Computer Networks

Unit – 3

Question Bank
UNIT – 3

1. Explain IEEE standards. purpose and challenges to secure challenges. Also

provide a justification on a IEEE standard case study on ethernet.
Ans:
IEEE (Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers) standards are guidelines
created to ensure that technology works properly and is compatible with other systems. These
standards cover a wide range of topics, from networking (like Ethernet) to electrical safety.
They are developed by experts in the field to make sure that products and services are
reliable, safe, and perform well.
Purpose of IEEE Standards
1. Interoperability: Ensure different devices and systems can work together smoothly.
2. Quality: Make sure technology meets high performance and safety levels.
3. Consistency: Provide a consistent way of building systems, so manufacturers can rely
on it.
4. Global Compatibility: Enable systems from different countries and companies to
communicate effectively.
5. Regulatory Compliance: Help businesses meet laws and safety rules.
Purpose of IEEE Standards

1. Interoperability: Ensure different devices and systems can work together smoothly.
2. Quality: Make sure technology meets high performance and safety levels.
3. Consistency: Provide a consistent way of building systems, so manufacturers can rely
on it.
4. Global Compatibility: Enable systems from different countries and companies to
communicate effectively.
5. Regulatory Compliance: Help businesses meet laws and safety rules.
Case Study: Ethernet (IEEE 802.3)
What is Ethernet?

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Ethernet, defined by IEEE 802.3, is a standard for connecting computers and devices in a
local area network (LAN). It started with slow speeds in the 1980s but has evolved to handle
much higher speeds (from 10 Mbps to over 100 Gbps).
Why is Ethernet Important?
1. Widely Used: Ethernet is the most common networking technology, used in homes,
offices, and data centers.
2. Growth and Adaptation: It has adapted over time to meet the needs of faster and
larger network
3. Security Issues: Ethernet networks face risks like unauthorized access to data.
Security features like encryption (MACsec) and authentication (802.1X) help protect
the data.
Security in Ethernet:
• MACsec Encryption: Protects data from being read or altered as it travels over
Ethernet.
• 802.1X Authentication: Ensures that only authorized devices can connect to the
network.
• VLANs (Virtual LANs): Helps separate traffic to improve security.
Challenges in Ethernet Security:
• Physical Security: Ethernet cables can be tapped, so encryption is needed to keep
data safe.
• Misconfiguration: If security features aren't set up correctly, networks can remain
vulnerable.
• Old Systems: Many older Ethernet networks don't have modern security, so they may
need upgrades.

2. Explain the difference between IPV4 and IPV6.

Ans:
Aspect IPv4 IPv6
Address Size 32-bit (4 bytes) 128-bit (16 bytes)
Address Format Dotted decimal Hexadecimal, separated by colons (e.g.,
(e.g., 192.168.1.1) 2001:0db8:85a3:0000:0000:8a2e:0370:7334)
Total Addresses Approximately 4.3 Approximately 340 undecillion addresses
billion addresses
Header Size 20 bytes 40 bytes

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Address Allocation Manual or DHCP Stateless address autoconfiguration

(SLAAC) or DHCPv6
Security Security optional IPSec is mandatory
(IPSec is not
mandatory)
Checksum Includes a No checksum in the header (reduces
checksum field in processing overhead)
the header
Broadcast Support Supports Does not support broadcasting (uses
broadcasting multicast and anycast instead)
Packet Routers and hosts Only hosts fragment packets
Fragmentation can fragment
packets

3. Is IPV4 a classic addressing schema? Provide justification of IPV4 with respect

to the class characterization.
Ans:
Yes, IPv4 can be considered a classic addressing schema. It was the original addressing
scheme used on the internet and is still widely used till date. It was designed with a hierarchical
addressing system to effectively route traffic across different networks. This system, known as
classful addressing, was widely used before the introduction of more advanced schemes like
CIDR (Classless Inter-Domain Routing). However, due to the increasing number of devices
connected to the internet, IPv4 addresses are becoming scarce. IPv4 addresses are 32 bits long
and are divided into four octets (8-bit blocks). There are the 232 possible IPv4 addresses.
The IPv4 addressing scheme is divided into five classes: A, B, C, D, and E used to allocate IP
addresses to different organizations.

• Class A: The first bit of the first octet is always set to 0 (zero). Thus the first octet
ranges from 1 – 127. Class A addresses only include IP starting from 1.x.x.x to 126.x.x.x
only. The IP range 127.x.x.x is reserved for loopback IP addresses. The default subnet
mask for Class A IP address is 255.0.0.0 which implies that Class A addressing can have
126 networks (27-2) and 16777214 hosts (224-2). Designed for very large networks (e.g.,
ISPs or large organizations).
• Class B: An IP address which belongs to class B has the first two bits in the first octet
set to 10. Class B IP Addresses range from 128.0.x.x to 191.255.x.x. The default subnet
mask for Class B is 255.255.x.x. Class B has 16384 (214) Network addresses and 65534
(216-2) Host addresses. Designed for medium-sized networks.
• Class C: The first octet of Class C IP address has its first 3 bits set to 110. Class C IP
addresses range from 192.0.0.x to 223.255.255.x. The default subnet mask for Class C

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is 255.255.255.x. Class C gives 2097152 (221) Network addresses and 254 (28-2) Host
addresses. Designed for small networks.
• Class D: The very first four bits of the first octet in Class D IP addresses are set to 1110.
Class D has IP address range from 224.0.0.0 to 239.255.255.255. Class D is reserved
for Multicasting. In multicasting data is not destined for a particular host, that is why
there is no need to extract host address from the IP address, and Class D does not have
any subnet mask. This class is reserved for multicast communication.
• Class E: This IP Class is reserved for experimental purposes only for R&D or Study.
IP addresses in this class ranges from 240.0.0.0 to 255.255.255.254. Like Class D, this
class too is not equipped with any subnet mask.
IPv4 is considered classic because it was the first version of the Internet Protocol (IP)
address. The class-based addressing system was designed to provide a structured approach to
network addressing, efficiently allocate IP addresses based on network size, simplify routing
and network management and accommodate different network scales (small, medium, large).
However, it had certain drawbacks like inefficient address allocation, address space exhaustion,
rigid network size constraints due to which CIDR was developed in 1993 which addressed
these issues by allowing more precise control over subnetting and optimizing address
allocation. The principles of IPv4 addressing remain a cornerstone of network engineering.

4. Is simple messaging across 2 peeves is considered as communication? justify the

process using ICMP
Ans:

Yes, simple messaging across two peers is considered communication because it

involves the exchange of messages that provide information or status updates between
devices. In networking, this exchange of messages is critical to ensure successful data
transmission and troubleshooting. The Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP) plays a
significant role in such communication at the network layer by facilitating error reporting,
diagnostics, and status messages.

Justifying the Process Using ICMP

ICMP's Role in Communication
ICMP is not a transport protocol like TCP or UDP but is used to send control messages
between devices. It operates without requiring a pre-established connection, which makes it
ideal for simple messaging across two peers to report errors or share network diagnostics.

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How ICMP Enables Communication

1. Error Reporting:
o If Peer A sends a message to Peer B and an issue prevents successful delivery
(e.g., destination unreachable, time exceeded), ICMP is used to notify Peer A.
o Example:
§ Peer A attempts to send a packet to Peer B.
§ A router between the peers detects an issue (e.g., Peer B is
unreachable) and generates an ICMP Destination Unreachable (Type
3) message.
§ This ICMP message is encapsulated in an IP packet and sent back to
Peer A to inform it of the problem, allowing Peer A to take corrective
action, such as retrying or redirecting the message.
2. Diagnostics with Ping:
o Ping uses ICMP to test connectivity between two peers by sending an Echo
Request (Type 8) and receiving an Echo Reply (Type 0).
o Example:
§ Peer A sends an Echo Request to Peer B.
§ Peer B responds with an Echo Reply.
§ This process confirms that Peer B is reachable and provides round-trip
time (RTT) data, indicating the latency of the communication.
3. Route Optimization:
o If a router discovers a better route between Peer A and Peer B, it sends an
ICMP Redirect Message (Type 5) to Peer A, informing it of the more
efficient path.

ICMP Packet Format and Processing

ICMP messages contain specific fields that define their purpose and the context of the
communication:
• Type: Indicates the message type (e.g., Echo Request, Destination Unreachable).
• Code: Provides additional context about the type (e.g., for Destination Unreachable,
the reason could be "network unreachable").
• Checksum: Ensures message integrity.

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• Data/Payload: Often includes the header of the original message that caused the
ICMP response, allowing detailed diagnostics.
For example:
• A Destination Unreachable message includes part of the original IP packet that
failed, helping Peer A diagnose what went wrong.

ICMP as Communication in Diagnostics

• Traceroute:
o Uses ICMP Time Exceeded (Type 11) messages to map the path between two
peers by gradually increasing the packet's Time-To-Live (TTL) value.
o Each router along the path sends back a Time Exceeded message when the
TTL expires, allowing Peer A to identify the route to Peer B.
• Ping Flood:
o Demonstrates how ICMP can be misused for excessive communication to
overwhelm a peer, as seen in denial-of-service attacks.

Simple messaging across two peers qualifies as communication, especially when ICMP is used.
ICMP facilitates critical functions such as error reporting, connectivity verification, and
diagnostics. It ensures that devices can exchange meaningful messages to adjust and maintain
network reliability, even in the absence of a direct connection or data transmission.

5. Public addresses are bound to communicate across public routers. With

references to this justify the purpose of public and private Ips with the neat
labelled diagram of end-to-end communication.
Ans:
Both public and private IPs are very important for the modern network and
communication.
1.public IP addresses:

• These IP addresses are assigned to the devices that need to communicate with the
devices on global internet.
• public IP addresses are assigned t0 routers, which are devices that connect network
together. Router use these addresses to route traffic between different networks.

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• By using single public IP address for a network ,it reduces the number of attack
surfaces exposed to internet.
2.Private IP addresses:

• these Ips are used to identify devices within a private network such as home or
offices. these are only recognised within local network.
• using private IP addresses ,devices within a network are hidden from the public
internet, making it more difficult for attackers to target specific devices.

6. Justify the purpose of 3 phase authentication or validation in IPV4 with a neat

labelled diagram.
Ans:
Three-phase authentication or validation in IPv4 is a robust mechanism for ensuring
secure communication between devices over a network. It involves three steps:
Authentication, Authorization, and Accounting (AAA).
Purpose of 3-Phase Authentication in IPv4:
1. Authentication: Ensures that the device or user accessing the network is legitimate by
verifying credentials (e.g., passwords, digital certificates).
2. Authorization: Determines the permissions and access rights of the authenticated user or
device.
3. Accounting: Tracks and logs the activities of the authenticated and authorized entity for
auditing and monitoring purposes.
These steps collectively enhance network security, reduce the risk of unauthorized access,
and maintain accountability in network operations.
Labelled Diagram:
Below is a diagram representing the 3-phase authentication process.
1. Phase 1: Authentication
Client sends credentials to the server.
Server verifies the credentials.
2. Phase 2: Authorization
Server checks the user’s permissions.
Based on the roles, access rights are granted.

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3. Phase 3: Accounting
Server logs the session activities.
Records are stored for future reference.

7. write a short note on IPV6

Ans:
IPv6 (Internet Protocol Version 6) is the latest version of the Internet Protocol (IP),
designed to replace IPv4 due to its limitations, primarily the exhaustion of available IP
addresses. IPv6 uses 128-bit addressing, providing approximately 340 undecillion (3.4 × 10³⁸)
unique addresses, far surpassing IPv4's 32-bit system with 4.3 billion addresses.
In addition to its expanded address space, IPv6 offers several improvements, such as simplified
packet headers for more efficient routing, built-in support for security through IPsec, and
enhanced support for mobile devices. It also enables features like auto-configuration and
eliminates the need for Network Address Translation (NAT), streamlining communication
between devices. The transition to IPv6 has been gradual due to the vast infrastructure changes
required. However, it remains critical for ensuring the scalability and functionality of the
internet in the long term.

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Below are its key features and advantages:

1. Larger Address Space:
• IPv6 uses 128-bit addresses, allowing for 21282128 unique IP addresses.
• This provides approximately 3.4×10383.4×1038 addresses, solving the issue of
address exhaustion faced by IPv4.
2. Simplified Header Structure:
• IPv6 has a simplified and more efficient packet header compared to IPv4.
• This reduces the processing time for routers, improving overall performance.
3. No Need for NAT (Network Address Translation):
• IPv6 allows direct device-to-device communication by eliminating NAT.
• This simplifies network configurations and enhances end-to-end connectivity.
4. Built-in Security:
• IPv6 includes mandatory support for IPsec (Internet Protocol Security).
• This ensures data integrity, confidentiality, and authentication, making it inherently
more secure than IPv4.
5. Auto-configuration Capabilities:
• Devices using IPv6 can automatically configure themselves without requiring manual
settings or a DHCP server.
6. Better Support for Mobile Devices:
• IPv6 supports Mobile IPv6, allowing seamless connectivity as devices move between
networks.
• This is critical for the growing number of mobile and IoT devices.

8. Justify what if an IPV6 is completely replaced by IPV4

Ans:
An IPv6 address is 128 bits or 16 bytes (octets) long, four times the address
length in IPv4.

• Complex Header Format for Certain Uses

• Resource Allocation Not Always Necessary
• Security Concerns in Transition Period

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• Limited Compatibility
IPv6 was designed to simplify routing and reduce overhead. Simplified header structure and
no NAT improve performance and increase efficiency in routing. With IPv4, the more complex
NAT configurations often translate into increased latency and inefficiency in the network.
Giving up IPv6 will slow down the development of faster, more efficient Internet
communication. IPv6 natively contains IPsec, which has built-in encryption and authentication.
Communications do not have this inherent feature in IPv4. This means that security is
accomplished with additional protocols. A return to IPv4 would negate any possibility of
integrated features since these are becoming the norm.
The IoT, cloud computing, and mobile networks have several advantages because of the more
rounded address-space provided by IPv6 and its more efficient routing system. This involves
bypassing an intermediary NAT device allowing IPv6 nodes to interconnect directly. If
technologies were to shift back to using IPv4, it would not only constrain the advancement of
such technologies but would also introduce further complexity in making deployments
realistic. Many regions, particularly in developing countries, are expanding their internet
infrastructure and adopting IPv6 directly. This is a trend. These regions are at a disadvantage
due to the potential for IPv4 replacement, which could result in sluggish global internet usage.
The internet's evolution would be negatively affected if IPv6 was completely replaced by
IPva4. The consequences would include increased address deficiency, lower network
performance, weak security, and slow down of technological advancements.

9. What are routing algorithms. Discuss advantages and necessities of proposing

routing algorithms in CN
Ans:
A routing algorithm is a procedure that lays down the route or path to transfer
data packets from source to the destination.
Types of routing algorithm:

• Distance Vector Routing: Here, routers communicate with neighboring routers and
decide the routing based on distance to destination, like an example, RIP.
• Link State Routing. Each router has complete information about network topology.
Examples of the link-state protocols are: OSPF - "Open shortest path first.".
Advantages of routing algorithm:
Efficient Use of Network Resources:
Dynamic routing algorithms ensure bandwidth usage and reduce congestion by readjusting ro
utes dynamically due to current network conditions.

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• Fault Tolerance and Reliability: Dynamic routing algorithms can actually detect
link failures and auto-search for alternative paths so that data is delivered to the
receiver.
• Load Balancing:
So there is no bottleneck link when they distribute traffic across several paths.
• necessities of proposing routing algorithms in CN are:
• Evolving Network Architectures:
Traditional routing protocols could not meet new performance demands as the internet
of things (IoT) and 5G network and software-
defined networking (SDN) become prevalent.
• Quality of Service (QoS) Requirements: For example, video streaming and real-
time communication introduce new demands on routing algorithms preferring low
latency and high reliability of routes.
• Energy Efficiency: Energy-efficient routing then becomes an important
consideration in mobile and IoT networks to maximize the lifetime of devices.
• SecurityConcerns:Emerging new security challenges necessitate new algorithms in s
uch things as routing attacks and malicious nodes.

10. With the graph of minimum 7 nodes justify distance vector algorithm or Bellman
ford algorithm.
Ans:
The distance vector algorithm, also known as the bellman ford algorithm, is a routing
algorithm used to compute the shortest paths between nodes in a graph. It is iterative,
distributed, and uses the principle of relaxation to progressively find the shortest paths.

Adjacency Matrix:

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From/To A B C D E F G

A 0 4 3 ∞ ∞ ∞ ∞

B ∞ 0 ∞ 1 ∞ ∞ ∞

C ∞ ∞ 0 2 5 ∞ ∞

D ∞ ∞ ∞ 0 ∞ 3 ∞

E ∞ ∞ ∞ ∞ 0 1 ∞

F ∞ ∞ ∞ ∞ ∞ 0 2

G ∞ ∞ ∞ ∞ ∞ ∞ 0

The graph was accurately represented as an adjacency matrix, where:

i)Cell ( i, j) denotes the weight of the edge from node i to node j.
ii)Non-existent edges were marked as ∞ (infinity), indicating no direct connection.
step1:
consider source node A , then calculate the shortest distance from A to all other nodes
distance of the source node (A) to 0 and all other nodes will be infinity,
A=0, B=∞, C=∞, D=∞, E=∞, F=∞, G=∞ .
at each step, a node updated its distances based on the information received from neighbors,
using the formula:
New Cost[X]=min(Current Cost[X],Cost to Neighbor+Neighbor’s Cost to X)
during first iteration
update the distances by checking each edge.

Old Updated
Edge New Distance
Distance Node

A → B (4) B=∞ B = min(∞, 0 + 4) = 4 B

A → C (3) C=∞ C = min(∞, 0 + 3) = 3 C

B → D (1) D=∞ D = min(∞, 4 + 1) = 5 D

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Old Updated
Edge New Distance
Distance Node

C → D (2) D=5 D = min(5, 3 + 2) = 5 D

C → E (5) E=∞ E = min(∞, 3 + 5) = 8 E

D → F (3) F=∞ F = min(∞, 5 + 3) = 8 F

E → F (1) F=8 F = min(8, 8 + 1) = 8 F

G = min(∞, 8 + 2) =
F → G (2) G=∞ G
10

updated distances after Iteration 1:

A = 0, B = 4, C = 3, D = 5, E = 8, F =
8,
G =10

Step2
repeat the relaxation for all edges. No changes occur in this iteration since all distances are
already optimal.

Updated
Edge Old Distance New Distance
Node

B = min(4, 0 + 4) =
A → B (4) B = 4 No Update
4

C = min(3, 0 + 3) =
A → C (3) C = 3 No Update
3

D = min(5, 4 + 1) =
B → D (1) D = 5 No Update
5

D = min(5, 3 + 2) =
C → D (2) D = 5 No Update
5

E = min(8, 3 + 5) =
C → E (5) E = 8 No Update
8

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Updated
Edge Old Distance New Distance
Node

F = min(8, 5 + 3) =
D → F (3) F = 8 No Update
8

F = min(8, 8 + 1) =
E → F (1) F = 8 No Update
8

G = min(10, 8 + 2)
F → G (2) G = 10 No Update
= 10

updated distances after Iteration 2:

A = 0, B = 4, C = 3, D = 5, E = 8, F = 8, G = 10
In this example case, no distances continued to improve after convergence, confirming the
absence of negative weight cycles in the graph.
Final distances
The shortest distances from A to all other nodes are:

Node Distance from A

A 0

B 4

C 3

D 5

E 8

F 8

G 10

11. Is link state routing protocol an ideal approach for dynamic routing?
Ans:
Yes, the Link State Routing Protocol is often considered an ideal approach for
dynamic routing in many networks, especially large ones

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Link State Routing is a type of dynamic routing protocol where routers exchange information
about the state of their links (or connections) to other routers. Each router maintains a map
(or a Link State Database) of the network's topology, which it uses to make routing decisions.
It is ideal for dynamic routing
1. Quick Adaptation to Network Changes:
Link State protocols quickly detect changes in the network, like if a link goes down or
a new router is added. When a router detects a change, it immediately sends updated
information (called a "link-state advertisement" or LSA) to all other routers. This
helps the network adapt quickly to failures or changes.
2. Complete Knowledge of the Network:
Each router knows about the entire network topology (not just the next hop like in
Distance Vector). This complete map allows routers to make better routing decisions
because they have a global view of the network.
3. Scalability:
Link State protocols work well in large networks. Unlike Distance Vector protocols,
which can become slow and inefficient in large networks, Link State routing can scale
because each router only sends updates when necessary (not constantly).
4. Reduced Traffic Overhead:
While routers exchange information, they do so selectively and only when there is a
change. This reduces the constant flow of routing updates that can overwhelm the
network, which happens in other protocols like Distance Vector.
5. Faster Convergence:
Link State protocols generally converge faster than Distance Vector protocols. This
means that when there is a network failure, all routers quickly agree on the new best
routes, minimizing downtime and ensuring network reliability.
Examples of Link State Routing Protocols
• OSPF (Open Shortest Path First)
• IS-IS (Intermediate System to Intermediate System)
In short, Link State Routing protocols are great for dynamic routing because they provide a
robust, quick, and scalable way to adapt to network changes, ensuring optimal routing and
network efficiency.

12. What are spanning trees? How are these utilized in providing dynamic routing
under path vector approach?
Ans:

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Spanning Trees in Computer Networks:

In computer networks, a spanning tree is a subgraph of a network topology that connects all
the nodes (routers, switches, etc.) without forming any loops or cycles. It ensures that the
network remains fully connected while eliminating redundant paths, making it useful in
preventing issues like packet looping.

Dynamic Routing and Path Vector Approach

The Path Vector Protocol is used in dynamic routing (e.g., Border Gateway Protocol, BGP) to
exchange routing information between nodes. It keeps track of the path (sequence of routers)
to reach a destination, rather than just the distance or cost. Spanning trees help improve this
process.

Role of Spanning Trees in Dynamic Routing with Path Vector Protocol

• Avoiding Loops: In dynamic routing, loops can occur when multiple paths are used.
Spanning trees remove loops by ensuring only one unique path exists between nodes.
This prevents issues like endless packet forwarding.
• Efficient Route Discovery:A spanning tree ensures that all nodes are connected using
the minimum number of links. This reduces the complexity of route discovery by
eliminating redundant paths and focusing on the essential ones.
• Reducing Overhead:By limiting the number of paths, spanning trees reduce the
amount of routing information exchanged between nodes, saving bandwidth and
computational resources.
• Adapting to Failures:In case of link or node failure, the spanning tree helps the
routing protocol find an alternate path quickly without forming cycles, maintaining
network connectivity.
• Optimized Path Selection:Spanning trees ensure that the best paths are chosen based
on the network's metrics (e.g., hop count, latency, bandwidth).

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Example: BGP with Spanning Trees

In BGP, the path vector protocol uses spanning trees to manage the routes between different
autonomous systems. When a router advertises its path to a destination, the spanning tree
ensures no duplicate or looped paths are included. This makes routing more efficient and
stable.
Key Benefits in Networking

• Prevents broadcast storms by avoiding loops.

• Simplifies the routing table by focusing on essential paths.
• Increases network efficiency by using the minimal set of links to maintain full
connectivity.

13. Explain routing information protocol / RIP with an example and support
providing tables
Ans:
It is a vector routing protocol that uses the hop count as the routing unit for finding
the most suitable path between the source and the destination.

Vector Routing Protocol

In a vector routing protocol, the routers interchange the network accessibility information
with the nearest neighbours. They interchange the information of the set of destinations that
they can reach and the next-hop address to which the data packet should be sent so that the
data reaches the destination.

Hop Count
Hop count is the number of routers that are between the source and the destination in a
network. RIP considers the path with the shortest number of hops as the best path to a remote
network hence placed in the routing table . RIP allows only 15 hops to reach any network. If
the packet does not reach the destination in 15 hop counts then the destination is considered
as unreachable.

Routing Table
Every RIP router maintains a routing table . These tables store the information of all the
destinations that the router knows it can reach. Each router interchange the information of
their routing table to their nearest neighbours. The routers broadcast the routing table
information every 30 seconds to their closest neighbours.

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Example: If you are the user and you want to reach google.com . There can be many paths
through which you can reach the server of Google. In the example below, the user has three
paths. RIP will count the number of routers required to reach the destination server from each
route. Then it would select that route that has a minimum number of paths.

The route 1 has 2 hop counts, route 2 has 3 hop counts and route 3 has 4 hop counts to
reach the destination server. So, the RIP will choose Route 1.

14. Explain RIP algorithm and messaging formatting

Ans:
RIP stands for Routing Information Protocol. RIP is an intra-domain routing protocol
used within an autonomous system. Here, intra-domain means routing the packets in a defined
domain, for example, web browsing within an institutional area.
The Routing Information Protocol (RIP) algorithm is a distance-vector routing protocol that
determines the best path to a destination network by using hop count as the metric, where each
router periodically broadcasts its entire routing table to its neighbours, allowing them to update
their own routing tables based on the received information, ultimately choosing the route with
the lowest hop count to reach a destination network; a RIP message format typically includes
fields for command (request or response), protocol version, network address, and the hop count
(distance) to a specific network.
• Distance-vector approach: RIP uses a distance-vector algorithm, meaning each
router maintains a table of network destinations and their corresponding hop counts to
reach them, and updates this table based on information received from directly
connected neighbours.

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• Hop count as metric: The primary metric used in RIP is the hop count, which
represents the number of routers a packet needs to traverse to reach a destination
network.

• Periodic updates: Routers periodically broadcast their routing table updates to their
neighbours at a set interval, ensuring all routers have the most recent routing
information.
Steps in RIP Algorithm
1. Initialization: Each router initializes its routing table with directly connected
networks.
2. Advertisement: Routers share their routing tables with neighbors at regular intervals.
3. Update:
o Routers update their tables using the Bellman-Ford algorithm:
§ Add the hop count from the advertisement.
§ If the updated route is better, replace the old route.
4. Loop Prevention:
o Maximum hop count: Prevents infinite loops.
o Split horizon: Avoids sending routes back on the interface they were learned.
o Route poisoning: Marks routes as unreachable.
o Hold down timer: Temporarily suppresses updates for failed routes.

RIP message formatting

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This diagram shows the format of a Routing Information Protocol (RIP) message, which
routers use to share routing information.
1. Header Fields:
o Command (Com): Indicates if it's a request (1) or response (2).
o Version (Ver): Specifies the RIP version (1 or 2).
o Reserved: Not used; set to 0.
2. Routing Entry (Repeated for Each Route):
o Family: Type of address (e.g., 2 for IPv4).
o Tag: Distinguishes internal and external routes.
o Network Address: The destination network's address.
o Subnet Mask: Subnet mask for the network (RIP v2).
o Next-Hop Address: The next router to reach the destination.
o Distance (Metric): The number of hops to the destination (1–15; 16 means
unreachable).
Each RIP message can carry multiple entries, helping routers update their routing tables.

15. Is OSPF an alternative for RIP? Justify with a real time example. (with
diagram).
Ans:
Ans: Yes, OSPF (Open Shortest Path First) is an effective alternative to RIP (Routing
Information Protocol), particularly in larger and more complex network environments. OSPF
is designed to handle a greater number of routers and subnets, making it more scalable
compared to RIP, which is limited by its maximum hop count of 15. For instance, consider a
large corporate network with multiple branches in different cities, each connected to a central
data center. In this scenario, OSPF would allow each router to share its link-state information
with others in real time, enabling quick updates and efficient routing decisions based on current
network conditions. If a router in one branch fails, OSPF can rapidly recalculate the best path
using Dijkstra’s algorithm, minimizing downtime and packet loss. Conversely, if the same
network were utilizing RIP, the convergence time would be significantly longer, potentially

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taking up to 30 seconds for the routing tables to update after a link failure, which could lead to
considerable disruptions in network traffic. The diagram below illustrates a central data center
connected to multiple branches, where OSPF facilitates seamless communication and quick
adaptation to changes, while RIP would struggle to maintain optimal paths as the network
grows. Overall, OSPF's ability to efficiently manage routing in dynamic and expansive
networks makes it a superior choice over RIP.
Diagram:

16. Is Border gateway protocol (BGP) based on path vector algorithm? Justify
external BGP and internal BGP under a minimal 10 routers & 6 vectors topology.
Ans:
Yes, BGP is a path-vector routing protocol, and it makes routing decisions based on
paths, network policies, or rule-sets configured by a network administrator.

-External BGP (EBGP) is a routing protocol used to exchange information between

autonomous systems, or networks, on the internet. EBGP is used to share information about
how to reach destinations outside of an organization’s network. It is the most widely used
exterior routing protocol and it helps ensure that packets are delivered efficiently from one
autonomous system to another.

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In order for EBGP to work properly, it must be configured correctly. This includes setting up
the correct EBGP configuration parameters such as neighbor addresses, AS number and
authentication methods. It also involves making sure that the proper protocols are in place for
exchanging routing information between autonomous systems. With this in mind, it is
important for network administrators to understand how EBGP works and how to configure it
correctly in order for their networks to function optimally.

• ASes connect through public exchanges (e.g., MAE and IX) using route servers,
reducing the need for direct BGP sessions between all ASes.
• Scalability: Public exchanges and route servers allow multiple ASes to interconnect
efficiently.
• Policy Control: BGP uses vector attributes (e.g., AS-Path, MED) to enforce routing
policies and optimize paths across AS boundaries.
• Redundancy: Stub routers (e.g., AS 60005) connect to multiple transit providers,
ensuring reliable connectivity.
• Direct Peering: Some ASes bypass public exchanges for better performance, as seen
with AS 60003 and AS 60001.

-Internal Border Gateway Protocol (iBGP) is a routing protocol used on the internet for
exchanging routing information between two or more routers within an autonomous system
(AS)—hence the use of the word “Internal.”

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iBGP is used to propagate routes within a single AS, while BGP is used to propagate routes
between different ASs. iBGP ensures that all routers in an AS have the same view of the
network topology and allows them to communicate with each other effectively.

• In iBGP, a full-mesh connection is required where every router peers with every other
router, which becomes unsustainable in large networks.
• Route reflectors solve this by acting as intermediaries, relaying BGP updates between
clients while maintaining iBGP rules.
• Scalability: The route reflectors reduce the number of required iBGP sessions.
• Reliability: Full-mesh connections between route reflectors ensure redundancy, while
redundant links to clients provide fault tolerance.

17. Explain multicast routing Vs multiple unicast routing.

Ans:

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Feature Multicast Routing Multiple Unicast Routing

Data Single data stream for all Separate data stream for each
Transmission recipients recipient

Inefficient for large-scale

Efficiency Highly efficient
distribution

Bandwidth
Minimal High
Usage

Limited by bandwidth and sender

Scalability Scalable for large groups
capacity

Requires multicast-capable Works on standard unicast

Infrastructure
networks networks

Setup
Complex Simple
Complexity

Real-time streaming, Messaging, small-scale data

Applications
conferencing sharing

18. Justify MOSPF is way better than OSPF with demonstrative example.
Ans:
MOSPF (Multicast Open Shortest Path First) and OSPF (Open Shortest Path First) are
both routing protocols

• MOSPF is one to many and many to many communication it is used in online gaming
,video conferencing etc and OSPF is designed for one to one connection It finds the
shortest path between devices in a network for standard IP traffic
• MOSPF is better than OSPF for multicast traffic because OSPF doesn’t support
multicast and If you try to use OSPF for multicast, you’d need additional protocols like
PIM (Protocol Independent Multicast). MOSPF simplifies the process by integrating
multicast capabilities directly
• Imagine you have a delivery service, and you only deliver packages when someone
places an order. If there’s no order, you don’t send out any delivery trucks.

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o Similarly, MOSPF doesn’t create or maintain paths for multicast traffic unless
it’s actually needed. If there’s no active multicast traffic, it doesn’t waste time
or resources setting up routes.
• MOSPF sends one copy of a multicast packet and ensures it’s delivered to multiple
recipients efficiently and other side it doesn’t support
• MOSPF has multicast capabilities integrated, meaning it doesn’t need extra protocols
to handle multicast and OSPF needs additional protocols like PIM so MOSPF is better
• MOSPF minimizes router workload by building and maintaining paths only for active
multicast traffic and OSPF paired with other protocols it can add extra processing
demands on routers

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