dual slope technique has excellent noise rejection because the
integration process averages out the noise, provided the time period
of noise is greater than the integrating period t1 and has good
accuracy and resolution, also an accuracy of + 0.05% in 100ms is
available.
 1.4 Q METER-APPLICATION AND ERROR
BASIC Q –METER CIRCUIT

Q meter is an instrument designed to measure Quality factor (that is some of the

electrical properties) of coils and capacitors . The Q of a reactive element is
defined as the ratio of stored energy to the average power dissipated. The
operation of this instrument is based on the characteristics of a series resonant
circuit i.e the voltage across the coil or the capacitor is equal to the applied
voltage times the Q of the circuit. If a fixed voltage is applied to the circuit then at
resonance the voltage across capacitor will become the Q times the applied input
voltage. A voltmeter across the capacitor can be calibrated to read Q directly.

The voltage and current relationships of a series inductive-capacitive circuit is

shown in figure 1 below. At resonance, the following conditions are valid:

𝑋 = 𝑋

𝐸 = IX =IX

𝐸 = 𝐼𝑅

Where, 𝐸 =applied voltage

𝐼 =Circuit current

𝐸 =Voltage across the capacitor

𝑋 =capacitive reactance

- Fig 1 Series –resonant 𝑋 =Inductive reactance

circuit
𝑅 =coil resistance

The magnification of the circuit, by definition is Q, where

𝑄= = =

therefore Ec=EQ
The Q reading on the output meter must be multiplied by the index setting of the
"Multiply Q by" to obtain actual Q value.

Therefore if E is maintained at a constant known level, a voltmeter connected

across the capacitor can be calibrated directly in terms of the circuit Q.

Measurements method:-

There are three methods for connecting unknown components to the test
terminals of a Q meter: direct, series and parallel. The type of component and its
size determine the method of connection.

Direct connection

A direct connected practical Q meter circuit is shown in figure 2 below. A wide-

range oscillator with the frequency range from 50 kHz to 50 MHz delivers current
to a low value shunt resistance R . The value of the shunt is very low, typically
on the order of 0.02 𝞨.

Here E is a voltage source with a small internal resistance. The voltage E across
the shunt is measured with a meter marked "Multiply Q by". The voltage across
the variable capacitor, corresponding to E ( in figure 2 below,) is measured with
an electronic voltmeter whose scale is calibrated directly in Q values.

Figure 2

To make a measurement, the unknown coil is connected to the test terminals of

the instrument, and the circuit is tuned to resonance in two ways-i)either by
setting the oscillator to a given frequency and varying the internal resonating
capacitor or ii)by presetting the capacitor to a desired value and adjusting the
frequency of the oscillator. At resonance the reactive component of inductance is
equal to the reactive component of capacitance. The indicated Q is read directly
from the “circuit Q" meter and modified by the setting of the "Multiply Q by "
meter .

The effective Q(actual value) of the reactive element will be somewhat greater
than the indicated Q. The difference can generally be neglected, except in certain
cases where the resistance of the coil is relatively small in comparison with the
value of the insertion resistor.

The inductance L of the coil can be calculated from the known values of frequency
(f) and resonating capacitance (C)

𝑋 =X or 2𝜋fL= 2𝜋fC so 𝐿 = henry (At resonance) and

( )

EC=EQ

Series connection

Low impedance components, such as low value resistors small coils and large
capacitors are measured in series with the measuring circuit.

Figure 3

Figure 3 shows the series connections ,the component to be measured

(indicated by Z) is placed in series with the stable work coil(usually supplied by the
instrument) across the test terminals. Two measurements are made : In the first
measurement the unknown parameter is short -circuited by a small sorting strap
and the circuit is resonated by work coil and tuning capacitor. The values of the
tuning capacitor (C ) and the indicated Q are noted. In the second measurement
the shorting strap is removed and the unknown impedance is included in the
circuit , giving a new value for the tuning capacitor C and a change in the Q value
from Q to Q .

For the first measurement,

𝑋 =𝑋 or, = 𝜔𝐿 …..(1)
ω

Q1 = XL/R = XC1/R

Q = = …….(2)

For the second measurement, the react nce of the unknown can be expressed in
terms of the new value of the tuning capacitor(C ) and the in-circuit value of the
inductor(L).

𝑋 =𝑋 -X or, 𝑋 = - ……(3)
ω

So that X = …..(4)
ω

X is inductive if C > C and capacitive if C < C .The resistive component of

the unknown impedance can be found in terms of reactance Xs and the indicated
values of circuit Q,since

R1 = and R =

Also,

R =R −R = −
ω ω
So that,

R = …..(5)
ω

If the unknown parameter is purely resistive, the setting of the tuning capacitor
would not have changed in the measuring process, and C1 = C2.The equation for
resistance reduces to

R = = …..(6)

If the unknown parameter is a small inductor,the value of the inductance is found

from Eq.4 and equals

𝐿 = ……(7)

The Q of the coil is found from Eqs. 4 and 5 since,by definition ,

𝑄 =

and
( )( )
𝑄 = ……(8)

If the unknown is a large capacitor,its value is determined from Eq.(4)

And,

𝐶 = …..(9)

The Q of the capacitor may be found by using Eq. 8

Parallel connection.

High impedance components such as high value resistors certain inductors and
small capacitors are measured by connecting them in parallel with the measuring
circuit. Figure 4 shows the connections. Before the unknown is connected the
circuit is resonated by using a suitable work coil to establish reference values for
Q & C .Let the value of quality factor for resonating condition is Q 1 and the
corresponding value of resonating capacitor is C1 . When the component under
test is connected in series to the circuit the capacitor is readjusted for resonance
and a new value for the tuning capacitance (C2) is obtained and a change in the
value of circuit Q(𝝙Q) from Q1 and to Q2..

Figure 4

In a parallel circuit, computation of the unknown impedance is best approached

in terms of its parallel components Xp and Rp, as indicated in figure 4. At the
initial resonance condition, when the unknown is not yet connected into the
circuit the working coil(L) is tuned by the capacitors (C1) therefore

𝜔𝐿 = ….(1)

and, 𝑄 = = ….(2)

When the unknown impedance is not connected into the circuit and the capacitor
is tuned for resonance, the reactance of the working coil(XL) equals the parallel
reactances of the tuning capacitor(XC2) and the unknown (X P).Therefore
( )
X =

which reduces to X = ….(3)

ω( )
If the unknown is inductive ,XP=𝞈LP and eq(3 ) yields the value of the unknown
impedance:

𝐿 = ….(4)
( )

If the unknown is capacitive,XP =1/𝞈CP and eq (3) yields the value of the unknown
capacitor:

C =C −C ….(5)

In a parallel resonant circuit the total resistance at resonance is equal to the

product of the circuit Q and the reactance of the coil.Therefore

R T = Q 2 XL

Or by substitution of Eq. (1 ),
Q2
RT = Q2 XC1 = ….(6)
ωC1

The resistance (RP) of the unknown impedance is most easily found by computing
the conductances in the circuit of Fig 4 . Let,

GT = total conductances of the resonant circuit

GP = conductance of the unknown impedance

GL = conductance of the working coil

Then,

GT = GP + GL or, GP = GT − GL ….(7)

From Eq 6
1 ωC1
GT = =
RT Q2

Therefore ,
1 ωC1 R
= −
RP Q2 R2 ω 2 L2
 ωC1 1 1
= - ( )( )
Q2 R 1 ω2 L2 /R2

ωC1 1
= − 2
Q2 1

Substituting Eq. (2) in the foregoing expression, we obtain

1 ωC1 ωC1
= −
RP Q2 Q1

And after simplifying, we obtain

Q1 Q2 Q1 Q2
RP = = ….(8)
ωC1 (Q1 Q2 ) ωC1 ΔQ

The Q of the unknown is then found by using Eqs. (3) and (8) so that
RP (C1 C2 )(Q1 Q2 ) (C1 C2 )(Q1 Q2 )
QP = = = ….(9)
XP C1 (Q1 Q2 ) C1 ΔQ

Application of Quality factor

Q factor measures the performance of inductor and capacitor used in different

circuit. In resonator circuit , radio frequency tuned circuit , oscillator , filter circuit
etc measurement of Q factor determines the noise and damping loss , energy
losses

Sources of error:-

Probably the most important factor affecting measurement accuracy and the
most often overlooked, is the distributed capacitance for self- capacitance of the
measuring circuit. The presence of distributed capacitance in a coil modifies the
actual or effective Q and inductance of the coil. At the frequency at which the self
capacitance and inductance of the coil resonant ,the circuit exhibits a purely
resistive impedance. This characteristic may be used for measuring the
distributed capacitance.

One simple method of finding the distributed capacitance (Cd ) of a coil involves
making two measurements at different frequencies. The coil under test is
connected directly to the test terminals of the Q meter, as shown in the circuit of
figure. The tuning capacitor is set to a high value, preferably to its maximum
position, and the circuit is resonated by adjusting the oscillator frequency.
Resonance is indicated by maximum deflection on the “Circuit Q” meter. The
values of the tuning capacitors (C1) and the oscillator frequency (f1) and noted.
The frequency is then increased to twice its original value (f2 = 2f1 ) and the circuit
is returned by adjusting the resonating capacitor ( C2).

The resonant frequency of an LC circuit is given by the well-known equation

𝑓 = …….(10)
√

At the initial resonance condition ,the capacitance of the circuit equals C 1 +Cd ,

And the resonant frequency equals

𝑓 = ……..(11)
√ ( )

After the oscillator and the tuning capacitor are adjusted, the capacitance of the
circuit id C2 +Cd , and the resonant frequency equals
1
f2 = … … . . (12)
2π L(C2 Cd )

Since f2 =2f1 , eqs. ( 11 ) and (12 ) are related so that

 =
( ) √ ( )

Solving for the distributed capacitance yields

C1 4C2
Cd =
3