Solar Energy

And Sustainable Development

Refereed, biannual scientific journal issued by:
Libyan Center for Solar Energy Research and Studies

Optimizing a Sustainable Power System with Green Hydrogen Energy

Storage for Telecommunication Station Loads

Ahlem Zegueur1 , Toufik Sebbagh2* , Abderrezak Metatela3 .

LGMM Laboratory, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Faculty of Technology, University of 20

1,2,3

August 1955, Skikda, Algeria.

E-mail: 1 [email protected] ,2 [email protected] ,3 [email protected] .

ARTICLE INFO. ABSTRACT

Article history: Telecommunication stations situated in rural
Received 6 Sep 2024 areas often rely on diesel generators as their primary
Received in revised form 9 Sep 2024 energy source to meet electricity demand, given
Accepted 27 Nov 2024 the absence of a power grid. However, this heavy
Available online 7 Dec 2024 dependence on diesel generators leads to escalated
operational and maintenance expenses, while
KEYWORDS
exacerbating global warming through greenhouse
Renewable Energy,
gas emissions. This paper proposes a shift towards a
Telecommunication, Optimization,
100% hybrid renewable energy system integrated with
Environment, green hydrogen.
hydrogen energy storage as a sustainable alternative.
The proposed system incorporates photovoltaic (PV)
panels, wind turbines, an electrolyzer, a fuel cell, a
hydrogen tank, and a converter.
Using HOMER Pro software, the optimal sizing of the system was determined, resulting in
a configuration with 12.3 kW PV capacity, two 10 kW wind turbines, a 10kW fuel cell, a 20 kW
electrolyzer, a 5 kg hydrogen tank, and a 17.3 kW converter. This configuration achieved a net
present cost (NPC) of $155,705 and a cost of energy (COE) of $0.388/kWh, offering substantial
cost-effectiveness. Compared to the base case relying solely on diesel generators, the system
could avoid approximately 31,081 kg of CO₂ emissions annually. Finally, a sensitivity analysis was
conducted to assess the impact of meteorological variations on the system’s economic outputs.
The findings of this comprehensive study demonstrate the proposed hybrid system’s feasibility
in terms of both environmental sustainability and economic viability, presenting a sustainable
alternative for off-grid telecommunication stations.

*
Corresponding author.
1
DOI: https://doi.org/10.51646/jsesd.v14i1.366
This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC license (http://Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 (CC BY-NC 4.0)).
 Ahlem Zegueur et. al.

‫حتسني نظام طاقة مستدام مع ختزين طاقة اهليدروجني األخضر ألمحال حمطات االتصاالت‬

. ‫ عبد الرزاق مطاطلة‬،‫ توفيق سباغ‬،‫أحالم زقار‬

‫ غالباً ما تعتمد حمطات االتصاالت الس��لكية والالس��لكية الواقعة يف املناطق الريفية على مولدات الديزل كمصدر رئيس��ي‬:‫ملخص‬
‫ فإن ه��ذا االعتماد الكبري على مولدات الديزل يؤدي‬،‫ ومع ذلك‬.‫ نظراً لعدم وجود ش��بكة كهرباء‬،‫للطاق��ة لتلبي��ة الطل��ب عل��ى الكهرب��اء‬
.‫ مع تفاقم ظاهرة االحتباس احلراري من خالل انبعاثات الغازات املس��ببة لالحتباس احلراري‬،‫إىل تصاعد نفقات التش��غيل والصيانة‬
‫ مدم��ج م��ع ختزي��ن الطاق��ة اهليدروجيني��ة‬100% ‫تق�ترح ه��ذه الورق��ة البحثي��ة التح��ول حن��و نظ��ام هج�ين للطاق��ة املتج��ددة بنس��بة‬
.‫ يشتمل النظام املقرتح على ألواح كهروضوئية وتوربينات رياح وحملل كهربائي وخلية وقود وخزان هيدروجني‬.‫كبديل مستدام‬
‫ كيل��و وات م��ن‬12.3 ‫ مم��ا أدى إىل تكوي��ن بس��عة‬،‫ مت حتدي��د احلج��م األمث��ل للنظ��ام‬،HOMER Pro ‫م��ن خ�لال اس��تخدام برنام��ج‬
‫ وحملل كهربائي بقدرة‬،‫ كيلو وات‬10 ‫ وخلية وقود بقدرة‬،‫ كيلو وات‬10 ‫ واثنني من توربينات الرياح بقدرة‬،‫الطاقة الكهروضوئية‬
)NPC( ‫ حقق ه��ذا التكوين تكلفة صافية حالية‬.‫ كيلو وات‬17.3 ‫ وحم��ول بق��درة‬،‫ كج��م‬5 ‫ وخ��زان هيدروج�ين س��عة‬،‫ كيل��و وات‬20
.‫ مما يوفر فعالية كبرية من حيث التكلفة‬،‫ دوال ًرا لكل كيلو واط ساعي‬0.388 ‫) قدرها‬COE( ‫ دوال ًرا وتكلفة طاقة‬155705 ‫قدرها‬
‫ كجم من انبعاثات‬31081 ‫ ميكن للنظام جتنب ما يقرب من‬،‫وباملقارنة مع احلالة األساسية اليت تعتمد فقط على مولدات الديزل‬
.‫ مت إجراء حتليل للحساس��ية لتقيي��م تأثري التغريات اجلوية على املخرج��ات االقتصادية للنظام‬،‫ أخ�يرا‬.‫ثان��ي أكس��يد الكرب��ون س��نويًا‬
ً ‫ مما يوفر بدي‬،‫وتوضح نتائج هذه الدراسة الشاملة جدوى النظام اهلجني املقرتح من حيث االستدامة البيئية واجلدوى االقتصادية‬
‫ال‬
. ‫�تداما حملطات االتصاالت البعيدة‬ً �‫مس‬
.‫ هيدروجني أخضر‬،‫ بيئة‬،‫ حتسني‬،‫ االتصاالت‬،‫ طاقة متجددة‬- ‫الكلمات املفتاحية‬

1. INTRODUCTION
The surge in population expansion and industrial advancement has led to a rise in energy usage
across various sectors, including telecommunications [1]. Recent estimations suggest that there
are approximately 321,000 off-grid Radio Base Stations (RBSs) currently in operation, with
projections indicating a potential growth of about 22% in the foreseeable future. Moreover, there
are ongoing initiatives for the implementation of 5G technology in the coming years [2].
Many telecommunication stations situated in rural and isolated regions heavily depend on diesel
generators (DGs) to maintain their operations, as they lack access to the utility grid or find grid
extensions financially burdensome. Despite appearing economically advantageous initially,
DGs pose significant operational challenges. They incur high maintenance costs and consume
substantial amounts of fuel, leading to elevated operating expenses due to the continuous rise
in fossil fuel prices. Moreover, their usage contributes to environmental degradation, with
substantial greenhouse gas emissions exacerbating the threat of global warming [3], [4], [5].
Furthermore, DGs exhibit relatively low efficiency, typically around 30% [6], [7]. Therefore, it
is crucial to explore alternative power solutions that prioritize reliability, cost-effectiveness, and
environmental sustainability.
Renewable energy sources like solar and wind power are widely recognized as pivotal in
decarbonizing the energy sector. However, their intermittent nature necessitates the use of energy
storage systems (ESS) to store surplus electricity for times when renewable energy production is
insufficient to meet demand [8]. Hydrogen fuel cell-based energy storage systems emerge as a
promising solution to address the challenges associated with increased reliance on renewable
electricity. During periods of excess generation, surplus electricity can be utilized to produce
green hydrogen through water electrolysis, which is then stored as compressed gas in specialized
tanks. Subsequently, when there’s a deficit in the power supply, stored hydrogen can be converted
back into electricity via fuel cells [9].
Opting for hydrogen fuel cell-based energy storage systems proves advantageous owing to several
factors. Firstly, these systems boast high energy density, ensuring efficient storage of energy.

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Additionally, they incur minimal energy loss during storage and conversion processes, thereby
maximizing overall efficiency. Unlike traditional batteries, which suffer from energy leakage
ranging from 1% to 5% per hour, hydrogen fuel cells maintain their stored energy effectively.
Moreover, hydrogen fuel cell systems offer a prolonged lifespan, making them suitable for long-
term use in power systems. In contrast, batteries not only exhibit lower energy density but also
tend to degrade more rapidly over time, rendering them less suitable for extended operational
durations. Therefore, considering these benefits, hydrogen fuel cell-based systems emerge as a
prudent choice for sustainable and reliable energy storage solutions. [10].
Numerous scholarly works have delved into the issue of powering telecommunication base
transceiver stations and towers through the integration of renewable energy sources as the
primary power supply. Within the academic literature, researchers have extensively explored
various methodologies and strategies aimed at harnessing renewable energy to meet the
energy demands of these critical infrastructures. These studies have examined the feasibility,
effectiveness, and sustainability of employing renewable energy technologies such as solar, wind,
and hydroelectric power to power telecommunication facilities. By leveraging renewable energy
sources, researchers seek to reduce reliance on conventional fossil fuel-based energy systems,
mitigate environmental impacts, and enhance the resilience and efficiency of telecommunication
networks. Through comprehensive analyses and case studies, these research endeavors contribute
valuable insights and recommendations to the ongoing efforts towards achieving sustainable and
eco-friendly energy solutions for telecommunication infrastructure worldwide. R. Kaur et al.
conducted a comprehensive assessment of the techno-economic viability of implementing a PV-
Wind-based DC microgrid to power a telecom tower. Their study utilized the NSGA II algorithm
to determine the optimal size and cost of energy (COE) for the system [11].
In a separate study, the authors conducted an investigation into the technical, economic, and
environmental efficacy of diverse hybrid power systems tailored for remote telecommunication
stations. Using HOMER Software, they analyzed multiple configurations to identify the most
favorable setup based on criteria such as net present cost (NPC) and COE [12].
Jansen et al. presented a case study on powering telecommunication base stations near Dakar,
Senegal, utilizing an autonomous renewable energy microgrid. This system employed solar
photovoltaic (PV) and wind turbine (WT) technologies for electricity generation, supplemented
by a regenerative hydrogen fuel cell for backup power lasting up to 10 days [13].
An analysis to assess the viability and environmental implications of various hybrid systems
integrating PV, wind, and DG technologies was conducted in [14]. This investigation aimed to
evaluate the potential of these hybrid systems in providing power to telecommunication base
transceiver stations situated in rural regions of the Democratic Republic of Congo.
R. K. Pachauri and Y. K. Chauhan proposed a hybrid PV/fuel cell (FC) power system for a
telecom base station in India, demonstrating its cost-effectiveness compared to conventional
power systems [15].
Zegueur et al. conducted a techno-economic evaluation of a hybrid PV-WT-DG system powering
a rural telecommunication station in Algeria’s northeast region [16].
In another study , an algorithm was developed to optimize a hydrogen-centric energy storage
system, with a focus on minimizing curtailments of renewable energy sources (RES). Implemented
in an independent power network in the Aegean Sea, this framework effectively utilized surplus
RES energy for grid reinforcement and transportation, achieving up to 39% utilization of
otherwise wasted renewable energy output [17].
The primary objective of this research is to transition the conventional diesel generators currently
employed in telecommunication stations to a fully renewable energy system. This system will
rely entirely on renewable energy sources, with a hydrogen tank serving as the energy storage
medium, ensuring uninterrupted power supply through the utilization of fuel cells during
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periods of power shortage. To conduct a comprehensive analysis, the study employs HOMER
Pro (Hybrid Optimization Model for Multiple Energy Resources) software, enabling a thorough
techno-economic assessment of the proposed system. Through the utilization of this software,
the study aims to determine the optimal sizing for each component of the renewable energy
system, ensuring efficiency, reliability, and cost-effectiveness.
This research pioneers the integration of a renewable-hydrogen system specifically designed
for telecom stations as a clean and sustainable alternative to traditional diesel generators. By
incorporating hydrogen-based energy storage and fuel cell technology, it advances clean energy
solutions that align with global efforts to combat climate change and promote sustainable
development, reducing the carbon footprint of telecommunication operations. By addressing
technical, economic and environmental aspects, this work presents a scalable solution adaptable
to similar off-grid and rural applications.
The remainder of this paper is structured as follows: Section 2 presents the materials and
methodology utilized in this study. Section 3 discusses the results obtained and provides an
analysis of the findings. Finally, Section 4 presents the conclusions drawn from the study’s
outcomes.

2. MATERIALS AND METHODOLOGY

HOMER®, a robust optimization tool pioneered by the U.S National Renewable Energy
Laboratory (NREL), stands as a cornerstone in the realm of renewable energy analysis and
planning. It encompasses a comprehensive three-step analytical process, comprising Simulation,
Optimization, and Sensitivity Analysis, to facilitate intricate decision-making processes. At
its core, HOMER® relies on a multitude of input data parameters, encompassing geographical
positioning, load profiles, solar radiation levels, wind speeds, ambient temperatures, as well
as economic and technical constraints, among others [18]. These inputs form the foundation
upon which the tool constructs and evaluates diverse energy system scenarios, aiding in the
identification of optimal solutions tailored to specific environmental and operational contexts.
Within the forthcoming sections of this paper, detailed discussions on the requisite input data and
the conceptual model underpinning the proposed renewable energy system shall be presented.
This delineation serves to provide a comprehensive understanding of the analytical framework
employed, laying the groundwork for subsequent analyses and interpretations.
The methodology followed for the study is depicted in Figure 1.

Figure 1. Simulation steps.

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2.1. Telecom load and site localization

In this research, the telecom load under investigation pertains to the electrical consumption
exhibited by a base transceiver station situated within a remote locale of Collo, located in the
Skikda province, northeastern Algeria. The geographic coordinates of the site are recorded as
37°0.8’N latitude and 6°33.8’E longitude.

Figure 2. Hourly load profile of the DC telecom load.

The hourly telecom load profile, depicted in Figure 2, delineates the temporal distribution of
energy consumption patterns. Characterized as a direct current (DC) load, it showcases an
average daily consumption rate of 85 kilowatt-hours (kWh). This data serves as a fundamental
basis for assessing the energy requirements and operational dynamics of the telecommunication
infrastructure within the specified geographical context.

2.2. Wind and Solar potential of the studied site

The geographical location of the telecommunication station presents a notable potential for
harnessing renewable energy. To evaluate the wind and solar resources available, HOMER®
software integrates with NASA’s surface meteorology and solar energy database to acquire
comprehensive weather data specific to the station’s coordinates.

Figure 3. Monthly average solar radiation and clearness index of the site.

Figure 3 illustrates the monthly fluctuations in solar radiation levels, while Figure 4 portrays

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the variations in wind speed observed at the selected site. According to the analysis, the annual
average solar radiation at the site is estimated to be 4.75 kWh/m2/day, with the highest levels
recorded in July, peaking at 7.18 kWh/m2/day.

Figure 4. Monthly average wind speed.

This variation indicates a significant seasonal fluctuation in solar energy availability. Similarly,
the annual average wind speed is calculated to be 5.58 m/s, with December exhibiting the highest
wind speeds, reaching 6.84 m/s. This data suggests seasonal variability in wind energy potential,
with December being the most conducive month for wind power generation. The assessment of
wind and solar potential highlights the considerable renewable energy resources present at the
study site, emphasizing the viability of integrating wind and solar energy technologies into the
telecommunication station’s power supply system.

2.3. Technical model

The hybrid energy system under investigation, represents a sophisticated PV-Wind configuration
integrated with a hydrogen storage infrastructure. This system incorporates essential components
such as an electrolyzer, a fuel cell, and a hydrogen tank. During periods of surplus electricity
generation, the electrolyzer facilitates the conversion of excess power into hydrogen, which is
subsequently stored within the hydrogen tank. This stored hydrogen serves as a reserve energy
source, strategically utilized by the fuel cell during instances of inadequate power generation to
fulfill the prevailing load demand. This seamless interplay between renewable energy generation,
hydrogen production, and subsequent utilization within the system ensures optimal energy
management and continuous supply reliability, even under fluctuating environmental conditions
or variable energy output scenarios.

Figure 5. Schematic of the proposed system.

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Figure 5 represents the proposed hybrid energy system for the telecom station supply.

3. GOVERNING EQUATIONS

3.1. PV System
PV panels serve as pivotal elements within numerous RES, efficiently transforming incident solar
radiation into electrical energy through the photovoltaic effect [19]. The power output of a PV
array can be rigorously computed utilizing the following mathematical expression [20]:
 G 
= PPV YPV f PV  T  1 + α p (Tc − Tc ,STC ) ( (1 ) )
 GT ,STC 
Where the YPV represents the rated power of the photovoltaic (PV) array, denoted in (kW),
fPV signifies the derating factor expressed as (%), GT and GT,STC respectively stand for the solar
radiation incident on the PV array and the standard incident radiation, quantified in (W/m2). αp
is the power temperature coefficient in (%/C°). Tc and Tc,STC represent the PV cell temperature
and the standard temperature in (°C), respectively.
In this study, the selected PV panel model is identified as the flat plate Kyocera 145 SX-UFU
series. This specific PV panel is characterized by a nominal power rating of 145 W. Additionally,
it exhibits a derating factor of 88%, signifying the reduction in power output under non-optimal
operating conditions. The temperature coefficient associated with this PV panel is noted to
be -0.46, denoting the rate of decline in power output with increasing panel temperature. The
operational lifetime expectancy of the PV panel is conservatively estimated to span 25 years,
accounting for gradual degradation over time. To optimize the sizing of the PV system, the
HOMER optimizer tool was employed, facilitating the determination of the most suitable PV
capacity for the intended application.

3.2. Wind Turbine

In the computation of the electrical power generated by the wind turbine, HOMER employs a
rigorous three-step process. Initially, it determines the wind velocity measured at the hub height
of the WT utilizing the well-established power law equation [21]:
α
 z 
U hub = U anem  hub  (2)
 zanem 
Where, Uhub is the wind speed at the hub height (m/s), Uanem represents the velocity measured at
the height of the anemometer (m/s). Zhub and Zanem the respective heights (measured in meters) of
the hub and the anemometer in (m). α is the power law exponent.
This equation relates the wind speed at the turbine hub to the wind speed at a reference height,
typically measured at meteorological masts.
Following the determination of the wind speed Uhub by the HOMER software, it references the
characteristic power curve of the WT to estimate the anticipated power output at that specific
wind speed, assuming standard conditions of temperature and pressure. Subsequently, to
accommodate real-world conditions, the predicted power output undergoes adjustment by
multiplying it with the air density ratio, as illustrated by the equation below [16]:
 ρ 
PWT =   PWT ,STP (3)
 ρ0 
Where ρ is the actual air density in (kg/m3), ρ0 is the air density under standard conditions in
(kg/m3). PWT and PWT,STP denote the respective output power of the wind turbine under real-world
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Ahlem Zegueur et. al.

conditions, and the wind turbine output power adjusted to standard temperature and pressure,
both measured in (kW).
In this study, the selection process involved choosing an Eocycle wind turbine characterized by a
rated power output of 10 kW. It is pertinent to note that this turbine boasts a projected operational
lifespan spanning 20 years, indicating its durability and long-term viability. Additionally, the
hub height of this turbine stands at 16 meters, a dimension crucial for optimizing wind capture
efficiency.
To determine the most effective configuration, the HOMER optimizer, renowned for its capacity
to conduct intricate analyses and optimization processes in energy systems, was employed.
Leveraging the capabilities of this software, the study aimed to identify the optimal number of
wind turbines required to meet the specified energy demands efficiently. Through meticulous
simulation and modeling techniques facilitated by the HOMER optimizer, the study sought to
ascertain the most cost-effective and energy-efficient solution for the integration of wind power
within the telecommunication infrastructure.
The Kyocera PV panels and Eocycle turbines were selected for their high efficiency and durability
and their availability in the local market, ensuring alignment with site-specific climatic and
operational requirements.

3.3. Electrolyzer
Water electrolysis is a fundamental electrochemical process involving the splitting of water
molecules into hydrogen and oxygen gases. This process occurs within an electrolyzer cell
comprising two electrodes: a cathode and an anode. At the cathode, hydrogen gas (H2) is generated
through the reduction reaction, while at the anode, oxygen gas (O2) is produced via the oxidation
reaction. These reactions can be represented as follows [22]:
2 H + + 2e − → H 2 (4)
1
H 2O → O2 + 2 H + + 2e − (5)
2
This electrochemical process is governed by various factors including the electrolyte composition,
electrode materials, applied voltage, and temperature. Understanding the intricacies of water
electrolysis is crucial for the development and optimization of efficient and sustainable hydrogen
production technologies, with significant implications for renewable energy storage and
utilization.
The process of electrolysis of water stands as a firmly established technological method for
hydrogen generation, particularly leveraging renewable electricity sources, owing to its notable
energy efficiency [23]. Alkaline and Proton Exchange Membrane (PEM) electrolyzers stand out
as the predominant and readily accessible variants in the electrolysis landscape [24]. The power
consumption of an electrolyzer can be mathematically represented as follows [25]:
m H 2 HHVH 2
PEL = (6)
η EL
Where ηEL is the efficiency of the electrolyzer, HHVH2 is the higher heating value of hydrogen
(MJ/kg) and m  H 2 is the hydrogen flow rate at the electrolyzer output (kg/s).
In this study, a generic electrolyzer characterized by an operational efficiency of 85% and a
projected operational lifespan spanning 15 years was employed. The search space for the parameter
exploration was meticulously defined, encompassing potential electrolyzer capacities of 10 kW,
20 kW, and 50 kW. These specific capacity ranges were selected to encompass a diverse array of
potential operational scales, thereby facilitating a comprehensive assessment of the electrolyzer’s

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performance across varying power outputs. This deliberate approach to parameter selection
and experimentation design ensures robustness and reliability in the study’s findings, enabling
meaningful insights into the efficiency and viability of electrolysis technologies for hydrogen
production applications.

3.4. Fuel cell

Fuel cells operate via a complementary electrochemical process to electrolysis. Functioning as
electrochemical cells, fuel cells consist of both an anode and a cathode, mirroring the configuration
of electrolyzers. At the anode, hydrogen molecules undergo oxidation, releasing protons and
electrons according to the following reaction [26]:
2 H 2 + 4e − → 4 H + (7)
Simultaneously, at the cathode, oxygen molecules are reduced, combining with the protons and
electrons from the anode to form water [26]:
O2 + 4e − + 4 H + → 2 H 2O (8)
The voltage produced by these reactions determines the electrical output of the fuel cell. This
voltage can be expressed mathematically as elucidated by [27], [28]:
VFC = Erev − Vact − Vdiff − VΩ (9)
Where Erev is the reversible voltage, Vact is the activation voltage, Vdiff is the diffusion voltage and
VΩ is the ohmic voltage.
These fundamental electrochemical processes underscore the functionality of fuel cells as
efficient and environmentally friendly energy conversion devices, with applications ranging
from transportation and stationary power generation to portable electronics and backup power
systems.
In the present study, a standardized fuel cell characterized by a nominal operational lifespan
of 50,000 hours was employed as the primary research apparatus. The parameter space under
scrutiny was delineated to span from 5 kW to 20 kW, with incremental steps of 5 kW meticulously
stipulated. This systematic exploration of the specified power range allows for comprehensive
analysis and comparison of performance metrics across various power output levels.

3.5. Hydrogen tank

In the devised system, a hydrogen storage tank plays a critical role in efficiently managing the
surplus hydrogen generated by the electrolyzer during periods of heightened power production
from photovoltaic (PV) and wind sources. This surplus hydrogen is effectively stored within the
tank, poised to be utilized during instances of insufficient power generation to meet the requisite
load demand. A key assumption underpinning this storage mechanism is the absence of any
hydrogen leakage from the tank, ensuring the integrity and longevity of the stored hydrogen
supply. Furthermore, to initialize the storage capacity, an initial quantity of hydrogen equivalent
to 10% of the tank’s total volume is established. The exploration of optimal storage capacities is
conducted within a predetermined search space, spanning volumes of 50 kg, 100 kg, and 150 kg,
facilitating a comprehensive analysis of storage requirements to accommodate varying levels of
hydrogen production and demand dynamics.

3.6. Power converter

In the telecommunications system under consideration, the load primarily comprises direct
current (DC), whereas the power output from the wind turbine manifests as alternating current
(AC). Consequently, to synchronize these disparate electrical outputs, a rectifier is incorporated

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Ahlem Zegueur et. al.

into the system. Operating with a commendable efficiency rating of 95% and boasting a substantial
lifespan of 15 years, this rectifier facilitates the conversion of AC to DC, ensuring compatibility
with the telecom load requirements. The determination of the optimal capacity for this converter
is achieved through the utilization of the HOMER optimizer, leveraging its advanced algorithmic
capabilities to ascertain the most efficient configuration.
A comprehensive depiction of the entire system configuration is provided in Figure 4, offering
a visual representation of the interconnections and component placement within the system
architecture. Additionally, pertinent economic data on each component are meticulously detailed
in Table A.1 in the appendix, providing essential insights into the financial considerations
associated with the project implementation.

3.7. Economic model

Homer PRO’s main objective function is minimizing the total net present cost (NPC) also known
as the life cycle cost (LCC) by which the software ranks all the technically feasible configurations
of the optimization results. A system’s NPC is the present value of all incurring costs throughout
its lifespan minus the present value of all earned revenues. It can be expressed as follows [21]:
Cann ,tot
CNPC ,tot = ( 10 )
CRF
Where Cann,tot is the total annualized cost ($/year) and CRF is the capital recovery factor expressed
as:
i( 1 + i )N
CRF = ( 11 )
( 1 + i )N − 1
N is the number of years and i is the annual real discount rate (%).
Another substantial metric for evaluating a system’s economic performance is the levelized cost
of energy (LCOE) which is the cost of producing 1kWh of useful energy. It can be calculated as
follows [21]:
Cann ,tot
LCOE = ( 12 )
Eserved
Where Cann,tot is the total annualized cost ($/year) and Eserved is the total electrical load served
(kWh/year).
For systems with hydrogen production, the levelized cost of hydrogen (LCOH) is another key
parameter that designates the average cost of one kilogramme of produced hydrogen. For off-
grid systems, the LCOH can be expressed as [29]:
Cann ,tot
LCOH = ( 13 )
LH 2
Where LH 2 represents the total annual hydrogen load, summed over 8760 hours (one full year).
It is imperative to note that the envisioned project operates under a projected lifetime of 25 years,
reflecting the long-term sustainability and viability of the proposed infrastructure. Moreover,
the simulation process is conducted with a time step interval of 1 hour, facilitating precise and
granular analysis of system performance and operational dynamics over the project’s lifespan.
The real discount rate is taken as 5.88%.

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4. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

This section presents the outcome results of the HOMER simulation. HOMER calculates all
possible scenarios based on the economic input data, the technical constraints, the resource
availability, and the load profile to find the optimal size that makes the system reliable and cost-
effective.

Table 1. Optimal sizing of the proposed system.

Optimal size
Component Search space
(kW)
HOMER
PV 12.3
OptimizerTM
HOMER
Wind turbine 2 units
OptimizerTM
Electrolyzer 10 – 20 – 50 kW 20
Fuel cell 5 – 10 – 15 – 20 kW 10
Hydrogen tank 50 – 100 – 200 kg 50
HOMER
Converter 17.3
OptimizerTM

Table 2. Techno-economic results of the system’s components.

Hydrogen storage
Scenario Base case case
NPC ($) 123,247 155,705
LCOE ($) 0.307 0.388
Economic

LCOH ($) - 10.7

Initial capital ($) 6830 116,964
Operating cost ($) 9007 2997
Electricity production (kWh/year) 32,901 140,600
Excess electricity (kWh/year) 247 54,268
Technical

Capacity shortage (kWh/year) 30 30.9

Unmet load (kWh/year) 3.95 18.2
Total fuel 11,873 L/yr 1074 kg/yr

The results, summarized in Table 1, illustrate the ideal configuration of the proposed system,
while further techno-economic insights are elucidated in Table 2.
Table 1 showcases the optimal sizing of key components within the studied system, revealing
pertinent details such as the search space considered and the ultimately determined optimal
size. Notably, the PV panels are optimized to a capacity of 12.3 kW, while the wind turbines,
electrolyzer, fuel cell, hydrogen tank, and converter are tailored to their respective optimal sizes
through the HOMER OptimizerTM.
Table 2 provides a comprehensive overview of the proposed system’s techno-economic metrics
compared to the conventional one. The NPC of the project is estimated at 155,705$, accompanied
by a levelized cost of energy (LCOE) of 0.388$. This NPC is 14% higher than the base case due
to the high initial capital investment costs estimated at 116,964$. However, the annual operating
costs were reduced by almost 67%.

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Ahlem Zegueur et. al.

Figure 6. Net Present Cost per component.

Figure 7. Annual electric production shares.

Figure 6 illustrates that the NPC per component within the system configuration varies
significantly, reflecting diverse investment requirements and operational considerations.
Specifically, the electrolyzer presents a relatively lower NPC at $9290.39, followed by the
system converter at $6980.94. Conversely, the wind turbine exhibits the highest NPC among
the components, standing at $76,104.8. In between, the fuel cell, hydrogen tank, and PV panels
demonstrate intermediate NPC values at $14,502.48, $16,463.76, and $32,362.32, respectively.
From a technical standpoint, the system demonstrates robust performance, generating an annual
electricity output of 140,600 kWh/year. This production is derived primarily from PV panels
contributing 19,967 kWh/year, wind turbines generating 115,521 kWh/year, and fuel cells
providing 5,112 kWh/year, accounting for 14.2%, 82.2%, and 3.6% of the total output respectively,
as depicted in Figure 7. The total electricity produced is devided as follows: 22.05% for the telecom
load consumption, 37.08% for electrolysis, 38.59% of excessive energy and 2.26% converter
losses. It is important to note the presence of other potential energy losses across the system that
can significantly affect the overall efficiency. These losses mainly stem from conversion losses
particularly in the electrolyzer and the fuell cell where there is a transformation between different
energy froms. Another type of losses is the transmission losses, which are primaly associated with
the movement of electricity among components due to electrical resistance in wires, connectors
and other transmission mediums. Ultimately, there are storage-related losses although hydrogen
storage is known for low energy loss and minimal leakage over long duration compared to battery
storage, some minor energy consumption occurs for tasks such as compression. These losses
combined reduce the hybrid system’s effective output.
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(a)

(b)

(c)

(d)

(e)
Figure 8. Daily power output, electrolyzer input, and hydrogen tank level.

Figure 9. Monthly hydrogen fuel production and consumption.

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Figure 10. Hourly energy management of the system.

The analysis presented in this section offers a detailed insight into the daily power outputs of
key components within the green power system, shedding light on their operational dynamics
and efficiency. Figure 8 illustrates the daily power outputs of the PV panels, wind turbines, and
fuel cells, alongside the daily input power of the electrolyzer and the fluctuation of hydrogen
tank levels. The PV array demonstrates consistent performance, generating a daily mean output
of 54.7 kWh/day over 4086 operational hours per year, with a corresponding levelized cost of
0.125$/kWh. Similarly, the wind turbines operate for 7034 hours annually, yielding the highest
electricity production contribution with a mean output of 13.2 kW/day and a favorable levelized
cost of 0.051$/kWh. Meanwhile, the fuel cell, serving as the backup power system, operates for
3150 hours yearly, consuming 1074 kg of hydrogen fuel with a specific fuel consumption of 0.210
kg/kWh. The electrolyzer plays a pivotal role in the system’s energy management, with a mean
input of 5.95 kW/day and an operational duration of 4669 hours annually. It produces 1124 kg/
year of hydrogen, contributing to the hydrogen tank’s storage capacity. Throughout the year, the
hydrogen tank maintains a dynamic level, starting with zero kg of content and concluding with
50 kg, after accounting for hydrogen production and consumption. Figure 9 displays the monthly
hydrogen fuel production and consumption. The system’s annual hydrogen production rate is
estimated at 1124 kg and the consumption rate is estimated at 1074 kg, providing a reliable backup
power source when renewable generation is insufficient. Figure 10 provides a comprehensive
overview of the hourly energy management for a representative day, showcasing the system’s
dispatch strategy, which utilizes a load-following approach. This strategy is particularly suitable
for systems characterized by high renewable energy penetration, ensuring optimal utilization of
available resources.
The hydrogen energy system serves as a crucial backup power source, activating during periods
of renewable energy deficiency or power shortages to meet load demand. Conversely, the
electrolyzer operates during periods of excess renewable energy production, converting surplus
electricity into hydrogen for storage. Notably, if the hydrogen tank reaches full capacity, excess
energy cannot be stored, highlighting a potential area for optimization. However, Implementing
green hydrogen energy systems presents several challenges. Infrastructure requirements, such
as the need for specialized storage tanks and pipelines, demand significant investment and
development due to the current lack of extensive hydrogen networks. Safety considerations are
crucial as hydrogen is highly flammable, requiring careful handling to prevent leaks, explosions,
or material degradation. Additionally, while hydrogen technologies like electrolyzers and fuel
cells are progressing, they are not yet fully mature or cost-competitive with other energy storage
solutions, limiting their widespread adoption. Overcoming these challenges will require ongoing
technological advancements and infrastructure development.

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Table 3. Environmental comparison between the base case and the proposed system.
Pollutants (kg/year) Base case Hydrogen storage case
Carbon Dioxide 31,081 -0.337
Carbon Monoxide 194 0.215
Unburned Hydrocarbons 8.55 0
Particulate Matter 1.16 0
Sulfur Dioxide 76.1 0
Nitrogen Oxides 182 0.0215

Table 3 provides a comparative analysis of pollutant emissions between the traditional power
system and the proposed hydrogen storage system highlighting the environmental advantages of
the proposed system over the conventional one. Notably, the significant reduction in greenhouse
gas emissions, particularly CO2 where the proposed system could avoid emitting nearly 31,081
kg of CO2 annually.
A comparative analysis was conducted between the proposed PV–wind–hydrogen system and a
previously studied PV–wind–diesel–battery hybrid system [16]. The latter achieved an NPC of
$85,673 and COE of $0.214/kWh, with CO₂ emissions reduced by approximately 57% compared
to a diesel-only baseline. However, its reliance on diesel generation results in ongoing fuel costs
and emissions. By contrast, the hydrogen storage system, while involving a higher initial NPC of
$155,705, operates with zero emissions and does not require diesel, providing a fully sustainable
alternative. This configuration is particularly suited for locations with high renewable potential,
where hydrogen can be efficiently stored and used as backup, ensuring system reliability for off-
grid telecommunication loads.
From an Environmental Science and Pollution Research perspective, these findings underscore
the importance of efficient energy management strategies in maximizing the utilization of
renewable resources while minimizing environmental impact. Moreover, the analysis suggests
potential avenues for further research, such as exploring alternative methods for utilizing excess
energy or optimizing storage capacity to enhance system flexibility and resilience. Overall,
the results contribute to advancing the understanding of sustainable energy systems and their
implications for environmental sustainability.

5. SENSITIVITY ANALYSIS
In this section, a sensitivity analysis is conducted to assess the impact of the meteorological data
variations on the system’s main economic metrics: NPC, LCOE and LCOH. The solar irradiation
and wind speed average values were changed by ±20%.

(a) (b)
Figure 11. Sensitivity analysis results of: (a) Solar irradiation; (b) wind speed.

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Ahlem Zegueur et. al.

The sensitivity analysis results, presented in Figure 11, reveal an inverse relationship between
meteorological inputs and economic outputs. A 20% increase in solar irradiation leads to a
modest decrease in NPC, LCOE, and LCOH (approximately 1–2%), while a 20% decrease results
in up to a 3% increase in these economic metrics. These findings underscore the resilience and
cost-effectiveness of the PV system, even under fluctuating solar conditions. In contrast, wind
speed variations demonstrate a significant impact on economic outcomes, with a 20% reduction
in wind speed causing an almost 50% increase in NPC and LCOE.

6. CONCLUSION AND FUTURE WORK

The simulation outcomes convincingly demonstrated the techno-economic viability of the
system, revealing a total NPC of $155,705 and a COE amounting to $0.388. Notably, the optimal
configuration featured a 12.3 kW PV power capacity, complemented by two 10 kW wind turbines,
a 10-kW fuel cell, a 20 kW electrolyzer, a 50 kg hydrogen tank, and a 17.3 kW rectifier. With an
annual electricity production of 140,600 kWh/year, wind energy emerged as the predominant
contributor, underscoring the system’s robustness and reliability.
Furthermore, our analysis identified a negligible annual capacity shortage of 0.0372% and an
unmet load of merely 0.0219%, affirming the system’s capability to meet the telecom load demand
effectively. Notably, the hydrogen tank demonstrated commendable performance, successfully
storing 1174 kg of on-site produced hydrogen over the course of the year.
The sensitivity analysis results demonstrated the resilience of the PV power system, in contrast to
the wind system which showed significant economic instability under variable conditions. These
findings emphasis the critical importance of accurate meteorological data in optimizing system
design for economic stability.
Limitations of the study include dependency on simulation outputs, location-specific results, and
assumptions on component durability and financial factors, which may affect generalizability.
Beyond its economic prowess, the proposed system stands out for its environmental integrity,
boasting a 100% green profile with zero pollutant emissions. This aspect holds significant
promise in mitigating global warming and advancing sustainable energy practices. We anticipate
that our findings will serve as a catalyst, inspiring telecom companies to embrace green power
solutions for their towers and stations, thereby fostering a more environmentally conscious
telecommunications sector.
Our future work will focus on detailed analysis of hydrogen consumption and system efficiency
under varying conditions, exploration of advanced optimization techniques for component
selection and sizing, and investigations into the infrastructure and integration challenges of
hydrogen storage systems. Additionally, we propose developing enhanced safety protocols
specific to hydrogen handling, conducting cost and technological maturity assessments, and
implementing pilot projects to evaluate real-world feasibility. We believe these directions will
provide a comprehensive foundation for future advancements in green hydrogen energy storage.

Authors contribution: AZ: conceptualization, methodology, data curation, writing—original

draft, formal analysis, visualization, supervision, writing—review and editing. ST: investigation,
conceptualization, methodology, supervision, writing—original draft, writing—review and
editing. AM: conceptualization, data curation, supervision.
Funding: The authors have not disclosed any funding.
Data Availability Statement: Not applicable.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare that they have no known conflicts of interest.

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APPENDIX

Capital Replacement O&M

Component
($/kW) ($/kW) ($/year)
Kyocera 145 W 2500 2500 10
Eocycle 10 kW 3000 3000 300
Converter 300 300 0
Electrolyzer [30] 300 290 5
Fuel cell [30] 500 450 0.02 ($/op.hr)
Hydrogen Storage [31] 200 ($/kg) 150 ($/kg) 10

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