COMPUTER STUDIES FOR O’ LEVEL

COMPILED BY OKOLONG SAM

ICT DEPARTMENT

0773010728/ 0750866633/ 0789253119

[email protected]

TOPIC 1: INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTERS

A Computer is a programmable electronic device, which accepts data and
processes it into information for the user.
OR A Computer is an electronic machine that is capable of automatically
accepting data, performing arithmetic & logic operations on the data, storing &
memorizing the results of the operations, and outputting the results, all these done
under control.

Assignment: Draw a computer and label the following parts: system unit, monitor,
keyboard and mouse
Terminologies and basic concepts

1. Data. This refers to the raw facts and figures, which are entered into the
computer by the user in a form suitable for processing.
2. Information and communication Technology (ICT). It is the branch of
engineering that deals with the use of computers and telecommunications to
retrieve, store and transmit information.
3. The term information technology (IT) is used to describe the use of computers
in business, education and everyday life.
4. Data entry. It is the act of in putting data into the computer. This is done by the
help of input devices like keyboard, mouse etc.
5. Byte. A byte is a unit of computer memory or digital information that consists
of eight binary digits (bits).
6. Binary. The number system used to represent digital information in computers
where data is expressed by combinations of the digits 0 and 1, corresponding to
power states "off" and "on" respectively.
7. Computer Memory. This acts as a store for digital Data, processed information
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 and programs in a computer system.
8. RAM (Random Access Memory) is temporary and volatile working memory
that contains all the work in progress, since the user last saved to disk.
REASONS FOR STUDYING COMPUTERS
1. To acquire creative skills for problem solving
2. To acquire critical and analytical thinking skills for practical solutions
3. To be aware of the developments and emerging issues concerning computing
and society
4. To become computer literate and capable citizens who can develop,
communicate & implement innovative, practical and responsible Information
& Communication Technology (ICT) solutions to problems
5. To acquire knowledge and skills in the use of ICT for enhanced productivity.
6. To use the knowledge acquired in computer studies in other fields like;
Banking, Education, Health, Business
7. We study computers in order to pass examinations
8. To acquire knowledge as a foundation for further studies in the computing field
CHARACTERISTICS OF MODERN COMPUTERS
1. Speed. Computers are faster in processing data into information. They process
millions of instructions per second. Computer speed is measured in Megahertz
(MHz) and Gigahertz (GHz).
2. Accuracy. Computers give accurate output provided the correct input and a set
of instructions are given, otherwise, the output will be incorrect. In computer
terminology, this is known as garbage in garbage out (GIGO).
3. Diligence. Computers have the ability to perform repetitive and boring tasks
over and over without getting tired or bored and producing the same results.
Therefore, computers are diligent.
4. Storage. They have the ability to store data and information in their internal
and external memory.
5. Versatility. Computers have the ability to handle a variety of tasks. Computers
are multi-purpose machines. They can be used for: typing, calculations; storage,
etc, using a number of programs. Therefore, computers are versatile.
6. Artificial intelligence. Computers have the ability to imitate human beings.
They have the ability to receive instructions and provide correct solutions using
the programs installed.
7. Automation. Computers do not need to be remained to perform any of the
instructions when executing a programmed routine, like controlling the
different devices attached to it. Therefore, computers are automatic.
8. Processing. Computers process data into information following user and
program instructions

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EVOLUTION OF COMPUTERS

The word Evolution comes from the Latin word, ‘ēvolvō’ which literally means; to
‘unroll’, or to ‘unfold’.
Evolution of computers refers to the historical developments through which
computers and technology have passed, from the time they started to exist in
ancient forms to their current state.

This refers to the gradual development in the technology of computers from a

simple form to a more complex form.
Knowledge about the history/evolution of computers gives us a deeper
understanding of the origin and the gradual Mechanical to Electro-mechanical to
Electronic technological changes, which have brought about the kind of computers
we see today, and helps us to predict how they will be in future.

To trace the origin and explain evolution of computers:

1. Origin of Computing
2. Mechanical era
3. Electro-mechanical era
4. Electronic era (including Computer Generations)
To identify and compare the different developments in the evolution computers
ORIGIN OF COUNTING
The origin of computing started with the early man who used fingers, stones,
sticks, marks on walls, sand, e.t.c.
The word ‘compute’ was derived from two Latin words; ‘com’, which means
‘together’ and ‘putare’, which may means ‘add, calculate, count, or estimate’.

Abacus; The abacus also called a counting frame was a calculating device
used primarily in parts of Asia for performing arithmetic operations. Before the
17th century, the early Babylonians invented the abacus. It is believed to be the
first computer device. It consisted of sliding columns of beads to represent
numbers.
It has two decks. Each bead in the upper deck is equal to 5 units while Each bead
in the lower deck is equal to 1 unit.

Illustration:

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Napier’s Bones;
This was a set of logarithms based on multiplication discovered around 1614 by a
Scottish Mathematician John Napier. This machine could divide, multiply and add
numbers.

Illustration:

Slide Rule;
in 1620, a British Mathematician William Oughtred, invented the first
mechanical analog device which was called slide rule. It was used primarily for
multiplication and division and for functions such as; roots, logarithms and
trigonometry, but not for addition and subtraction.

Illustration:

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MECHANICAL ERA
This was the era of the mechanical computers. It was between 1623 and 1945.
The mechanical computers were machines that were characterized with
mechanical gears, wheels, moving parts, electro-mechanical relays, and dials and
could use punched cards and tapes for data storage.
The popular mechanical developments of computers in this period include:
1. Blaise Pascal's Calculator (1642),
2. Leibniz’s Stepped Reckoner (1694),
3. Jacquard’s Loom (1801), and
4. Charles Babbage’s Analytical & Difference Engine (1834).
This era also saw the development of the world's first computer programmer Ada
Byron Lovelace (1815-1852)

Examples of mechanical computers include;

Arithmetic Machine;

in 1642, a French man called Blaise Pascal was given credit for inventing the first
mechanical adding and subtracting machine that used a system of gears and
wheels. It had digits from one to nine arranged on wheels similar to a milometer
on a motor car. It was also known as an Arithmetic calculator

Illustration:

Leibniz Stepped Reckonner Calculator;

in 1694, Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz, a Germany Mathematician improved the
Pascal arithmetic calculator and design to create

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Leibniz Calculator .
It was the first calculator that could perform all four arithmetic operations:
addition, subtraction, multiplication and division.
Illustration:

Jacquard Weaving Loom Machine;

Joseph Jacquard a French man invented the first successesful automatic draw loom
or a machine for controlling the weaving process when making complex patterns
in 1804. This system could use metal punched cards with holes for data storage.
The machine could store instructions using the “hole and no hole” method

Illustration:

Arithmometer;
in 1820, Thomas De Columnor a French man invented a calculating machine
which he called Arithmometer. He established an industry for making the
calculating machines. An Arithmometer was a mechanical calculator that could
add and subtract directly and could perform long multiplications and divisions
effectively by using a movable accumulator for the result.

Charles Babbage’s Analytical Engine;

The concept of today's computers (Input - Process - Output) was first visualized by
Charles Babbage in 1834 in England.
He is therefore regarded as the father of computers.
His idea for the Analytical Engine consisted of 4 parts: an input device, a mill
(processing unit), a storage device, and an output device.
.
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Illustration:

Hollerith’s tabulator;
Herman Hollerith, an American invented a tabulating machine that used punched
cards to store and tabulate data. The USA government in the 1890 census used this
machine and the process took a very short period in that year. He started a
tabulating machine company and sold his machines all over the world. He was
later joined with other people to form the popularly known company, IBM
(International Business Machine)

Illustration:

Electronic Digital Computers;

The first operating digital computer was made in Germany in 1941 by Konrad
Zuse. It was destroyed during the world war and was not known outside Germany.
The first widely operational computers came in after the world war in 1950’s and
they were categorised in generations
COMPUTER GENERATIONS
Computer generations refer to a series of development of computers in terms of
technology and physical size from the first generation to the present generation.
The computer generations are discussed below;

FIRST GENERATION [1945-1960] (Vacuum Tube technology)

In the earliest general-purpose computers, most input and output devices were
punched cards and magnetic tapes. They were mainly made up of loops of
vacuum tubes and magnetic drums. They could run only one program at a time.
Examples include;

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1. ENIAC – Electronic Numerical Integrator and Computer. It was the first
electronic digital computer.
2. EDVAC – Electronic Discrete Variable Automatic computer
3. UNIVAC – Universal Automatic Computer

Characteristics of First Generation Computers

1. They used vacuum tubes as their active element for internal operations
2. They were large in size, they could fill several rooms
3. They were slow in their operations and could run only one program at a time
4. They used punched cards and magnetic tapes to input and output data
5. They consumed a lot of power and generated a lot of heat
6. Programming was done in machine and assembly languages
7. They could not store much information. i.e. they had limited memory of
approximately 2KB
8. They were expensive and terminal could be rented

SETBACKS INCLUDED:

1. Limited primary memory

2. Consumed a great deal of power and generated a great deal of heat.
3. They were short lived and needed a standby technician.
4. Weighted about 30 tons
5. They were very expensive to buy
6. They had low processing speed
SECOND GENERATION [1960-1964] Transistors
By early 1960’s, computers were improved, instead of using vacuum tubes, they
used transistors which were much smaller than
vacuum tubes, therefore they became faster and reduced in size.

Characteristics of Second Generation Computers

1. They used transistors as their active element for internal operations
2. They were smaller than first generation computers
3. Memory size increased to 32KB
4. They consumed less power and generated less heat than first generation
computers
5. They were less expensive than first generation computers
6. They were faster and more reliable than first generation computers
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7. There was introduction of high level programming languages, e.g. FORTRAN
(Formula Transition), COBOL (Common Business Oriented Language),
PROLOG, etc
8. They still relied on punched cards for input and output of data.
9. There was introduction of super computer, e.g. Livermore Atomic Research
Computer (LARC)
EXAMPLES INCLUDE;

1. Livermore Atomic Research Computer (LARC)

2. NCR 501 Computer
3. IBM

SETBACKS:
1. They produced less noise but their cost was still very expensive.
2. High level of training was required before use.
3. Transistors gave much heat that could damage other components.
4. Commercial production was difficult and costly.
5. The computers could still run only one application program at a time (Multi-
tasking was not possible)
6. Air-conditioning was required.
7. Manual assembly of individual components into a functioning unit was
required.
THIRD GENERATION COMPUTERS [1964-1970] Integrated Circuits
Here, integrated circuits (ICs) replaced the transistors, which are small electronic
components. The IC is so effective because its components do not need to be wired
directly to the computer system board. Magnetic discs were used for secondary
storage and computers began to support multi-processing and time-sharing

Characteristics of Third Generation Computers

1. They used integrated circuits (ICs) as their active element for internal operation
2. They were smaller than second generation computers in size
3. Computer memory increased to 2MB of RAM
4. The keyboards and monitors replaced punched cards for input and output.
5. Magnetic hard disks were developed for storage purposes
6. They consumed less power and generated less heat than second generation
computers
7. They supported capabilities such as multi-processing and time sharing
8. They used parallel processing. This improved on their processing speed
9. There was introduction of simpler programming languages, e.g. BASIC

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 (Beginners All Symbolic Instruction Code)
10.There was introduction of networking
11.There was introduction of operating system
12.They were cheaper than second generation computers
Examples of third generation computers:
1. The PDP-8 was the first commercially successful minicomputer.
2. The HP-2115 which was made by Hewlett-Packard (HP)
SETBACKS:
1. Highly sophisticated technology required for the manufacture of IC chips.
2. They required Air-conditioning in many cases due to the heat produced.
3. If any component in an IC fails, the whole IC has to be replaced by a new one.
4. Operations were at a low voltage because ICs function at fairly low voltage.
5. Quite delicate in handling as these cannot withstand rough handling or
excessive heat
FOURTH GENERATION [1970-Date] Microprocessors.
In the fourth generation, large-scale integrated circuits (LSIC) and very large-scale
integrated circuits (VLSIC) were developed, whereby a special IC can contain a
loop of up to tens of millions of transistors. In 1971, Ted Hoff, from Intel
Company developed a microprocessor, which acted as a CPU (Central Processing
Unit)

Examples
1. The Xerox Alto (1973) was the first computer to use a GUI.
2. The IBM 5100, portable computer that appeared in September 1975.
3. The Apple Macintosh (1984 ), was a mouse-driven computer at a much cheaper
price.
Characteristics of Fourth Generation Computers
1. They use microprocessors as their active element for internal operation, e.g.
Pentium 2, Pentium 4, Dual core
2. The fourth generation computers saw the development of the mouse and
handheld input devices.
3. They are small in size, fast and reliable
4. They have high primary and secondary memory.
5. There is a wide variety of software, e.g. Windows Operating System, Office
Applications, Jet Audio, etc
6. There has been development of inter-computer communication. e.g. The
Internet
7. The price of computers has dropped considerably and they are now affordable.
8. Heat generation has greatly reduced or even eliminated in some cases.

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9. Power consumption has greatly reduced.
10.There has been introduction of very simple programming languages, e.g. very
high level programming languages like; C#, CSS, HTML, Java, etc

THE FIFTH GENERATION (TODAY TO FUTURE): Artificial Intelligence

and Robotics.
Artificial intelligence (AI) is the ability of machines to have human capabilities,
such as the five senses (to see, hear, feel, taste, smell), plus, understanding,
communication, reasoning, learning, learning from past experiences, planning, and
problem solving.

In future, computers are to be applicable in almost every imaginable place at home,

office, factory, church, etc.
Characteristics of Fifth Generation Computers
1. Wireless communication
2. Voice Recognition System
3. Development of extremely fast computers
4. development of computer networking technologies
5. introduction of flash memory for data storage
Setbacks and Demerits of Fifth Generation Computers
1. Computer Obsession and addiction is seriously spoiling the writing and
thinking abilities of human beings.
2. Computer Crime such as hacking and online theft is on the rise due to misuse of
5th Generation computer technology.
3. Robotics in the fifth generation will cause unemployment as machines take on
the jobs people could do.
Examples of fifth generation computers:
1. TOSY Ping Pong Playing Robot (2007) is a humanoid robot designed to play
table tennis against a human being.
2. Hospital Robots are becoming more useful to hospital staff; from supporting
surgeons to paying bedside visits to patients.
3. The iPad (2010) is a tablet computer designed and marketed by Apple Inc.,
with a flat touch screen. It is primarily operated by touching the screen rather
than using a physical keyboard
CONCLUSION; As computer technology advances, computers are becoming
smaller, more powerful and less expensive.
SUMMARY TABLE FOR THE ELECTRONIC ERA WITH COMPUTER
GENERATIONS
GENERATI 1st 2ND 3RD 4TH 5TH
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ON (1946- (1958- (1964- (1971 TO (TODAY TO
(Period) 1958) 1964) 1971) DATE) FUTURE)
Hall mark Vacuum Transisto Integrated Microprocess Artificial
(Technology Tubes rs Circuits ors Intelligence
) (LSI (VLSI and Robotics
devices) devices)
Physical Could Could fit Could now Mobile Can be
Size fill in a fit onto a Computers customized to
entire single desk Could fit in any shape of
floor of room the palm of interest
Large the hand.
Building
s
Input Punched Punched Keyboard Keyboard,
Voice
Cards Cards Mouse
Recognition,
Touch,
Sensors, e.tc.
Primary 2Kilobyt 32Kiloby 2Mega Up to Will continue
Memory es tes Bytes 128MB, to increase to
(RAM) 256MB, 16, 32, 64,128
512MB, 1GB e.t.c.
…Up to 8
GB of RAM
Secondary Magneti Magnetic Magnetic A variety of • Hard
Storage c Drum Core Hard Storage disks
Disks media e.g., with a
Diskettes, lot
Hard Disks, (Teraby
Compact tes) of
Discs and Memor
USB flash y,
drives • Internet
hard
drives,
• Micro
memor
y cards
Software Machine Assembly Simple Operating Fifth-
Languag and high programmi systems with generation
e level ng a Graphical programming
programi languages User languages
ng like Interface (5GLs)
languages BASIC (GUI) were

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 Developed.
Multitasking Not Not Possible Possible Possible
possible possible

THE COMPUTER SYSTEM

A computer system is a set of interrelated computer components that work
together to manage and process data into information. A computer system is made
of the following elements; People (users), Data/Information, Hardware, Software.
1. People (users); are the most important part of the computer system. There are
two types of people who use computers, these include; computer professionals
and end users.
a. A Computer professional. Is a person who has had extensive
education or considerable experience in the technical aspects of using a
computer, e.g. Computer Programmer, Network Administrator, Web
Designer, etc.
b. An End-user. Is someone with moderate technical knowledge of
computers who uses computers for entertainment, education or work-
related tasks.
2. Hardware; refers to the physical and tangible components of the computer
system, like: mouse, keyboard, printer, monitor.
3. Software; refers to the instructions (programs) that tell the computer how to
perform a task. Software is the intangible component of the computer system.
e.g. operating system like Windows 7, antivirus, word processors, web
browsers, etc.
4. Data/information; Data refers to raw material whether on paper, electronic, or
other form that is processed by the computer into information. Information is
processed data given as output in form of printed text, graphics, images, sound
or video.

TYPES OF DATA

1. Text data. This is data in form of letters, symbols and numbers. However,
the numbers in text data cannot be used in calculations. e.g. A, B, C ... Z, a, b,
c ... z, >, <, /, [, ], {, }, *, %, $, #, P.O.BOX 124 Mukono.
2. Numerical data. This is data in form of numbers. Numerical data can be used
in calculations. e.g. 0, 1, 2, 3 ... 9, 100, 60, 56.
3. Graphical data. This is data in form of images. e.g. photos, graphs, pie-charts,
clip-art, shapes, video-clips.
4. Audio data. This is data in form of sound, music, voices, among others.

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INFORMATION PROCESSING CYCLE
This refers to the sequence of operations used to transform data into information.
The information processing cycle usually goes through four operations. They
include the following; Input, Processing, Output, and Storage Operations.
1. Input operation. Data is entered electronically and is converted to a form that
can be processed by the computer. The means for capturing data is the input
devices that include the; mouse, keyboard, scanner, digital camera, barcode
reader, etc.
2. Processing operation. Data is processed to transform it into information such
as summaries and totals, e.g. numbers may be added or subtracted. The
principal processing devices in the computer is the CPU (Central Processing
Unit).
3. Output operation. The information obtained from the data is produced in a
form usable by the users. Output may be in form of printed text, sound, and
charts, displayed on the computer screen.
4. Storage operation. The data, information and programs are permanently stored
in a computer process-able form. The storage devices include; CDs, hard disks,
DVDs, flash disks, memory cards, floppy disks, etc..
USES OF COMPUTERS IN SOCIETY
Computers are used in a variety of areas including; Education, Research,
Business, Health, Communication, Military & Security, Home, Leisure &
Entertainment, Politics & Governance, Industry, Technical &
Scientific Fields.

USES OF COMPUTERS AT HOME

1. Paying bills using services like: e-banking, Electronic Funds Transfer (EFT),
among others on the internet
2. Budgeting and personal financial management like: balancing a cheque
book, buying and selling stocks online, manage investments and family
budgets
3. Entertainment through listening to music, playing games, watching movies and
videos
4. Online learning, by producing assignments and reports
5. Helping users to read, write, count and spell words
6. Communicating with others around the world using email, chat rooms, Skype
and instant messaging
USES OF COMPUTERS AT SCHOOLS/EDUCATION & TRAINING
1. Computer Assisted Instruction (CAI). Teachers can use computers to present
teaching material in a more interesting way

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2. Computer Assisted Learning (CAL). Students use computers and appropriate
software to learn at their own pace
3. Computer Assisted Assessment (CAA). This is the use of computers with
appropriate hardware and software to mark scripts.
4. Distance learning, through computer based training and web based training
5. Simulation of real life situations that may be dangerous
6. Electronic library system of searching, borrowing, and returning books
7. School Administration and Management Systems (SAMS) for keeping records
of students, producing reports cards, financial management, and other related
records.
8. Edutainment, which is a type of educational software that combines education
with entertainment
APPLICATIONS OF COMPUTERS IN OFFICES
1. Documents processing like creating office memos, letters, reports, etc.
2. Preparing: pay rolls, budgets, income statements and balance sheets
3. Tracking inventory and generating invoices and receipts
4. Presenting projects and ideas by means of presentation software
5. Using of, electronic mail, electronic bulletin and video conferencing to
communicate information
6. Use of telecommuting, so that employees can work away from a company’s
standard work place
7. Creating websites to provide selected information to the clients, advertise
products by conducting e-commerce, etc.
APPLICATIONS OF COMPUTERS IN BUSINESS
1. Making deposits, withdrawing cash and transferring money between accounts
2. Receiving information about your bank account
3. Using Magnetic Ink Character Recognition (MICR) readers to process cheques
4. Using microfilms and microchips to store transaction records
5. Automated Teller Machine (ATM). Is a self-service banking machine
attached to the host computer through a telephone network. Services
available through ATM include; Making deposits and withdrawing cash,
Transferring money between accounts, Obtaining account balances and
processing bank statements.
6. Online banking. Services available through Online banking include;
7. Transferring money electronically between accounts
8. Loan and credit card applications
9. Obtaining credit card statements, bank statements, and account balances
10.Electronic commerce (e-commerce). This is a financial business transaction
that occurs over an electronic network, such as the internet.

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APPLICATIONS OF COMPUTERS IN INDUSTRY AND
MANUFACTURING
1. Designing and printing product labels
2. Designing the layout of the product and how it will be packaged
3. Keeping track of inventory and products
4. General records management
5. Robotics. A robot is a computer-controlled device that can move and react to
instructions from the outside world. Robots are used in tasks and processes that
are dangerous in nature to man.
6. Quality control. Computer Aided Design (CAD) and Computer Aided
Manufacturing (CAM) software are used in quality control.
APPLICATIONS OF COMPUTERS IN HEALTH
1. Maintaining patients’ records in hospitals and clinics
2. Monitoring patients’ vital signs in hospital rooms and at home
3. Carrying out Computer Assisted Medical Test
4. For research and diagnosis of medical conditions
5. Implanting computerised devices, like, pacemakers, that allow patients to live
longer
6. Use of computer-controlled devices during operations that require great
accuracy, like, laser eye surgery and heart surgery
7. Telemedicine through computers with video conferencing capabilities
8. Use of Computer Aided Surgery for training before performing surgery on live
humans
APPLICATIONS OF COMPUTERS IN OTHER AREA
1. Security and military
a. Laser guided cameras and satellites are used for national and domestic
security
b. Businesses like: banks & supermarkets, use equipment like CCTV
cameras for monitoring customers in the business hall.
c. Computers are also used in the military to fly and direct combat
planes, locate enemy positions and hit them with minimal civilian and
property losses
2. Climate and weather forecasting. Programs have been developed to
accurately predict and report changes in climate and weather to aid travellers
and farmers among others, to plan effectively
3. Astronomical centres. Computers help in controlling space shuttles sent to
other planets like mars, the moon etc. Computers in form of robots that are
multipurpose and highly intelligent are sent to planets where man is not sure of
the existence of life yet, instead of risking man’s life.
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ADVANTAGES OF USING COMPUTERS
1. Computers are fast in task execution compared to manual methods. e.g. using a
computer program like a word processor, one can easily produce many letters
to different recipients easily compared to writing them manually.
2. Computers can identify mistakes and correct, e.g. the spelling and grammar
checker tool which identifies and proposes alternatives in case of any spelling
or grammar error
3. Neatness and professionalism. Computer programs have formatting tools that
can be used to produce outstanding, neat and smart work, compared to the
manual methods where creativity is limited.
4. Accuracy. Computers execute tasks accurately according to the commands
given by the user as compared to manual methods especially in calculations.
5. They are a source of employment to people like: software engineers, ICT
teachers, technicians and computer programmers.
6. They store vital information in their memory that can be referred to in the future
7. They act as a research tool for scientists, reasearchers and students through a
variety of information that they offer
8. They help to ease communication through e-mails, teleconferencing and video-
conferencing technologies
9. They help to increase productivity and efficiency of work. This is because,
they simplify complex tasks which may be difficult for man to perform into
simple ones thus increasing output
N.B, more advantages include the characteristics of modern computers &
applications of computers in the different fields.
DISADVANTAGES OF USING COMPUTERS IN SOCIETY
1. They are relatively expensive to buy and maintain and they need regular
servicing and repairs.
2. They require intensive training before one can be able to use them, which is
costly and takes time.
3. They lead to loss of data due to; attacks by viruses, hardware or software
failure, theft of system, etc.
4. They are power dependent. Since they are electronic machines, they only
operate when there is power.
5. They consume a lot of power, therefore, they increase one’s expenditure on
electricity
6. They lead to unemployment. With computerisation, most work is electronically
processed. This reduces jobs man can do.
7. Computers cause immorality through pornographic material that they portray
which is poisonous to children and community
8. They lead to crimes like forgery. Computers also help criminals to exchange

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 information, which increases insecurity.
9. As a result of using computers in education and training, face-to-face
interactions between teachers and students may be reduced which hinders the
effective teaching and learning process
10.Prolonged use of computers may lead to health hazards like eye-strain,
backache, headache, etc. This is due to electromagnetic radiation light rays
from the monitor, poor sitting posture, among others.
11.Loss of individual privacy as confidential information is exposed to other
people over networks.
12.Loss of writing and spelling skills. There is Computers do not involve the use
of a pencil or pen, thus, loss of writing and spelling skills.
13.Pollution of the environment. This is comes as a result of improper disposal
of e-waste (electronic waste), like spoiled or obsolete computers, printers,
scanners, keyboards, mice, among others.
CLASSIFICATION AND CATERGORIES OF COMPUTERS

It refers to categorizing of computers depending on certain factors as explained

below. There are four categories/classifications of computers namely

1. Classification by Process
2. Classification by Purpose & Function.
3. Classification by Size and Capacity
4. Classification by Processor Power

CATEGORIES OF COMPUTERS: OR CLASSIFICATION BY

PROCESS:

Category means grouping or putting a class of items that meet a certain

requirement
Computers can be categorized according to the process they use to represent data.

Computer categories are basically three:

1. Digital computers
2. Analog computers
3. Hybrid computers

ANALOG COMPUTER.

An Analog Computer is a computing device that uses continuously changing

values to represent information.
It generally deals with physical variables such as temperature, weight, voltage,
pressure, speed, etc.

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The results given by the analog computers are approximate since they deal with
quantities that vary continuously
- Analog computers operate on continuous data usually of physical magnitude
such as lengths, voltages, pressures, etc.
- Analog computers perform arithmetic and logical comparisons by measuring
of changes in physical magnitude e.g. pressure and temperature changes.
- Analog computers are applied most in scientific environment or engineering
experiment.
The simple examples of analog computers include slide rule, speedometer of a car,
voltmeter, barometer, etc

Examples of Analog computers

1. Thermometers
2. Anemometer,
3. Hygrometer
4. Voltmeters Ammeters
5. Barometers
6. Traditional automatic watches
7. Speedometers

Characteristics of Analog Computers

1. They operate by measuring physical quantities like, speed, temperature,

humidity, distance
2. They are big in size
3. They are less accurate and may give inconsistent results with the same input
values
4. They are interfered by background noise
5. They are generally slow
6. They are expensive
7. Data degrades over time during transmission
8. They store data internally and temporarily
9. Analog computers are commonly used for scientific applications

19
DIGITAL COMPUTERS.

These are computers that use discrete (discontinuous) values, i.e. binary digits (0,
1) to represent data.
The binary digits simply mean the presence or absence of an electric pulse/
voltage.
The state of being on is represented by 1 and off is represented by 0.
Digital computers are more accurate and work at a very fast rate
- Digital computers operate on discrete data (0’s and 1’s). Any data/instructions
to be processed by the digital computers must be converted to discrete
representations.
- Digital computer’s arithmetic operations and logical comparisons are based on
binary digits (0’s and 1’s) and other characters that are numerically coded.
- Digital computers are mostly applied in business environment.

Examples of Digital Computers Include

1. Laptops,
2. Digital Watches
3. Desktop computers
4. Mobile phones,
5. Calculators,
6. Digital cameras

Characteristics of Digital Computers

1. They use binary codes to manipulate and store data

20
2. They are not interfered by background noise
3. They are generally fast
4. They are cheap
5. Data does not degrade over time during transmission
6. They are small in size
7. They are very accurate and consistent in their results
8. They store data permanently both internally and externally

HYBRID COMPUTERS.
These are computers having the combined features of both the digital and analog
computers. A hybrid computer accepts analog signals and converts them to digital
for processing.
It is mostly used for automatic operations of complicated physical processes and
machines. They are mostly used in scientific research
- Hybrid computers combine features of digital and analog computers.
- For example in a hospital intensive care unit, analog device may measure the
patient’s heart functioning, temperature, and other vital signs.
- These measurements can be converted into numbers and supplied to a digital
device which may send an immediate signal to nurses’ station if any abnormal
readings are detected.

Examples of Hybrid computers

 Digital petrol pumps are an example of hybrid computers.

Differences between Digital and Analog Computers

Digital Computers Analog Computers

i) Digital computers operate on discrete i) Analog computers operate on

21
 data (0’s and 1’s) continuous data.
ii) Digital computers are very accurate ii) Analog computers are less
and consistent on the results. accurate and may produce
inconsistent result with same input
values.
iii) Digital computers process data at a iii) Analog computers process data at
comparatively low speed than analog a very high speed.
computers.
iv) Digital computers are common in iv) Analog computers are common in
business environment scientific environment.

CLASSIFICATION OF COMPUTERS
Computers are classified in the following ways; Classification by size, and
Classification by function

CLASSIFICATION BY SIZE

Here computers are classified according to their size from the smallest to biggest as
follows; Microcomputers, Mini computers, Mainframes and Super computers

MICROCOMPUTERS

A microcomputer is a computer that can perform the: input, processing, output and
storage activities by itself. They are the smallest and most commonly used in the
world today. All the system resources like: monitor, mouse, keyboard, and system
unit, are allocated to a single user at a time. The types of microcomputers include;
Personal Computers (PCs) and Workstations.

A microcomputer is a single user general purpose computer that can perform all
inputs, process, output, and then storage activities by itself. They can be used by
one person at a time and they are also known as personal computers (P.Cs)

EXAMPLES OF MICRO COMPUTERS INCLUDE;

 Desktop computers
 Tower model computers
 Note book computer (laptop)
 Handheld computers (palmtop)
Personal Computers
These are small computers, which are portable and can fit on a desk. Examples of
personal computers include; Desktops, Tower model, Laptop and Palmtop
22
computers. (Assignment: Draw and label: Desktop, Tower model, Laptop and
Palmtop computers)

o Desktop computers;
These are designed to be stationed at one place like: on top of the desk or table.
They are standard PCs where by the monitor is placed on top of the system unit.

o Tower model computers;

These have a tall and narrow system unit that can be placed adjacent to the
monitor or on the floor

o Palmtops;/ Hand Held Computers.

They are small and portable computers that can fit in the palm of the user. They
are also referred to as Personal Digital Assistants (PDAs). Modern PDAs have
been integrated with cellular phones.
They are designed for those users that are always on the move (travellers).

They can easily be put in the shirt pocket and any time one can check on e-
mails, take few notes and keep schedules and appointments with these palmtop

23
 computers.

o Laptop computer;
It is a portable PC, small enough to fit on the lap. It is also known as a notebook
computer. It has a rechargeable battery, making it usable even without power
and during travelling
OR.

A Laptop is also referred to as a notebook computer. It is a personal computer

small enough to fit on the lap.

Characteristics of Laptop

 It is fast in processing data.

 It consumes less power compared to desktop computers.
 It is portable and mainly used for mobility.
 It has limited support of peripheral devices.

CHARACTERISTICS OF MICRO COMPUTERS

 They are fast in processing data.

 They are small in size.

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 There more reliable then modular.
NOTE: A COMPUTER PERIPHERAL is any device that can be connected to
the computer system unit, like mouse, keyboard, projector etc.

Workstations

Workstations look like Desktop computers but they are far more powerful. They
are used for; software development, scientific modeling, Computer Aided Design
and Manufacturing, among other uses.

MINI COMPUTERS

These are larger than microcomputers but smaller than mainframes. They are
powerful enough and widely used in real-time applications, e.g. air traffic control,
factory automation. A mini computer is often used in situations where a
microcomputer is not powerful enough but a mainframe is too expensive.
Examples include; DECS VAX range and IBM AS400 range.

Terminal

Server
.

Characteristics of mini computers

1. They are physically bigger than microcomputers but smaller than the
mainframe
2. They can support a moderate range of peripheral
3. They are more powerful than Microcomputers
4. They can support 50 to 500 users at a time depending on the model
5. They have a low rate of data transfer between the processor and the peripherals

MAINFRAMES

Mainframes are larger, more expensive, and more powerful computers than mini
computers that can handle thousands of connected users at the same time. They are
25
used in; banks, insurance companies, and airlines with sophisticated reservation
systems. Users typically access a mainframe via a personal computer or a terminal.

Characteristics of Mainframes

1. They have a large memory size

2. They support a wide range of peripherals
3. They have a high rate of data transfer between the processor and the
peripherals
4. They support 500 to 1000 users at the same time
5. They are sensitive to changes in, temperature, humidity and dust. Hence, they
are housed in a special room.

SUPER COMPUTER

This is the fastest, most powerful, and most expensive computer used for
applications that require complex mathematical calculations. They are giant, high
speed computers with vast processing power applied in a narrow range of
applications and certain kinds of problems. They carry out tasks like; weather
forecasting, space exploratory projects, managing nuclear stations, scientific
research, scientific computation, petroleum exploration, worldwide weather
forecasting and weapons research

Characteristics of Super Computers

1. They are approximately 50,000 times faster than micro computers

26
2. Their memory is very huge and they are the most expensive
3. They are very large computers. e.g. Option Red (1600 ft) Mexico, Blue
mountain, Cray t-90 system
4. They can handle large volumes of scientific computations
5. They are sensitive to changes in, temperature, humidity and dust. Hence, they
are housed in a special room.

CLASSIFICATION BY FUNCTION & PURPOSE

According to Function, we base on what computers do and how they do it.

We have four classifications of computers by function:
i. Networked
ii. Stand-alone
iii. Real-time Systems
iv. Integrated Systems

Networked computers
These are computers connected by channels to other computes so that they can
communicate with each other and share resources like data, internet connection,
printers, etc.

Stand-alone computers

This is a computer that operates and does everything independently. Stand-alone

computers do not have any internet connection or a connection to the outside
world.
A photocopying machine is a stand-alone device because it does not require a
computer, printer, modem, or other device.
A printer, on the other hand, is not a stand-alone device because it requires a
computer to feed it data.
Real-time systems

27
These are systems that respond to an event that has occurred within a certain
specified time frame.
Real-time means that after an event has occurred, a system or application has to
react to that event within a certain time period or deadline. For example, computers
for a banking system are real time systems.
Integrated system

An integrated system is a group of interconnected units that form a functioning

computer system.
An integrated system has separate programs that perform separate functions but
they all contribute to the same output.
Boeing Integrated Defence Computer System (1995)

Special-Purpose Computers.

These are computers designed to perform specific tasks. Such computers include
devices incorporated in missiles, building lifts, pocket calculators, digital watches,
ATMs.

 Digital watches,
 Automatic Teller machines (ATMS)
 Pocket calculators.
 Barcode readers

General-Purpose Computers.

These are designed to perform a wide range of tasks. The tasks include, analysing
results, making reports, reading data, managing databases, performing calculations,
by means of different software programs they have. Most digital computers are
general-purpose computers. Examples of general purpose computers include;
personal computers, workstations.

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CLASSIFICATION BY PROCESSOR POWER

Because of rapid changes in technology, processor power is also rapidly

increasing. Computers are getting faster and faster each year. The higher the
processor power, the faster the computer. Previous computers had a processing
power of less than 0.4 MIPS but today 15 MIPS is the minimum.

Therefore computers with high processing power require more system resources
such as system memory, hard disk space including modern programs. All these put
together makes computers with higher processing power better productive tools.

The most common types of processors are;-

 80286, 80386, 80486,

 Pentium Family;- Pentium 1(80586), Pentium pro, Pentium 2, Pentium 3,
Pentium 4,
 Pentium Duo core,
 Core 2 Quad, / Core to dual.
 Celeron,
 Celeron D,
 Xeon,
 Opteron,
 Athlon,
 Itanium

COMPUTER LABORATORY CARE AND MAINTAINANCE

A computer laboratory is a room that is equipped with computing devices that
enable learning and teaching process to take place.
FACTORS TO CONSIDER WHEN PREPATION A COMPUTER
LABORATORY
1. Security of the computers, programs and the resources
2. Reliability of the power source
3. The number of computers to be installed and the availability of the floor space
4. The maximum number of users that the computer laboratory can accommodate
WHY MUST THERE BE SAFETY RULES AND PRECAUTIONS IN THE
LABORATORY
1. To avoid accidental injuries to the users
2. To avoid damage of the computers
3. To provide a conducive and safe environment for the computer use

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COMPUTER LITERACY
Refers to having the knowledge and understanding of computers and their uses
COMPUTER LABORATORY RULES AND REGULATIONS
1. Avoid smoking and exposing computers to dust since they contain small
abrasive particles that damage the computer
2. Avoid carrying food and beverages to the computer room since they may fall
into moving parts causing or electrical faults
3. Avoid unnecessary movements because you may accidentally knock down
peripheral devices
4. At all times follow the right procedures while starting and shutting down the
computer therefore abrupt switching on and off the computer should be avoided
5. Don’t open up the metallic covers of the computers or peripherals without
permission and particularly when the computer power is still on
6. Any repairs to the computer should be done by someone who has knowledge
about computer repairs
7. Any connections [keyboard, mouse, printer and monitor] to the computer
should be done when the computer power has been switched off
8. Computers should be regularly serviced and make a regular record of computer
servicing and repair to establish maintenance costs and common problems to
your computer
9. Guard your computer against new users who may spoil the computer and data
corruption
10.Cover the computers after using them or when not in use. Let the computers
cool down before being covered to avoid trapping heat
11.The computer should be clean on a regular basis
12.Keep your computers away from excessive dust
BASIC (REQUIREMENTS) FOR SETTING UP A COMPUTER
LABORATORY
1. UPS-Uninterruptible power supply. UPS, protect against sudden power loss
2. AIR CONDITIONER. Controls dust, dampness and humidity, the computer lab
should be fitted with good window curtains and air conditioning system that
filters dust particles from entering the room. Also, computers should be covered
with dust covers when not in use.
3. FIRE EXTINGUISHER. Fire extinguishers help for putting out fire in case of
fire outbreak due to short circuit.
4. CCTV CAMERAS. Helps in monitoring the activities that take place both
inside and outside the computer laboratory.
5. BLOWER. Used to blow/remove dust that may have entered inside the
computer
6. ANTIGLARE SCREENS. Regulates excess light from monitors especially
CRT monitors
30
7. WATER PROOF COVERS. Protect computers from moisture, water and
liquids
8. FIRST AID BOX. A first aid kit is a box or bag that contains the necessary
items for providing emergency care
9. WOOL CARPET. Absorbs moisture from the floor, Absorbs sounds from
movements, Protects devices from damage when they fall, Protects users from
electrocution, Absorbs dust and prevents it from entering the computers
10.INTERNET GATEWAY. Is your modem or router or any other peripheral
which allows you to access the internet
11.BURGLAR PROOFING. Provides protection against any forced physical entry
into the computer laboratory.
SECURE COMPUTER LABORATORY ENVIRONMENT
1. PROTECTION AGAINST FIRE
Have gaseous fire extinguishers like those filled with carbon dioxide. Water
base or powder extinguishers should be avoided since they can damage to
computer components
Computer should not share the same power line with other office machines to
avoid overloading the power units
2. CABLE INSULATION
All powder cables must be insulated
Lay cables away from path ways in the room
Lay them along the wall in trunks. This prevents electric shock and power
disconnections caused by stumbling on cables
3. STABLE POWER SUPPLY
Protect computers from being damaged and data loss due to power instabilities
by having ;
Uninterruptable power supply [UPS]
Power stabilizers maintain power at required voltages
A surge protector can be used to protect computer equipment against under
voltage and over voltage
4. BURGLAR PROOFING
Consider installing security alarms at strategic access points that would alert the
security personnel in case of a break in
Fit strong metallic grills and locks on doors, windows and strengthen the incase
the roofing is weak use
5. AIR CIRCULATION
Have good air circulation in the computer room since users and computers emit
heat energy. This is possible through having enough ventilation points like
windows
Installing an air conditioning system
Avoid overcrowding of machines and users
All the above prevent suffocation and over heating
6. LIGHTING
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 A lab must be well lit with appropriate wall paint to avoid eye strain,
headaches, stress a fatigue and always fit radiations filter screens to reduce light
that reaches the eyes
7. STANDARD FURNITURE
Have standard furniture so that the tables are wide enough and strong to bare
the weight of the computers and accommodate all peripherals
The seat for the user must be comfortable and have a straight back rest that
allows someone to sit upright

PHYSICAL SECURITY
1. Employ security guards to keep watch data and information centers
2. Apply burglary proof for the computer lab by reinforcing weak access points
like windows, doors, roofing with metal grills and strong padlocks
3. Set up alarms to alert you in case of break ins
4. Use system locks [locked key systems] to make it difficult to access internal
components like hard disks and memory sticks
5. Use cables to lock the equipment to disk cabinet or floor
6. Install electronica locking mechanism with keys, swipe cards, finger print
recognition
7. Install closed circuit television [CCTV] cameras to keep watch over computers
systems and centers
SOFTWARE SECURITY MEASURES
1. Computers shared by multiple users in a computer center should have security
software installed to limit and block certain activities like deep freeze
2. Remote administration software should be considered with high number of
computer center
3. Computer management software to monitor and limit web browsing should be
installed like K9 web protection
4. Group policy or security software to prevent malicious software from being
executed and installed
5. Assigning unique authorized log in for authentication before granting network
access
SERVICING AND MAINTENANCE OF COMPUTER SYSTEM
WHAT IS COMPUTER SERVING AND MAINTENANCE
This refers to catering and caring for a computer of preserving keeping it in good
working order and it prevents in damage
Computer servicing is the regular inspection and updating of software and
hardware to ensure the computer system keeps working at a desired level of
performance.

32
Computer repair is the troubleshooting and diagnosis of problems that exist on a
computer and taking the necessary corrective actions to resolve these problems.
The issue could be a hardware or software problem.
IMPORTANCE OF COMPUTER MAINTENANACE
1. To enable a computer serve for a long time
2. To update the outdated software programs such as antivirus, operating systems,
application programs etc.
3. To enable a computer to operate at its designed capacity
4. To prevent a computer from total breakdown leading to loss of information
5. To reduce any associated costs for preparing and risks
6. To repair PC components with the mechanical faults
7. To prevent/ abrupt/ unscheduled breakdown of computers that can lead to loss
of information
Ethics And Integrity In Computer Use
Computer Ethics Computer Ethics are human values and moral conduct of
computers users. OR
Computer Ethics refers to the right or wrong behavior exercised when using
computers.
Computer Integrity refers to the loyalty or faithfulness to a set of laws about
computer usage.
'TEN COMMANDMENTS' FOR COMPUTER ETHICS." (Computer codes
of conduct)
1. Thou Shalt Not Use a Computer to Harm Other People.
2. Thou Shalt Not Interfere with Other People's Computer Work.
3. Thou Shalt Not Snoop around in Other People's Computer Files.
4. Thou Shalt Not Use a Computer to Steal.
5. Thou Shalt Not Use a Computer to Bear False Witness.
6. Thou Shalt Not Copy or Use Proprietary Software for Which You Have Not
Paid.
7. Thou Shalt Not Use Other People's Computer Resources without Authorization
or Proper Compensation.
8. Thou Shalt Not Appropriate Other People's Intellectual Output.
9. Thou Shalt Think about the Social Consequences of the Program You Are
Writing or the System You Are Designing.
10.Thou Shalt Always Use a Computer in Ways That Insure Consideration and
Respect for Your Fellow Humans.

KEYBOARD AND NAVIGATION

33
The Mouse

A mouse is a pointing device which allows users to move the cursor and make
selections on the computer screen.

A pointing device is any piece of hardware that is used to allow a user to input
spatial data to a computer.

Basic parts of a Mouse

A mouse typically has two buttons: a primary button (usually the left button) and a
secondary button (usually the right button). You will use the primary button most
often. Most mice also include a scroll wheel between the two buttons.

Illustration:

Mouse Pad

A mouse pad or mouse mat is a surface for placing and moving a computer mouse

Uses of a mouse

1. Pointing
2. Clicking (single-clicking). This is the act of pressing a computer mouse button
once without moving the mouse.
3. Double-clicking. This is the act of pressing the mouse button twice quickly
while keeping it still.
4. Right-clicking
5. Dragging. This refers to moving an icon or image from one position on the
screen to another.
6. Scrolling. This refers to sliding of text, images or videos across the monitor
vertically or horizontally.

Advantages of using a mouse

1. It is user friendly for computer beginners

2. It is easier to select the items
3. It takes up less space.

Disadvantages of using a mouse

1. It is not easy and convenient to input text with the mouse

2. Issuing commands by using a mouse is slower than using a keyboard
3. It is not accurate enough for drawing

34
Tips for using your mouse safely

1. Always ensure a clean, smooth surface, such as a mouse pad

2. Place your mouse at elbow level. Your upper arms should fall relaxed at your
sides.

3. Don't squeeze or grip your mouse tightly. Hold it lightly.

4. Move the mouse by pivoting your arm at your elbow. Avoid bending your wrist
up, down, or to the sides.

5. Use a light touch when clicking a mouse button.

6. Keep your fingers relaxed. Don't allow them to hover above the buttons.

7. When you don't need to use the mouse, don't hold it.

8. Take short breaks from computer use every 15 to 20 minutes.

The key board

A keyboard is an input device that contains the keys you press to enter data into the
computer

The keyboard is the main (primary) input device. The standard keyboard consist of
between 80 to 110 keys

There are various keyboards in the market including QWERTY, Dvorak,

ABCDE, GKOS, QWERTZ and AZERTY

The structure of a standard keyboard

35
Sections of the Keyboard & their uses

1. The alphanumeric keys include the same letter, number, punctuation, and
symbol keys found on a traditional typewriter.
2. The Numeric keypad is handy for entering numbers quickly. The keys are
grouped together in a block like a conventional calculator or adding machine.
3. Navigation keys are used for moving around in documents or web pages and
editing text. They include the arrow keys, Home, End, Page Up, Page Down,
Delete, and Insert
4. The function keys are labeled as F1, F2… up to F12. The functionality of these
keys differs from program to program

Roles of special keys

1. Shift key.
It is used to activate characters on top of the buttons, it can also turn in either
small letters or capital letters depending on the keyboard case mode

2. Caps Lock.
It is used to turn capital letters into small letters and small letters into capital
letters. When the caps lock is pressed a caps lock light on the top right corner is
turned on to indicate that you are in capital letters to switch to small letters
press the caps lock button again,

3. Tab key

36
 It is used to move the cursor several spaces forward. You can also press Tab to
move to the next text box on a form.
4. Enter key
It is used to move the cursor to the beginning of the next line.

5. Backspace key
It is used to remove the character before the cursor (on the left of the insertion
point), or the selected text.
6. Delete key
It is used to remove the character after the cursor (on the right of the insertion
point),, or the selected text.
7. Spacebar key
It is the longest key on the keyboard and it is used to insert spaces between
word and characters.
8. Esc key
It is used to Cancel the current task.
9. Application key
It is Equivalent to right-clicking the selection.

Using navigation keys

1. Left Arrow, Right Arrow, Up Arrow, or Down Arrow - Move the cursor or
selection one space or line in the direction of the arrow, or scroll a webpage in
the direction of the arrow.

2. Home - Move the cursor to the beginning of a line or move to the top of a
webpage

3. End - Move the cursor to the end of a line or move to the bottom of a webpage

4. Page up/Down - Move the page up or down by one screen.

Advantages
1. Keyboards enable fast entry of new text into a document.
2. They are a well-tried technology and a well-known method of entry.
3. Most people find them easy to use.
4. It is easy to do verification checks as data is entered, as it appears on the screen
simultaneously.
Disadvantages

1. It takes a lot of time to practice in order to type quickly

2. Keys can easily become faulty due to dust.
3. Some keyboards keys are very hard to press, causing fingers to hurt.
37
Key combinations & their uses
1. Press Alt+PrtScn to capture an image of just the active window, instead of the
entire screen
2. Press Ctrl Home to Move to the top of a document and Press Ctrl End to Move
to the End of a document.
3. Alt+Tab Switch between open programs or windows
4. Ctrl+A Select all items in a document or window
5. Alt+F4 Close the active item, or exit the active program
6. Ctrl+S Save the current file or document.
7. Ctrl+C Copy the selected item
8. Ctrl+X Cut the selected item
9. Ctrl+V Paste the selected item
10.Ctrl+Z Undo an action
11.F1 – Get help
12.F2 rename a selected item.
Tips for using your keyboard safely
1. Place your keyboard at elbow level. Your upper arms should be relaxed at your
sides.
2. Center your keyboard in front of you. If your keyboard has a numeric keypad,
you can use the spacebar as the centering point.
3. Type with your hands and wrists floating above the keyboard, so that you can
use your whole arm to reach for distant keys instead of stretching your fingers.
4. Avoid resting your palms or wrists on any type of surface while typing. If your
keyboard has a palm rest, use it only during breaks from typing.
5. While typing, use a light touch and keep your wrists straight.
6. When you're not typing, relax your arms and hands.
7. Take short breaks from computer use every 15 to 20 minutes.

TOPIC 2: COMPUTER HARDWARE

Computer hardware refers to the physical pieces of equipment that make up
computer system

38
They are the parts of the computer which can be seen, touched and picked up i.e.
they are tangible.
Categories of computer hardware.
1. Input devices
2. Output devices
3. Storage devices
4. Processing devices
Input devices
Input devices are devices used to enter data or commands in a form that the
computer can use.
Input devices are categorized as below
1. Text input devices 5. Audio input Devices
2. Pointing input Devices 6. Biometric input Devices and
3. Imaging input Devices 7. Other Specialized input devices
4. Gaming input Devices
Text input devices
These are hardware devices that help users to enter text into a computer.
Text input devices include: The keyboard, Voice Recognition Equipment, OMR
and Barcode readers, OCR and Optical readers, MICR readers, RFID readers,
Magnetic Strip Card Readers, etc.
1. Keyboard
The keyboard is the main (primary) input device. The standard keyboard consist of
between 80 to 110 keys
There are various keyboards in the market including QWERTY, Dvorak,
ABCDE, GKOS, QWERTZ and AZERTY etc.
Keyboards are used to input data into applications software (e.g. text into word
processors, numbers into spreadsheets, etc.).
They are also used for typing in commands to the computer (e.g. PrntScrn, Ctrl+P
to print out, etc.)
2. Barcode reader.
A bar code reader is an optical reader that uses laser beams to read bar codes
that are printed on items usually in super markets.

39
 A bar code normally consists of a unique set of vertical lines and spaces of
different widths which represent coded information about the item it represents.
3. Voice recognition equipment (VRE).
VRE converts spoken words into text. This device is used to capture sound such
as multimedia computers, tape recorders etc.
4. Optical character recognition (OCR) reader
Optical character recognition (OCR) is a technology that involves reading
typewritten, computer-printed, or handwritten characters from ordinary
documents and translating the images into a form that the computer can
understand.
OCR devices include a small optical scanner for reading characters and
sophisticated software (OCR software) for analyzing what is read. E.g. water
bills, electricity bills

5. Optical Mark Recognition (OMR) reader

Optical mark recognition (OMR) is a system which can read marks written in
pen or pencil. The places where the pen or pencil marks can be made are clearly
shown on the form.
OMR devices are used to read questionnaires, multiple-choice examination
papers and many other types of form where responses are registered in the form
of lines or shaded areas.
6. Magnetic ink character recognition (MICR)
Magnetic ink character recognition (MICR) is a system which can read
characters printed in a special ink. It is primarily used to process cheques in
banking operations.
7. Magnetic Strip Card Reader
A magnetic stripe card reader reads the magnetic stripe on the back of credit
cards, bank ATM cards, and other similar cards.
Pointing input Devices

A pointing device is an input device, which allows users to move a pointer and
make selections on the computer screen.
Pointing input device include Mouse, Stylus & graphic tablets , Trackball,
Touchpad, Light pen, Touch Screen, A Track Point
1. The mouse
The mouse is a hand held device that lets you point to and make selections of
items on your screen.
2. Stylus and graphic tablets
A stylus is a pen-like pointing device which uses pressure to write text and
draw lines. A graphic tablet is a flat, rectangular, electronic plastic board on
which a stylus writes or draws.

40
 Stylus and graphic tablets are mainly used for computer aided designs and
drafting’s by architects, mapmakers, artists and designers.
3. Trackball
Trackballs are similar to a mouse, except that the ball is on the top of the
device and the user controls the pointer on the screen by rotating the ball with
the hand. Some trackballs have two buttons which have the same function as
the left- and right-hand mouse buttons. If they have a third button, this is
equivalent to a double click.
4. Touchpad
Touchpad’s are used in many laptop computers as a pointing device. The
pointer is controlled by the user moving their finger on the touchpad and then
gently tapping it to simulate the left hand button of a mouse (i.e. selection).
They also have buttons under the touchpad which serve the same function as the
left and right buttons on a mouse.
5. Touch Screen
A touch screen is a touch-sensitive input and display device. Users can interact
with these devices by touching areas of the screen.
With some smart phones, portable media players, and other personal mobile
devices, you can touch the screen to perform tasks such as dialing telephone
numbers, entering text, and making on-screen selections.
6. Track Point
A Track Point, also called a pointing stick, is a pointing device located in the
middle of the keyboard between the G, H, and B keys.
The control buttons are located in front of the keyboard toward the user. The
Track Point is operated by pushing in the general direction the user wants the
cursor to move. Increasing pressure causes faster movement.
7. Light pen.
This is a pointing device that can detect the presence of light. They usually
require designed monitors to work with. Light pens are used in design work and
also health care professionals such as dentists.

Imaging input Devices

Imaging input Devices are devices that input images such as still photos, motion
pictures, graphics, video etc. into the computer for processing.
Imaging input Devices include Image scanner, Digital Camera, Digital video
(DV) camera, Camcorder, Web cam
1. Scanners
A scanner converts hardcopy documents, drawings, or pictures to an electronic
version (softcopy), which can then be stored on a disk.

Popular scanners may include the following

41
 i. Flat bed scanner. This works like a photocopying machine except that it
creates a file of document rather than a paper copy.
ii. Sheet fed scanner. This has motorized rollers that can feed the source
document across the scanning head during the scanning process
iii. Hand held scanner. This can be manually passed over the image to be
scanned. The quality of the scanner is determined by its resolution and
color depth.
Advantages
 Images can be stored for editing at a later date (paper documents cannot be
edited unless they are scanned first).
 Scanners are much faster and more accurate (i.e. no typing errors) than typing
in documents again.
 It is possible to recover damaged documents and photographs by scanning them
and then using appropriate software to produce an acceptable copy.
Disadvantages
 The quality can be limited, depending on how good the scanner resolution is.

2. Digital camera.
It takes photographs like the normal cameras only that they do not create an
image on a film. The image is instead stored and later retrieved or downloaded
onto the PC for further editing and printing. Digital cameras use different
storage media such as flash memory cards, micro drives etc.
Digital cameras produce photographs for transfer to a computer directly or to
print out by connecting directly to a printer.

Advantages
 It is easier to produce better quality photographs than with a traditional camera.
 It is easier and faster to upload photographs to a computer rather than having to
scan in hard copies when using traditional methods.
 There is no need to develop film and print out photographs any more – this
saves money and is also environmentally more acceptable (saves paper and no
longer need the chemicals used in developing the films).
 It is easy just to delete an image from memory if it is not satisfactory and take
the photograph again.
 The memory cards can store several hundred photographs. A traditional camera
was limited by the number of photographs that could be taken on a roll of film.

Disadvantages
 The camera user needs to be computer literate to use the cameras properly; also
the transferring, storing and manipulating of the images via a computer requires
some understanding of how computers work.

42
 There is some artistry lost since clever software now corrects errors in the
photographs (e.g. incorrect exposure, removal of red eye, etc.).
 The resolution is not yet as good as traditional cameras, although this is
improving all the time. The quality of photographs depends on the number of
pixels (many cameras now offer more than 10 mega pixels per image), quality
of lens, etc.
 Images often need to be compressed to reduce the amount of memory used (a
single image can use more than 2 Mbytes of memory, for example).
 It is possible to fill up computer memory very quickly with several photographs
of the same subject in an attempt to find the ‘perfect’ snap shot.
3. Digital Video (DV) camera.
A digital video (DV) camera, by contrast, records video as digital signals
instead of analog signals. After saving the video on a storage medium, users can
play it or edit it and burn it to a DVD using software programs on the computer.
A digital video (DV) camera, by contrast, records video as digital signals
instead of analog signals. After saving the video on a storage medium, users can
play it or edit it and burn it to a DVD using software programs on the computer.
4. PC camera (Web Cam).
This allows the users to record, edit, capture video and still images and to make
video calls on the internet. PC cameras can also be used in video conferencing.

Gaming input Devices

Gaming input devices are devices specifically designed to be used for playing
computer games.
Examples of gaming input devices Include: Gaming keyboard, Gaming wheels,
Joysticks, Game pad, Light guns, Dance pad, Motion sensing game controllers
1. Gaming wheels
A gaming wheel is a steering wheel-type input device. Users turn the wheel to
simulate driving a vehicle using programs on a computer.
2. Joystick
Joysticks are often used to control video games, and usually have one or more
push-buttons whose state can also be read by the computer.
3. Gamepad
A gamepad controls the movement and actions of players or objects in video
games or computer games.
On the gamepad, users press buttons with their thumbs or move sticks in
various directions to trigger events.
4. Light guns
A light gun is used to shoot targets and moving objects after you pull the trigger
on the weapon.

43
Audio input Devices
Audio input is the process of entering any sound into the computer such as speech,
music, and sound effects.
Examples of audio input devices include Microphones, Tape players, CD/DVD
players, MIDI devices
Sound Card is a device that can be slotted into a computer to allow the use of audio
components for multimedia applications. Without a sound card, Audio input and
output is not possible
1. Microphones
It allows the users to speak to the computers to enable it enter data (voice) and
instructions on to the computer. Microphones are connected to the sound card in
the system unit.
2. MIDI devices
MIDI (musical instrument digital interface) is the standard that defines how
digital musical devices represent sound electronically.
MIDI devices such as electronic pianos allow users to record and edit music

Biometric input Devices

A biometric device translates a biological personal characteristic into a digital

code that is stored or compared with a digital code stored in the computer.

Common biometric devices include: Fingerprint scanner, Face Recognition

systems , Hand geometry systems, Signature verification systems, Iris Recognition
systems

1. Fingerprint scanner
Finger print scanner captures curves and identifications of a finger print
2. Face Recognition systems
Face recognition system captures a live face image and compares it with a
stored image to determine if the person is a legitimate user
3. Iris recognition system
Iris recognition system is used to read the patterns in the iris of the eye
4. Signature verification systems
Signature verification system recognizes the shape of your hand written
signature
Other Specialized input devices
There are many other special input devices that are used for doing special
customized tasks. Some of them include: Remote Control, Sensors
1. Remote controls
44
 A remote control is used to control the operation of other devices remotely by
using infra red signals. The buttons on the keypad are used to select options
(such as television stations, sound levels on a hifi, timings on a DVD recorder,
etc.).
2. Sensors
Sensors are used in monitoring and control applications – the type of sensor
depends on the application. When monitoring, the data sent to the computer is
often transferred directly to a spreadsheet package (e.g. taking measurements in
a scientific experiment, measuring atmospheric pollution, etc.).

COPMUTER OUTPUT DEVICES

An output is data that has been processed into a useful form called information

An output device is any type of hardware component capable of conveying

information to one or more people.

Categories of Computer output: Text, Graphics, Audio, Video

Softcopy output. Is the output received on the display screen or in the video or
audio form. This kind of output is not tangible.

Hardcopy output is a printed output. It can also be described as information on a

tangible medium e.g. on paper, piece of cloth and plastic card. Examples of
hardcopy producing devices include; printers, plotters and facsimile machine.

Advantages of Hardcopy over Softcopy

 Information cannot be easily changed without trace

 The information can be read offline i.e. without computer
 Hardcopy is cheaper than Softcopy which requires a computer to read
 Hardcopies last longer if stored in a safe place compared to softcopy
Advantages of Softcopy over Hardcopy

 Softcopy can easily be carried as compared to hardcopy

 Softcopy can be shared with many people in a short time
 Softcopy can easily be edited
 Softcopy can easily be formatted
 Softcopy can be easily stored and cannot be easily damaged by weather
changes.
Output devices include: display devices, printer, audio output device, data
projector, facsimile machine, multi-function machine device etc.

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1. Display devices
This is an output device that conveys text, graphics and video information to the
user. They include CRT monitors, LCD monitors, LED display, GAS plasma
monitor, headgear etc
a) CRT Monitors
A CRT (cathode ray tube) monitor is a desktop screen that contains a large
sealed glass cathode-ray tube.
It uses an analogue signal to produce picture.

Advantages of CRT monitors

 They produce fast and rich colour output

 Images can be viewed from a wide angle
 They are cheaper than LCD monitors
 They do not break easily
Disadvantages of CRT monitors

 They consume a lot of power than LCD monitors

 They occupy more desk space.
 They are heavy hence not portable
 They emit electromagnetic radiation that cause eye detects

b) LCD monitors
This kind of monitor uses liquid crystals rather than cathode rays to create
images on the screen. They use a digital signal to produce a picture.

Advantages of LCD monitors over CRT monitors

 LCD monitors require less desk space than CRT monitors
 LCD monitors are more energy (power) saving than CRT

46
  The radiation emitted by LCD monitors is negligible as compared to
CRT
 LCD monitors are portable than CRTs
Disadvantages of LCD monitors

 They are usually more expensive than CRT

 LCD color output is usually slow and power
 LCD monitors can only be viewed from a very narrow angle

c) Head mounted display (HMD) / headgear

A headgear is made up of two tiny display and sound systems that
channel images and sound from the source to the eyes and ears, thus
presenting a stereo three dimensional sound effect in the virtual world.

d) LED (Light Emitting Diode) displays

A LED display is a flat panel display, which uses light-emitting diodes as a
video display. A LED panel may be a small display, or a component of a
larger display. They are typically used outdoors in store signs and billboards.

Advantages of display devices

 They are fast in displaying the outputs
 They are usually quiet in their operation
 No paper is wasted for obtaining output
Disadvantages of display devices
 They are not suitable for users with visual problem
 Multiple copies cannot be obtained
 There is need for a separate device to produce the hardcopy
 The information produced is temporary and is lost when power is off.
2. Projectors
A data projector takes the image that displays on a computer screen and projects
it onto a large screen or wall so that an audience of people can see the image

47
 clearly.
3. Interactive whiteboard (IWB)
An interactive whiteboard is a touch-sensitive device, resembling a dry-erase
board that displays the image on a connected computer screen.
The presenter can use bare hands, a special tablet, or remote control to interact
with the device. Notes written on the interactive whiteboard can be saved
directly on the computer.
4. FACSIMILE \FAX MACHINE
This is advice that transmits and receives documents on telephone lines.
Documents sent or received via fax machines are known as faxes.
A fax modem is a communication device that allows a user to store received
electronic documents as fax.
5. MULT I FUNCTION MACHINE
This is a single piece of equipment that provides the functioning of printer,
screen, photo coping machines and fax mail
ADVANTAGES

 A multi functioning device takes up less space than having a separate

printer, scanner , copy machines and fax machines
 It is also significantly less expensive than purchasing each device
separately
DISADVANTAGES

 If a malfunctioning machine breaks down it loses all its functions

6. TERMINAL
A terminal is a device with a monitor and key board. The term terminal can also
refer to any device that sends and receives computer data.

Kinds of terminals include;-

 DUMB TERMINAL
It has no processing power and cannot act as a standalone computer and
must be connected to server to operate
 INTELLIGENT TERMINAL
It has memory and processor so it can perform some functions
independent of host computer.
Uses of terminals

 An EPOS (electronic point of sell). Terminal is used to lead purchase at

the point where the consumer purchases the produce or services
 EFTPOS (electronic fund transfer point of sell). Terminal are able to
transfer funds from a customer bank account direct to a retile out lets

48
 account after reading the customer debit card. Automatic teller machines
attached to host computer through a telephone network
7. HEADPHONES.
These are a pair of small speakers, or a single small speaker, used to output
sound from the computer. They are similar to speakers, except they are worn
on the ears, so only one person can hear the output at a time.
8. SPEAKERS.
These are output used to output sound from the computer. Most of PCs have
small internal speaker that output only low quality sound. Users who need
high quality sound output may use a pair of speakers
9. PRINTERS
A printer is an output device that produces texts and graphics on a physical
medium such as paper. The printer information output on a physical medium
is called hard copy which is more permanent than screen display (soft
copy)

PRINTING MECHANISM

CHARACTER PRINTER

 These are low speed printers that mimic the action of type writers by
printing one character at a time. The characters are output on the print heads
directly. This means the character font type cannot easily be modified e.g.
Daisy wheel printer, Thimble printer
 They are relatively cheap and are commonly found in small business
systems

LINE PRINTER

These also use the same principle during printing just like the characters except
that these are much faster unlike character printers. Line printers print the whole
line of characters at once i.e. they print on one end of the paper to the other end of
the line hence line printers.

PAGE PRINTER

This is prints the whole page at a time. They are relatively expensive and intend to
deal with very large volume of print out put in large organization. They are
versatile whereby they can print wide rage characters including graphics

THE CLASSIFICATION OF PRINTERS (Types of Printers)

Printers are classified into two:

49
 Impact printers
 Non-impact printers

IMPACT PRINTERS

These are printers that produce a hard copy output with the print mechanism/heads
physically touching the print media. They work like an ordinary type writer.

Print Medias include;

 Papers
 Transparences
 Cloth

Examples of Impact printers include;

 Dot matrix printers

 Daisy wheel printers
 Ball printer printers.
 Line printers
DOT MATRIX

A dot matrix printer is an impact printer that produces printed images which a print
head striking mechanisms

ADVANTAGES OF DOT MATRIX

 Dot matrix printers can multi part forms

 They can with stand dirty environment vibrations and extreme temperatures.
 They can print on continuous paper or multipart document.
 They are the only printers which can use stencils
 They are relatively cheaper compared to other printers.

DISADVANTAGES OF DOT MATRIX

 They are generally noisy because of the striking mechanism

 Print quality of dot matrix printer is not as good as those from ink jet printer of
laser printers.
 They are generally noisy because of the striking mechanism.
 They are not readily available on the market
 They are not easily serviced because they are based on old technology.
 The colour print is limited to two (black and red)
 They are relatively slow.

50
DIASY WHEEL

This is an impact printer that uses a wheel as a printer head

ADVANTAGES OF DIASY WHEEL

 Can print latter quality characters

DISADVANTAGES OF DIASY WHEEL

 Printing speed is very slow

 Cannot print graphics

BALL PRINTER

This is an impact printer that uses a rotating ball as a print head.

Line printers
A line printer is a high-speed impact printer that prints an entire line at a time.
The speed of a line printer is measured by the number of lines per minute (lpm) it
can print.

Braille printers
A Braille printer, commonly known as a Braille embosser, is an impact printer,
that renders text as tangible dot cells which are felt and read by the blind.
Using Braille translation software, a document can be embossed with relative
ease and efficiency.
They need special Braille paper which is thicker and more expensive than
normal paper.

NON IMPACT PRINTER

Non-impact printers are those printers that produce a hard copy output without the
print head touching the printing surface.

They use techniques such as ink spray, heat, xerography or laser to form printed
copy.

Examples of non-impact printer are;

 Laser printer.
 Inkjet printer.
 Thermal printer.
 Bubble jet.

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INK JET

An inkjet printer is a non-impact printer that forms characters and graphics by

spreading tiny drops of liquid ink on to a piece of paper

Advantages
 The output is of high quality.
 Inkjet printers are cheaper to buy than laser printers.
 They are very lightweight and have a small footprint (i.e. take up little
space).
 They do not produce ozone and volatile organic compounds, unlike laser
printers.

Disadvantages
 The output is slow if several copies needed, as there is little buffer capacity
to store the pages.
 The ink cartridges run out too quickly to be used for large print jobs.
 Printing can ‘smudge’ if the user is not careful.
 Inkjet printers can be expensive to run if they are used a lot, since original
ink cartridges are expensive.

LASER PRINTER

The mechanism of a laser printer is similar to that of photo copier. Laser printers
are also known as page printers because they process and store the entire page
before they actually print it.

ADVANTAGES OF LASER PRINTER

They are generally quiet and fast during printing.

They can produce high quality output on an ordinary papers
The cost per page of toner cartridges is lower than other printers.

DISADVANTAGES OF LASER PRINTER

 The initial cost of buying laser printers is high compared to other printers
 They are more expensive than dot matrix printers and ink jet printers.

THERMAL PRINTERS

It generates images by posting electrically heated pins against a heat sensitive

paper.

PLOTTER
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A plotter is a sophisticated printers used to produce high quality drawings that can
be quite large (e.g. width up to 60 inches)

Terms associated with Printers

 Toner is a powder used in laser printers and photocopiers to form the printed
text and images on the paper.
 Dpi. (Dots per inch) is a measure of the number of individual dots printed in a
line within the span of 1 inch (2.54 cm). The DPI value correlates with image
resolution.
 Hard copy is a permanent reproduction, on the form of a physical object, of any
media suitable for direct use such as paper.
 Page orientation is the way in which a rectangular page is focused on for
normal viewing.
 The two most common types of orientation are portrait and landscape.
 A page in portrait orientation is taller than it is wide, with information printed
across the shorter width of the paper.
 A page in landscape orientation is wider than it is tall, with information printed
across the widest part of the paper.
COMMON FACTORS CONSIDER WHILE BUYING A PRINTER

 Page per minute print out put

 Memory of at least two mega bytes
 Price of the cartridge or toner
 A availability of the toner or cartridge
 Purpose for which the printer is going to be put to use
 Printer drivers. Most printer drivers are installed on a computer in order to
enable the printer to communicate with a computer and can carry out printing.

ADVANTAGES OF USING MONITORS OVER PRINTERS.

 They are generally quite.

 No need of paper.
 Output can be modified or changed easily.
 Transmission to another device is faster e.g. on a LAN.
 Time taken to display the image is fast.
 Screen display can include text, graphics and colour.
 Scrolling enables focus on a particular or part of the document.

PERIPHERAL DEVICE INTERFACES, PORTS:

53
• A peripheral device refers to a device that is connected externally to the
computer system unit, like a scanner, printer, cameras, etc.
• In computing, an interface is a shared boundary across which two or more
separate components of computer system exchange information. Common
interfaces include Video Graphics Array (VGA), Parallel, Serial, Personal
system 2(PS/2), Infrared, Bluetooth, power interface, etc.
• PORTS are points of attachments of other external device to the motherboard.
These are sockets onto which cables from peripheral devices are plugged

Serial Ports (Male port)

A serial port is a type of interface that connects a device to the system unit by
transmitting 1 bit of data at a time. Serial ports usually connect devices that do not
require faster data transmission e.g. monitor, keyboard, or modem
Parallel Port. (Female port)
A parallel port is an interface that connects devices by transferring more than 1 bit
of data a time. Parallel ports were developed as an alternate to the slower speed
serial ports. They connect devices such as printers.

USB ports
USB ports can connect up to 127 different peripherals together with a single
connector type. Personal computers typically have four to eight USB ports either
on the front or back of the system unit.
A USB hub is a device that plugs into a USB port on the system unit and contains
multiple USB ports into which you plug cables from USB devices.

Personal system 2 (PS/2) interface

This is a small 6-pin mini-DIN interface common on desktop computers in pairs,
one for mouse and the other for the keyboard.

54
FIREWIRE PORT
It is similar to a USB port in that it can connect multiple devices that require faster
data transmission speed such as a digital camera, video cameras, digital VCRs,
color printer.

MIDI PORT (Musical Instrument Digital interface)

A special type of serial port that connects the system unit to a musical instrument,
such as an electric keyboard is called a MIDI port.

Video graphics array (VGA) is used to connect a monitor or a data projector. It is

shaped like a letter D with 15 pins.

Audio interface is used to connect speakers and microphone.

COMPUTER STORAGE DIVICES

Definition of Terminologies

 A Storage medium is the physical material on which a computer keeps data.

There is a variety of storage media available.
 Capacity is the number of bytes (characters) a storage medium can hold.
 A Storage Device reads and writes data to and from a storage medium.
 Reading is the process in which a storage device transfers data, from a storage
medium into memory.
 Writing is the process in which a storage device transfers data from memory to
a storage medium (saving).

55
 Access time, is a measure of the amount of time it takes a storage device to
locate an item on a storage medium.
 Transfer rate is the speed with which data, instructions, and information move
to and from a device.
TYPES OF STORAGE DEVICES

There are two types of storage devices namely primary storage devices, secondary
storage devices

PRIMARY STORAGE DEVICES

Primary storage is the main memory which is also referred to as the internal
memory where both data and instructions are temporarily held.

This is a type of memory/ storage on a computer which can immediately be

accessed by the computer’s CPU.

The primary memory is divided into two namely;

 RAM (Random Access Memory)

 ROM (Read Only Memory)

RAM (Random Access Memory)

RAM is the working area during the processing of data. The data and instructions
are temporally held in RAM during processing and after processing and it
disappears when you turn off the power of computer hence RAM is volatile.

Types of RAM
 Static RAM (SRAM) is faster and more reliable than any form of DRAM. The
term static refers to the fact that it does not have to be re-energized as often as
DRAM.
 Dynamic RAM (DRAM) must be refreshed (or recharged) constantly by the
CPU.

CHARACTERISTICS OF RAM
 It is volatile and therefore loses its contents when the computer is switched off.
 It is read, copied, wrote, altered and deleted
 The amount of data it can hold at a given time is highly limited
 It is expensive compared to ROM.

56
NB: You always save regularly to avoid your work \ data to be wiped off when
power is off

ROM (Read Only Memory)

ROM chips contain programs or instructions that are built on the computer at the
time of manufacturing. Some special instructions that are built include;

1. The execution instructions when you turn on the computer.

2. Instructions or information that is recorded permanently by the manufacture is
known as fire ware.

Types of ROM

 PROM (Programmable Read Only Memory)

 EPROM (Electrically Programmable Read Only Memory)
 EEPROM (Eclectically Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory )

CHARACTERISTICS OF ROM
 It is non-volatile, meaning it does not lose contents when power is switched off.
 The computer cannot write to it therefore programs or contents cannot be
changed.
 It cheaper compared to random access memory

Examples of data in ROM include:-

• The date when the computer was manufactured

• Manufacturer of the computer.
• Model name and model number of the computer,
• Predetermined configurations for some of the hardware that will be added onto
the computer.

ROM CHIPS

It is also called firm ware which is a term used for software permanently stored on
a chip.

DIFFERENCES BETWEE RAM AND ROM

RAM ROM
Is volatile Is non volatile
Is read and write Is read only
Is temporal Is permanent
57
 Can be increased Is not normally increasable
Not installed from the factory Installed from the factory
Other forms of primary memory
 CACHE memory A high speed memory built into the CPU that temporarily
store data during processing
 A buffer is a region of memory that is used to temporarily hold data while it is
being moved from place to place.
 Flash memory is the kind of non – volatile memory that can be erased
electronically and reprogrammed
 CMOS (Complementary Metal Oxide Semiconductor) is the memory used
to store configuration information about computer which includes the amount
of memory, types of drives, current date, current time etc.
 Virtual memory is a kind of memory where the operating system allocates a
portion of a storage to function as additional RAM or in the absence of RAM.

SECONDARY STORAGE (auxiliary storage)

This is also known as auxiliary storage which are designed to retain data and
instructions and programs in a relatively permanent form.

Secondary storage media are non-volatile (data saved remains even when the
computer is turned off).

Types of secondary storage devices and media:

 Magnetic storage devices
 Optical storage media
 Solid state storage device
MAGNETIC STORAGE DEVICES

This is a device that uses a magnetic head to write and read data to and from a
magnetized medium.

Examples of Magnetic storage devices

 Hard disk
 Floppy disk
 Magnetic tapes
 Zip and Jaz disks
Hard disk

A hard disk is a permanently fitted storage device in the computer. It holds the
programs, data files, and so far no storage device has matched its speed and

58
capacity.
The hard disk is usually fitted in the hard disk drive (HDD).
Current personal computer hard disks have storage capacities from 160 GB to 1 TB
and more.

Advantages of hard disks

 They have higher storage capacity as compared to other storage media
 They have high access speed
 Since they resides inside the computer, they can’t easily be stolen or
misplaced and data is secure
 The data life of hard disk is quite long compared to other storage media.
Disadvantages of hard disks
 They are not portable since they resides inside the computer
 These disks may fail due to violent shaking (vibration)
 They are prone to virus attacks especially in unprotected system.
 They are expensive compared to the floppy disks and priced according to
storage capacity

MAGNETIC TAPE.

Magnetic tape is a magnetically coated ribbon of plastic capable of storing large

amounts of data and information at a low cost.

Tape storage requires sequential access, i.e. data must be accessed in the order in
which it is stored.

If the computer is to read data from the middle of a tape, all the tape before the
desired piece of data must be passed over consecutively.

FLOPPY DISKATTE.

This is also called a diskette. It is a removable secondary storage medium that

consists of a thin, circular flexible plastic disc with a magnetic coating enclosed in
a square shape plastic shell.

A standard floppy disk is 3.5-inches wide and has storage capacities up to 1.44
MB.

A floppy disk drive is a device that can read from and write to a floppy disk.

TAKING CARE OF THE FLOPPY DISKETTE

59
 Don’t touch the diskette surface; don’t touch anything visible through the
protective case such as the data, accessed area on the disc surface.
 Handle the disc gently, i.e. don’t throw diskettes into your pockets or back
pocket because the protective plate can easily slide away from the plastic case.
 Don’t put weights on floppy diskettes.
 Don’t try to bend them.
 Don’t use floppy diskettes for coffee and soft wastes because moisture can spoil
and damage the disc surface.
 Avoid risks with physical environment e.g. heat
 Don’t expose the disc in to direct sunlight
 Don’t expose the floppy diskettes to chemical substances such as cleaning
solvents and alcohol
 Always keep the floppy diskette in its jacket.
 Do not expose it to an X- RAY.
 Do not insert or remove it from its drive when the drive active light is on.
 Do not force it into its drive. It should slip in with little or no resistance.
 Do not scrub a diskette to label it
 Don’t leave a floppy diskette into the drive. Take the diskette from the drive
because if you leave it in the drive, the read and write head remains resting on
the surface.
 Keep diskettes away from magnetic fields i.e. near radio speakers, on top of the
system unit case, near electric motor etc-
 Store the disks in their boxes after use.

ADVANTAGES OF FLOPPY DISKETTE

 It is potable and flexible.

 Data on floppy diskettes can be right protected from being changed
accidentally.
 It can be used to transfer date from one computer to another.
 Its storage capacity is wide considerably bigger.

DISADVANTANGES OF FLOPPY DISKETTE

 It’s not durable due to dusty and magnetic fields.

 The access time of a floppy disc is slow.
 A storage capacity of a floppy is limited only to 1.44MB.

OPTICAL DISCS

This is a removable disc on which data is written and read by means of a laser
beam. The most optical discs are CD-ROM. Examples of optical disks include;

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Examples of optical storage devices:

 Compact Disc Recordable (CD-R) or CD-ROM. This allows data to be

stored or recorded on to it once and cannot be changed thereafter.
 Compact disk rewritable (CD-RW). These allow data to be recorded, edited
or deled from them
CD-R or CD-ROM has a standard storage capacity of 700MB

 Digital Versatile Disc Recordable (DVD-R or DVD-ROM).This allows data

to be stored or recorded on to it once and cannot be changed thereafter.
 Digital Versatile Disc Rewritable (DVD-RW). allow data to be recorded,
edited or deled from them
DVD-R or CD-RW has a standard storage capacity of 4.7GB

 A Picture CD .this is a compact disc that only contains digital photographic

images saved in the jpg file format
 Blue-ray-disc. This has storage capacities of up to 100 GB.

ADVANTEGES OF A CD OVER A FLOPPY DISC

 A CD has a large storage capacity than a floppy disk

 The access time of a CD is faster than a floppy disk

DISADVANTAGES OF A CD

 A mere crack can easily fail the CD from writing or reading

 Some kinds of CDs are read only hence the user cannot change or add data on
it.
 The access time of a CD is slower compared to the hard disk.

Care for Optical Disks

The following should be done for the safety of data on Optical disks:

 Do not expose the disc to excessive heat or sunlight

 Do not eat, smoke or drink near a disc.

 Do not stack disks.

 Do not touch the underside of the disk.

 Always store the disc in a jewel box when not in use

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 Always hold a disc by its edges.

 Do not drop the disk to the ground.

 Don't bend the disk.

Solid state storage (SSS) devices:

Examples include:
 Flash disks  Flash memory
cards  Photographic
film

COMPUTER PROCESSING DEVICE

PROCESSING HARDWARE

These are computer hardware devices that work together in processing data which
is then sent as information to the computer users or stored in secondary memory.

Processing devices are the computer electronic components and chips housed in
the system unit.

The system is the case that contains electronic components of the computer used to
process data.

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THE MOTHERBOARD

This is a thin flat piece of circuit board that interconnects all other components of
computer together. It is sometimes referred to as the nerve or backbone of the
computer.

COMPONENTS OF THE MOTHERBOARD

1. PROCESSOR (Central Processing Unit)

This is a chip that controls and directs all the activities in the computer. It is
sometimes referred to as the brain of the computer

Parts of CPU

The CPU is made up of three main parts (components)

 Control unit
 Arithmetic and Logical Unit (ALU)
 Registers/ Memory

Control unit

The control unit is the component of processor that directs and co-ordinates most
of the operations in the computer. It has a role like that of a traffic policeman.

The control unit controls what is happening in the CPU. It does not process or store
data, instead it directs the order of operations.

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Another function of the control unit is to communicate with the input devices in
order to transfer program instructions and data into storage.

The control unit also communicates with the output device to transfer results from
storage to the output devices

It also coordinates and provides timing for each operation.

Arithmetic Logic Unit

The Arithmetic Unit is another component of the processor, which performs

arithmetic, comparison, and Logic operations during data processing in computer.

Arithmetic operations include basic calculations such as addition, subtraction,

multiplication, and division.

Comparison operations involving comparing one data item with another to

determine whether the first item is greater than, equal to, or Hess than the other.

Logical Operations. Include conditions along with logical operators such as AND,
OR, and NOT.

Registers

The registers are devices that hold data inside the computer‘s memory long enough
to execute a particular function, such as indexing, calculating, sorting or otherwise
manipulating data. They are the CPU‘s own internal memory.

Registers also contains high-speed storage locations called registers that

temporarily hold data and instructions. Registers are part of the processor not part
of memory or storage

Operation codes. (Opcodes)

Machine cycle.

The machine cycle is a series of operations performed to execute a single program

instruction.

The machine (CPU) cycle consists of four steps:

 Fetching: is the process of obtaining a program instruction or data item

from the memory.
 Decoding: Refers to the process of translating the instruction into signals the
computer can execute.

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  Executing: This is the process of carrying out the commands.
 Storing: this is writing the result to memory but not storage mediums.

Together these four operations form the Machine cycle

Most computers today support a concept called pipelining.

Pipelining is where the processor begins fetching for a second instruction before it
completes the machine cycle for the first instruction. Processors that use pipelining
are faster because they do not have to wait for one instruction to complete the
machine cycle before fetching the next one.

The system clock

The system clock is a small chip that is used by the CPU to synchronize the timing
of all computer operations.

Factors determining the speed of a computer

 Processor speed: it’s measured in hertz

 Ram capacity: is measured in mega bytes
 Hard disc data access speed: measured in revolution per minute

2. HEAT SINK AND HEAT PIPES.

Although the computer's main fan generates airflow, today's processors require
additional cooling.
Heat sink: It absorbs and ventilates heat produced by electronic components such
as processor.
Heat pipes: These cools processors in notebook computers

Coprocessor: this is a special additional processor chip or circuit board that assists
the processor in performing specific tasks and increases the performance of the
computer.

3. MEMORY

This holds data waiting to be processed and instructions waiting to be executed.

And memory is usually part or are connect to the main circuit board called mother
board.

4. Expansion slots
These are sockets on the mother board onto which adapters cards are added. Cards
may include video card, Audio card, NIC etc.

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5. Adaptor cards
They are also known as expansion cards. These are circuit board you install onto
the motherboard to increase the capabilities of the computer. E.g. NIC, sound
cards. Video cards etc.

A sound card. allows sound to be input through microphone and output through
external speakers and headsets.
A video card also called a graphic card converts computer output into a video
signal that travels through a cable to monitor which displays an image on the
screen.
A network card (RJ45) is a communication device that allows computers to access
a network.

6. PORTS AND CONNECTORS:

These are points of attachments of other external device to the motherboard

These are sockets onto which cables from peripheral devices are plugged

Most computers have at least one serial port, one parallel port, and four USB ports.
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7. Power supply unit

This converts alternating current (AC) power from the wall outlet to direct current
(DC). DC power is required for all the internal components of computer

8. Cooling systems (fans)

Case fans are devices installed in the system unit to make the cooling process more
efficient.

In addition to case fans, a heat sink draws heat away from the core of the CPU. A
fan on top of the heat sink moves heat away from the CPU.

Cooling a system is necessary to protect the internal components from damage and
also to fasten the working of the computer system

9. Buses

These are paths or electrical tunnels that transfer data between components on the
motherboard

They are a collection of wires connecting different devices on the motherboard

All buses consist of two parts:

The data bus which transfers actual data bits and

The address bus which transfers information about where the data should go in
memory.

10.CMOS chip

Complementary Metal-Oxide Semiconductor (CMOS) chip is a component

on the mother that stores the system settings and configurations

CMOS technology uses battery power (CMOS battery) to retain information even
when the power to the computer is off.

Battery-backed CMOS memory chips, for example, can keep the calendar, date,
and time current even when the computer is off.

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TOPIC 3: COMPUTER SOFTWARE

This refers to a collection of computer programs that provide instructions to

computer hardware. It is intangible part of the computer system.

CHARACTERISTICS OF GOOD COMPUTER SOFTWARE

1. It should provide the required functionality

2. It must be simple to use
3. It should be easy to maintained and updated
4. It has a life time (measured in years)
5. It should be easy to customize
6. It should be efficient
7. It should be portable.
FACTORS TO CONSIDER BEFORE OBTAINING A SOFTWARE
PROGRAM
1. Functionality. Refers to the degree of performance of the software against its
intended purpose

2. Reliability. Refers to the ability of the software to provide the desired

functionality under the given condition

3. Efficiency. Ability of the software to use the system resources in the most
effective and efficient manner

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4. Maintainability. Ease with which modification can be made in software to
extend its functionality.

5. Portability. Refers to the ease with which the software can be used from one
platform to another

6. Usability. Extend to which the software can be used with easy.

7. Integrity. Degree to which the unauthorized access to the software data can be
prevented.

SOFTWARE RELATED TERMS

1. Software version. This is a major upgrade in the software product for

example from MS office 2007 to MS office 2010
2. Software release. This is the distribution of the final version of an application.
A software release may be either private or public and generally constitutes the
initial generation of a new upgraded application.
3. Software compatibility. This is a characteristic that software components can
operate or run on satisfactorily on the computer or different computers linked
by a computer network.
4. Software installation. This is a process of making software ready for use or
execution
5. Software upgrade/ software patch. This is replacing of old software with the
new one
6. Software update. This refers to modification of software in order to address
certain issues.
7. Job scheduling. This is a process of allocating system resources to many
different tasks by an operating system.
8. Job sequencing is the arrangement of the task that is to be performed by the
machine in a particular order.
9. Software Suites. A software suit is a collection of individual application soft-
ware programs sold as a single package. Examples of software suite include;
Microsoft Office, Lotus Smart Suite, KOffice, OpenOffice.org, WordPerfect
Office.

ADVANTAGES OF USING SOFTWARE SUITES

 Costs significantly cheaper than buying each of the application package

separately
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 Easy to learn and use because applications within a suite usually use a similar
interface and share common features such as clip art and toolbars.
 Easy installation because all the various applications can be installed at once.

TYPES AND CLASSIFICATIONS OF COMPUTER SOFTWARE

1. system software
2. application software

APPLICATION SOFTWARE

These are programs designed to help solve specific problems for the users.

CHARACTERISTICS OF APPLICATION SOFTWARE

1. They are user friendly. Users find them easy to use

2. They are usually mouse run
3. They are meant for a specific problem
4. Their output is directly displayed on the screen
5. The computer can do with or without them
6. They benefit the computer user more than the computer itself

TYPES OF APPLICATION SOFTWARE

1. Off-shelf software
2. Customized software

OFF-SHELF SOFTWARE

This refers to packaged software that is designed to meet the needs of a wide
variety of end users. Off-shelf software is also known as general purpose software
or canned software or packaged software.

Examples include; Microsoft office suite, Oracle database management system,

Adobe illustrator, Adobe Photoshop etc.

ADVANTAGES OF OFF-SHELF SOFTWARE

1. They are common and cheap to buy

2. They come with user guide for users to learn them easily
3. They are easy to learn and use
4. Time and money that would have been spent on program development is saved
5. They can be used on more than one platform.

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DISADVANTAGES OF OFF-SHELF SOFTWARE

1. They may be out-dated thus not durable

2. They may contain packaged viruses
3. They may be too common
4. They may not satisfy the buyer’s needs and interests
5. It may just be a duplicated program

CUSTOMISED SOFTWARE

Custom software is tailor-made software, which is developed at a user's request to

perform specific functions.

Customized software is also known as Custom-tailored software.

Examples include Air Traffic Control System, School Management Information

System, Inventory Management System, Employee Records System, Payroll
System, etc.

ADVANTAGES OF CUSTOMIZED SOFTWARE

1. They often satisfy the user’s needs

2. They are easily modified incase need arises
3. They are always brand new and are more durable
4. They may be virus free

5. They are usually unique in functionality

DISADVANTAGES OF CUSTOMISED SOFTWARE

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1. They are expensive to develop
2. They take long to develop and test before coming out
3. They are rarely used
4. They are not multipurpose

Comparison of the characteristics Standard and Custom Software

STANDARD SOFTWARE IS CUSTOM SOFTWARE IS

1. Easy to use, because it is known by 1. Unique, and requires extensive training
many people. before use.
2. Cheaper because it is massively 2. Expensive because it requires hiring a
produced and packaged for programmer.
commercial purposes.
3. Easy to acquire because it is already 3. Difficult to acquire due to the time
made. needed for programming it.
4. More reliable because it is tried and 4. May contain programming errors since it
well tested by many users. is not tested adequately.
5. Containing online help to guide 5. Usually lacking online help services.
users in case of any problems in use.
6. Can not be modified or changed to 6. Meets all user requirements and can be
meet unique user requirements. edited if need arises.

OTHER TYPES OF APPLICATION SOFTWARE

1. Copyrighted software. Copyrighted software refers to computer programs with

restrictions regarding use, modification, and redistribution.
2. Shareware. is copyrighted software that is distributed at no cost for a trial
period.
3. Freeware. is copyrighted software provided at no cost by an individual or a
company that retains all rights to the software.
4. Open-source software. is software provided for use, modification, and
redistribution. This software has no restrictions from the copyright holder.
5. Web-based software. refers to programs hosted by a Web site.
6. Firmware. Are programs with special instruction for basic computer operation.
Firmware helps in starting the computer, displaying characters on the screen,
etc.

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7. Software suite. This is a collection of programs sold as a single package e.g.
Microsoft office suite.

NB: A software license is a legal instrument governing the usage of software to

protect the interest of the program designer

Uses of Popular Application software varieties and their Examples

1. Word Processors. Used for producing textual documents like letters, notes,
reports, memos, etc.

Examples Include:
 MS word  Word star  OpenOffice.org
 Word pro  Abi word writer
 Word perfect  Lynx  Word pad

2. Spread sheet software. Used for performing calculations, and the creating of
graphs.
Examples include
 MS Excel  SuperCalc  KSpread
 Lotus 1-2-3  Vp – planner  OpenOffice.org
 VisCalc  quattroPro Calc

3. Database Management System (DBMS). This is an application program that

allows users to create, access and manage database. It allows adding, changing,
and deleting data in database.
A database is a collection of related data.
Examples include:
 MS access  Oracle  Fox pro
 Sybase  MS SQL server  Jazz
 Dbase  Paradox  Quattro pro

4. Desktop publishing programs (DTP). This is application program that enables

professional designers to create sophisticated documents that contains text,
graphics, and many colors e.g. Textbooks, newsletters, catalog, calendars, IDs
etc
Examples include
 MS publisher  Adobe illustrator

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  Adobe page Maker  Corel Draw
 Adobe Photoshop  Harvard graphics

5. Accounting packages. These are used for financial control and management
Examples include
 Tally  Hogia  Navision
 Sage  Sun system Financials
 Pastel  AAA  QuickBooks

6. Presentation software. This is application software that allows users to create

visual aids for presentation to communicate ideas, message and other
information to a group.
Examples include:
 MS PowerPoint  XBoosta  Microsoft
 Lotus Freelance  Hotshow producer

7. Communications software. One of the main reasons people use computers is

to communicate and share information with others.
Examples include
 Web browsers  newsgroups  blog software
 e-mail software  Text messaging  Teleconferencin
 chat rooms  FTP programs g software.

8. Computer aided design (CAD) software. Used by engineers and architects to

produce technical drawings such as designs of building structures and floor
plans
Examples include
 ArchiCAD,
 AutoCAD
9. Web browsing software. For displaying Webpages from the internet or html
documents on computers.
Examples Include:
 Mozilla Firefox,  Opera
 Internet Explorer,  Netscape Navigator
 Safari,

10.Web authoring software. Used by webmasters for building websites.

Examples include:

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  Microsoft FrontPage,
 Adobe Dreamweaver,
 Microsoft Expression Web,
 Antenna Web Design Studio

11.Media Players. For Audio and Video playback on computers.

Examples include:
 Windows Media Player.
 Nero Showtime.
 Jet Audio.
 Power DVD.
 VLC Media Player

12.Text Editors. Are simple word processors that are generally used to type
without any special formatting. Text editors are mainly used to create small
notes, memos and programs.
Examples include:
 Notepad
 Notepad++
 Gedit

SYSTEM SOFTWARE

These are programs that control, manage and support the operations of computer
and its devices. They are crucial that the computer can no do without them.

CATEGORIES OF SYSTEM SOFTWARE

 Operating system (OS)

 Utility programs
 Programming languages

OPERATING SYSTEM (OS)

An operating system is a set of programs which act as a platform for the

application software, the hardware and the user to interact and process data

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The kernel, which is the main components of operating system interacts with the
hardware components, while the shell which is the outer part of the operating
system interacts with the users. i.e. acts as the user interface. The shell may be in
form of Graphical User Interface (GUI), or Command Line Interface (CLI).

Examples of operating system includes; UNIX, LINUX, Macintosh, Novel

Netware, Microsoft Disk Operating System (MS DOS), Windows 3x, Windows
95, Window 98, Windows 2000, Windows Me, Windows XP, Windows NT,
Windows vista, Windows 7, Windows 8, Windows 10.

TYPES OF OPERATING SYSTEMS

1. Single user operating systems. These support only one user at a time.
Eaxamples include: MS DOS, Windows 2000, Windows XP, Windows NT,
Windows 7, Windows 8, Windows 10, LINUX
2. Multi-user operating systems. These support two or more users at a time. E.g.
UNIX
3. Single tasking operating systems. These support running only a single
program at a time e.g. MS DOS
4. Multi-tasking operating system. These support running multiple programs at a
time e.g. Windows 2000, Windows XP, Windows NT, Windows 7, Windows
8, Windows 10, LINUX, UNIX, Novel Netware.
5. Virtual machine operating systems. These allows a single computer to run
two or more operating system concurrently
6. Network Operating System (NOS). These are operating systems used for
networking and data communication e.g. Novel Netware, UNIX, LINUX,
Windows server 2008, Apple share.

FUNCTIONS OF OPERATING SYSTEM

1. It coordinates the process called booting. During booting, the operating system
is automatically loaded to the main memory (RAM) from the hard disk by a
program called boot strap loader or Boot routine
2. It configures and manages other software programs like utilities and application
software to ensure that they communicate with users and hardware devices
3. The OS loads programs and required data into main memory to facilitate data
processing. It therefore acts as a platform for running application programs

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4. It provides consistent user interface to enable users access system resources like
files, printers, etc.
5. It configures and manages all the hardware components. These include input
devices, output devices, storage devices and the CPU.
6. It manages memory both primary and secondary memory by allocating storage
space to various processes and data in memory
7. The OS helps in spooling the print job. This frees the CPU so that it can start
new task.
8. Monitoring system performance. The OS accesses and reports information
about various system resources, programs and devices. This helps the user to
identify and solve problems with resources.
9. Administering security. The OS ensures that users access the computer with
correct user names and passwords.

USER INTERFACE

This refers to the means by which the user and the computer interact.

TYPES OF USER INTERFACE

There are two types of user interfaces, namely

1. Command Line Interface (CLI)

2. Graphical User Interface (GUI)

COMMAND LINE INTERFACE (CLI)

This refers to the user interface where a user types keywords or presses special
keys on the keyboard to enter data and instruction to computer.

Examples of operating systems with command line interface include MS DOS,

UNIX, LINUX, and OS/400.

ADVANTAGES OF COMMAD LINE INTERFACE

1. It takes little memory and normally does not require very fast processor
2. Operation is fast because command can be entered directly through the
keyboard
3. The user has complete control over the program

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4. Many commands can be grouped together as batch file so that repetitive tasks
can be automated

DISADVANTAGES OF COMMAND LINE INTERFACE

1. No pointing device can be used

2. There are graphics and menus
3. The interface can discouraging, more difficult to use and user is more likely to
make mistakes
4. Commands have to be entered correctly with correct spellings and syntax
(rules)
5. A command languages has to be learned and memorized

GRAPHICAL USER INTERFACE

This is an interface which allows a user to use menu and visual images such as
icons, buttons and other graphical objects to issue commands to a computer

Examples of operating system with graphical user interface include, Windows 95,
Windows 7, Windows 8, Windows 10, Windows 98, Windows 2000, Windows
Me, Windows XP, Windows NT, LINUX, Macintosh

ADVANTAGES OF GRAPHICAL USER INTERFACE

1. It is easy to learn and work with i.e. user friendly

2. There is no need to type and memorize any command
3. Interface is similar for any application
4. It is easy to exchange information between software
5. A pointing device can be used to select items.

DISADVANTAGES OF GRAPHICAL USER INTERFACE

1. It requires more memory

2. It requires a faster processor
3. It occupies more disk space
4. They can be irritating to experienced users when simple tasks require a number
of operations

DIFFERENCES BETWEEN CLI AND GUI

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 command line windows (graphical user interface)
 Interface takes up little memory  Needs or requires more memory as
and doesn‘t require very fast well as a faster processor.
 Operation is fast because  Operation on the windows
commands can be entered environment depends on the
 Many commands can be  It is difficult to automate functions
grouped together as a batch file for expert users.
 Commands are not easy to learnt  Graphical user interface is a user
friendly because it is easy to learn
 Commands have to be  Commands do not need to be
memorized memorized because the commands
are represented with icons and
FACTORS TO CONSIDER WHEN CHOOSING AN OPERATING
SYSTEM
1. The type of computer in terms of size and make. Operating systems are
available for all sizes of computers.
2. The hardware configuration of the computer such as the memory capacity,
processor speed and hard disk capacity should meet the required minimum
requirements for the operating system to run well.
3. The application software to be installed on the computer should be supported by
the operating system. For example Microsoft Office 2010 cannot run on
Windows 2000.
4. The operating system should be user friendly. This depends on the skills of the
intended users of the computers.
5. The operating system should have adequate information and help guides for
user reference.
6. The cost of the operating system.
7. Reliability and security provided by the operating system.
8. The number of processors and hardware devices it can support.
9. The number of users it can support
10.The availability of basic utilities and accessory programs within the operating
system

UTILITY PROGRAMS

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A utility program is a system program which supports the general performance of a
computer. Utility programs are also known as system utility or service programs

Utility software refers to system software designed to analyze, optimize and

maintain a computer in good working conditions. Utility software usually focuses
on how the computer system operates.
EXAMPLES OF UTILITY PROGRAMS WITH THEIR FUNCTIONS
1. Anti-virus utility
Anti-virus utilities are programs that scan for computer viruses, remove,
disinfect and repair damaged files.
2. Screen Saver Utility
A screen saver is a utility that causes the monitor’s screen to display a moving
image or blank screen if no keyboard or mouse activity occurs within a
specified period of time.
SCREENSAVERS were originally designed to prevent phosphor burn-in
(ghosting) on CRT monitors,
Currently, screensavers are used primarily for entertainment, advertising or
security purposes.
3. BACKUP utilities
Utilities that make a duplicate copy of the contents on a disk. It is also called
copying utility. Examples of back-up utilities are; Norton back-up, HP data
protector, BachupPC.
4. File compression utility
A file compression utility shrinks the size of a file. A compressed file takes up
less storage space than the original file.
Compressed files, sometimes called zipped files, usually have a .zip extension.
Attaching a compressed file to an e-mail message reduces the time needed for
upload and download.
When you download a compressed file, you must uncompress it to restore it to
its original form.
5. DISK CHECKERS
This utility scan the contents of a hard disk to find files or areas that are
corrupted in some way, or were not correctly saved, and eliminate them for a
more efficiently operating hard drive.
6. DISK CLEANERS
This utility can find files that are unnecessary to computer operation, or take up
considerable amounts of space. Disk cleaner helps the user to decide what to
delete when their hard disk is full.

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7. DISK COMPRESSION utilities
This utility compress the contents of a disk to small amounts of memory. They
also uncompressed/ expand the compressed files.
8. DISK DEFRAGMENTERS
This utility detect computer files whose contents are broken and spread across
several locations on the hard disk, and move the fragments to one location to
increase efficiency.
9. DISK PARTITIONS can divide an individual drive into multiple logical
drives, each with its own file system which can be mounted by the operating
system and treated as an individual drive.
10.ARCHIVE utilities output a stream or a single file when provided with a
directory or a set of files. Archive suites, at times include compression and
encryption capabilities.
11.CRYPTOGRAPHIC utilities encrypt and decrypt streams and files.
12.REGISTRY CLEANERS clean and optimize the Windows registry by
removing old registry keys that are no longer in use.
13.FILE MANAGERS provide a convenient method of performing routine data
management tasks, such as deleting, renaming, cataloging, moving, copying,
merging, generating files and modifying data sets.
14.MEMORY TESTERS check for memory failures.
15.NETWORK utilities analyze the computer's network connectivity, configure
network settings, check data transfer or log events.
16.A SPYWARE REMOVER is a utility that detects and deletes spyware and
other similar programs.
Spyware is a program placed on a computer without the user's knowledge that
secretly collects information about user, often related to Web browsing habits.
17.INTERNET FILTERS are utilities that remove or block certain items from
being displayed.
Four widely used filters are anti-spam programs, Web filters, phishing filters,
and pop-up blockers.
18.A SEARCH UTILITY is a program that attempts to locate a file on your
computer based on criteria you specify.
19.A DIAGNOSTIC UTILITY compiles technical information about your
computer's hardware and certain system software programs and then prepares a
report outlining any identified problems.

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PROGRAMMING LANGUAGES

Programming languages are artificial languages designed to communicate

instructions to computers.
Programming: this is the process of writing a program to solve a given problem.
A program: is a set of instructions that perform a specific processing task.
Semantic: refers to the meaning of a valid statement in a given programming
language
Syntax: refers to the rule that govern the use of programming language.
TYPES OF PROGRAMMING LANGUAGE
1. Low Level Language (LLL)
2. High Level Language (HLL)
LOW LEVEL LANGUAGES
Low level language is closely associated with the processor than high level
languages which are nearer to the programmer.
Low level language is divided into two namely;
1. Machine language
2. Assembly language

MACHINE LANGUAGE/1ST GENERATION LANGUAGES/TOP

LANGUAGES
Are languages written in binary form (represented as 0s and 1s) in computer.
Characteristics machine codes
1. Can be used directly by the computer without interpretation.
2. They are machine/computer depend.
3. Less user friendly - Not very easy to learn write, correct.
4. They are typical of first generation computers.
5. They are time consuming during programming.
6. Allow the programmer to pay more attention to the problem.
7. More technical if compared to others.
ASSEMBLY LANGUAGES/2ND GENERATION LANGUAGES (1950)
Are low level languages (LLL) that allow the programmer to use abbreviations or
easily remembered words instead of binary codes. Use mnemonic codes rather

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than binary code. E.g. Mult = Multiply; STO = Store, Div = Divide etc. this is also
an example of Low Level Language

CHARACTERISTICS OF 2ND GENERATION LANGUAGES

1. Less technical compared to machine codes.
2. More flexible user friendly compared to machine codes.
3. Faster compared to machine codes.

ADVANTAGES OF LOW LEVEL LANGUAGES

1. They are not used by many programmers thus can be used to write secrete
programs
2. They occupy small space in the computer thus economical
3. They require fewer instructions to accomplish the same result
4. They have closer control of the computer hardware and execute officially
5. They are useful for developing operating systems and game programs which
require the fast and efficient use of the CPU
6. Running the program is faster as no compilation is needed
DISADVANTAGES OF LOW LEVEL LANGUAGES
1. They are designed for a specific machine and specific processor
2. The program is hard to understand
3. Translating program from assembly language to machine language is difficult
and at times impossible
4. It is difficult to debug and maintain the programs
5. Programming in low level language is time consuming since each step must
have its own binary instruction for the machine to understand
HIGH LEVEL LANGUAGES OR PROCEDURAL LANGUAGES
With HLL the programmer uses direct English words during the programming
process. They are not machine dependent and can be used on more than one kind
of Personnel computer. They are also known as Third generation language.
Examples include;
1. BASIC (Beginners all–purpose symbolic
instructions)

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2. COBOL (Common Business oriented
language.)
3. FORTRAN (Formula translation)
4. ALGOL (Algorithmic Language)
5. PROLOG (Program Logic)
6. PASCAL (Pascaline Arithmetic)
Characteristics of High Level Language
1. Less technical if compared to both 1st and 2nd
generation languages
2. They are more user friendly.
3. A bit slow since they need to be interpreted to the computer first.
VERY HIGH LEVEL LANGUAGE OR PROBLEM ORIENTED
LANGUAGES
These are languages that tell the computer what to but not how to do it, i.e. they are
non procedural. They are also called Forth generation language
Examples include;
1. SQL (Structured Query Language)
2. HTML (Hyper Text Mark-up Language) for designing websites
3. XHTML (Extended Hyper Text Mark-up Language)
4. C#
5. C++
6. Java
7. Visual Basic
ADVANTAGES OF 3rd AND 4th GENERATION LANGUAGES
1. They are portable since they are machine independent
2. They are easy to learn and understand
3. They require less time to code
4. Easy to maintain
5. They provide better documentation
6. One language can be multipurpose
DISADVANTAGES OF 3rd AND 4th GENERATION LANGUAGES
1. They require faster CPU execute
2. They require larger main memory for compilation

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3. Program execution is slower since they are bulky
LANGUAGE TRANSLATORS/ LANGUAGE PROCESSORS
These are programming tools which change programs written in 2nd, 3rd, 4th,
and 5th generation languages into machine codes or 1st generation language (Os
and 1s) which the computer can understand. Language translators are of three
types, i.e.
 Assemblers
 Compilers,
 Interpreters
Assembler:
Is a program that translates the assembly – language program into machine
language
Compiler: (Executes later)
Is a language translator that converts the entire program of a high – level
language into machine language before the computer executes the program.
Interpreters (executes immediately)
Is a language translator that converts high–level language statement into machine
language line by line.
Linker: this combines compiled programs and determines where they be located in
the memory
Debuggers: these are programs used to identify and correct errors (bugs) during
the testing of a program. A bug is an error in the software program that causes it to
malfunction.
Device drivers
This is a program that enables the operating system to communicate with the
hardware.
Functions of Device drivers
1. Manages power requirements and log events
2. Checks input parameters if they are valid
3. Checks if the device is in use

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TOPIC 4: COMPUTER WORD PROCESSING

• Word processing is the process of creating text documents containing objects

like tables, and simple graphics using computer applications.
• Word processor is a program that can be used to create, edit, format, store and
print a document that contains text and graphics
• Word processors are mostly used for writing letters, reports, projects, books,
essays, memos, resumes (CVs) etc. Manual type writers were phased out
following the emergence of computer based word-processor applications.
Advantages of Using Electronic Word Processors as Compared to Manual
Type Writers

• Word processors can save softcopies for future use while with a type writer; a
document has to be fully retyped if needed again.
• During typing with a word processor, it is possible to undo a mistake, while any
error made with a type writer is immediately impacted on the printout.
• A type writer prints one character at a time while a word processor prints many
pages at a time.
• There is a variety of quick text formatting features such as bold, italic,
underline, colour, etc. in a word processor whereas there are limited formatting
options with a typewriter.
• A word processor provides grammar and spell check options whereas a
typewriter cannot help in spell checking.
• It is easier to insert graphics and drawings in a word processor yet it is not easy
to draw with a type writer.

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• A word processor allows the user to type continuously without pressing the
enter key at the end of each line (word wrap) whereas the user needs to
advance the lever of a typewriter manually, at the end of every line.
• It is very simple to align text in a document to Left, Centre, Right or Justified
whereas with a type writer, one has to manually align the text, which is very
difficult.
• A word processor has edit features such as Copy and Paste in which repeatedly
occurring text in a document can be copied to and pasted from the clipboard
whereas a type writer has no clipboard.
• A word processor can work on many pages at a go by inserting pages numbers,
footers, headers, watermarks, etc. whereas a type writer works on one page at a
time.
• A word processor can insert drawings word arts and pictures whereas with a
type writer, drawings and pictures can only be drawn by a hand on the stencil.
• With A word processor, you can use mail merge feature to create a set of
documents, such as a letter that is sent to many customers, by only creating one
main document and inserting different fields for the customers’ details whereas
with a type writer, you have to type the each document separately.
• A type writer requires a lot of strength to strike a key so as to have a strong
impact on the stencil in order to get a reasonably visible printout whereas a
computer keyboard has easy-to-press buttons which don’t require too much
strength during typing.
• A type writer makes a lot of noise during its operation as compared to a word
processor which is relatively quiet.
• A word processor has a lot of symbols whereas a type writer can only add the
English alphabet and commonly used symbols that are currently calibrated on
the typewriter.
• A Word processor can add preformatted elements (templates e.g. cover pages,
resumes, etc. whereas with a type writer it is up to the typist to know the layout
and professional look of document types.
Disadvantages of Using Electronic Word Processors

• Word processors cannot be used without Electricity.

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• Word processors Use is Expensive due to the cost of computers.
• They have led to Unemployment of typists because one person using a word
processor can do work which would be done by many using type writers.
• Many people are Computer illiterate, and cannot use the program.
• Computers have Viruses, which lead to loss of data in soft copies.
• Using word processors on light emitting computer monitors for long leads to
eye disorders, which isn’t the case with type writers
• Word processors require purchase of hard ware like printers in order to obtain
hard copies yet with typewriters, whatever is typed is permanent and instantly
available as a hard copy: there is no delay for printing or risk of unintended file
deletion.
Examples of word processors

 Microsoft Word,  OpenOffice.org Writer,

 Corel WordPerfect,  Google Docs,
 Apple Pages,  Lotus WordPro etc.
NB: Text editors are not fully word processing applications because they are
generally used to type without any special formatting. Text editors are mainly used
to create small notes, memos and programs. Examples of common text editors are:
Notepad, Notepad++, Gedit etc.

BASIC TERMINOLOGY

• Typeface is the shape of the characters. Some common typefaces are Times
New Roman, Arial, and Tahoma.
• Line spacing refers to the amount of vertical white space between two lines of
text, from baseline to baseline. Line spacing is measured in points.
• Text alignment refers to the way lines of text are arranged relative to the edges
of a block of text. There are four types of alignment: left, centre, right, and
justify.
• Justification is the process of aligning text in a document to both the left and
right margins at the same time.

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• Indent is the amount of white space set in between the margin and the
beginning of text. Examples of indents include the first line indent, hanging
indent and right indent.
• Formatting text is the process of changing the appearance of text in a
document. Formatting text involves using commands like bold, italics,
underlining, changing font colour, etc.
• Editing text refers to the process of making changes to the content of an
existing document. Editing text involves commands like cut, paste, overtype,
undo, insert, and delete.
• Copy – To place selected text on the clipboard, without removing it from its
current location.
• Cut – To remove selected text from its current position and place it on the
clipboard. Copy and paste duplicated text, while Cut and paste moves text to a
new location.
• The clipboard is an area of memory in which you can store copied or cut text,
graphics or any other items temporarily before being pasted into other locations.
• The paste special feature helps to avoid pasting text with all its formatting. The
paste special feature provides more control over what to paste.
• Header- The header refers to text that appears in the top margin of all pages in
a document.
• Footer - The footer refers to text that appears in the bottom margin of all pages
in a document.
• Ruler - You can use the ruler to set the indent, margin and tab markers. Avoid
using the space bar to align text!
• Tabs Stops– tab stops are places where text can be made to line up. You can
set a tab stop by clicking on the ruler bar at the desired position.
• Hard Copy– A copy of a document printed out on physical paper.
• Soft Copy– A copy of a document that is stored on a disk or other computer
storage device.
• Overtype Mode– Also called overwrite mode, causes any characters you type
to replace ("overtype") the characters at the cursor. You can switch between

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 overtype mode and insert mode by pressing the insert key.
• Paragraph – The text between one paragraph break and the next. A paragraph
break is inserted by pressing Enter key.
• Save – To write the document's current state from RAM to a storage device.
• Proofreading is the process of reviewing a document to ensure the accuracy of
its content. Proof reading tools include spelling and grammar check (F7),
thesaurus, etc.

Features of Word processor

The features are the functionalities the program can do. Below are some of the
features of word processors.

• Word Wrap: this feature automatically sends a word that does not fit within
the margin settings onto the next line, without the user pressing Enter key.
• Find: allows the user to locate all occurrences of a particular character, word or
phrase.
• Replace: allows the user to substitute existing characters, words or phrases with
the new ones.
• Spell checker: allows the user to check spellings of the whole document at one
time or to check and even correct the spelling of individual words as they are
typed
• Grammar checker: this reports grammatical errors, usually by a wavy green
line, and suggests ways to correct them.
• Thesaurus: suggests alternative words with the same meaning (synonyms) for
use in the document.
• Mail Merge: This is feature used to create similar letters to be sent to several
people. The names and addresses of each person can be merged with one single
main document.
• Automatic page numbering: numbers the pages automatically in a document
• Tables: allow users to organize information into rows and columns.

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• Multi-columns: arranges text into two or more columns that look similar to
newspaper or magazine
• Drop cap – Formats the first letter in paragraph to be dropped across two or
more lines.
• Clip art: refers to pre-made images about various subjects used to illustrate
concepts in documents.
• Template: document with a specific format and layout based on to initiate new
similar documents.
• Printing: allows a user to obtain a hard copy of a document from the printer.
• Word Count: Establishes the number of words, characters, paragraphs, etc. in a
document.
• Headers and Footers: Used to insert text in the top and bottom margin through
the document.
• Footnotes and Endnotes are used as references that provide additional
information about a word or phrase within a document.
• Insert and Delete allows a user to add and remove portions of text while
editing document.
Question
1) Distinguish between save and save as.
• Save is used to make changes to the existing file while Save as is used to store
file with new name
• Print preview
It is a feature in an application program that enables users to have a view in
their document the way it would look if printed.

2) What is the difference between cut –paste and copy-paste

• Cut-paste collects and removes part of the document from one location to
another without leaving the original text in place.
• Copy-paste duplicates the original part of the document in place

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TOPIC 5: ELECTRONIC PRESENTATION:

Presentation Software

 Is a software program used for creating text with graphics, audio, and/or
video presentations with visual aids, handouts, and sequence of slides.
 The purpose of presentation software is to enable someone to impart
information to an audience in an interesting and effective way.
 This is usually done in the form of a visual presentation that the audience
views along with a running commentary from the presenter.

Examples of presentation software program include:

i. Microsoft PowerPoint
ii. Open Office Impress
iii. NXPowerLite
iv. Apple Keynote
v. Adobe Presenter
vi. Corel Presentations, Lotus
vii. Freelance Graphics,
viii. Microsoft Producer,
ix. Open Office Presentation,
Applications of Presentation Software
1. Presenting learning materials to students in schools (CAL)
2. Presenting speeches and minutes in meeting
3. Used in training sessions
4. Used in presenting campaign manifestos

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 5. Used in conferences and seminars
6. Used in sales promotions to market products
7. Used in business shows, mobile kiosks and clinics

Advantages of Presentation Software

1. Presentation software usually provides a wide variety of presentation
formats and layouts for the slides
2. Multimedia components such as clip art images, video clips and audio clips
can be incorporated into slides
3. The timing of the slides can be set so that the presentation automatically
displays the next slide after a predetermined period of time.
4. Special transition effects can be applied between each slide
5. The presentation can normally be viewed and printed in different formats

Common features of presentation software

• Slides Is an individual page of a presentation.

• Animation effects that allow the various elements on each slide to appear after
a certain amount of time or when a presenter presses a button.
• Slide master – parent slide that allows the style (font, font size, background
etc.) to be set once and then used throughout the presentation.
• Transitions – This refers to different styles in which slides come and leave the
screen during a presentation. Slide transition is a special effect for introducing
an entire slide during a slide show
• Slide notes – when these are used the presenter will see the current slide and
any notes associated with it on his/her display and the audience will see just the
slide on another screen or from a projector.
• Slide Sorter is a window that displays thumbnail versions of all your slides,
arranged in horizontal rows. This view is useful to make global changes to
several slides at one time. Rearranging or deleting slides is easy to do in Slide
Sorter view.
• Placeholder. Placeholders are the containers in layouts that hold such content
as text (including body text, bulleted lists, and titles), tables, charts, SmartArt
graphics, movies, sounds, pictures, and clip art.
• Graphics. A general term used to mean pictures, images, charts, photo, tables,
etc, that you can add to a presentation

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• ClipArt. A general term for a library of pictures in the computer. Presenter’s
notes, these contain ideas you want to discuss for each slide in your
presentation.
• Action buttons. Are ready-made buttons that can be inserted into your
presentation. These enable you to perform actions upon clicking or moving
mouse over them
• Auto content wizard. This is a presentation wizard that contains data from
which one can select and edit to create a personalized or customized
presentation.
• Slide layout. Slide layouts contain formatting, positioning, and placeholders for
all the content that appears on a slide. Layout contains the theme (colors, fonts,
effects, and the background) of a slide. Master layout is a term applied to a
presentation’s overall design.
• Timing. Is a technique by which slides or text appearing on the screen during a
presentation, i.e. on mouse click or automatically after a defined period.
• A PowerPoint template. This contains layouts (layout: The arrangement of
elements, such as title and subtitle text, lists, pictures, tables, charts, shapes, and
movies, on a slide.), theme colors (theme colors: A set of colors that is used in a
file. Theme colors, theme fonts, and theme effects compose a theme.), theme
fonts (theme fonts: A set of major and minor fonts that is applied to a file.
Theme fonts, theme colors, and theme effects compose a theme.), theme
effects (theme effects: A set of visual attributes that is applied to elements in a
file. Theme effects, theme colors, and theme fonts compose a theme.),
background styles, and even content.
• Handouts Multiple slides per page (two to nine depending on your choice of
settings) suitable for giving to the audience to take home

The good presentation slides should have the following:

i. Use text enhancements such as bold, italics and underlines to draw attention
to particular pieces of text on a slide.
ii. Choose good text style and large enough so everyone in the audience can read
the slides, even if they are some distance away from the screen.
iii. Ensure that the text can easily be read against the background and clashing
colors or colors which are too similar should be avoided or placing text over a
background image.

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iv. Ensure not to include too much amount of text in your slides and arrange
your summary of text in bullet format.
v. Use images that match the topic and should not be too many or overlay the
text on images - it is very hard to see either clearly.
vi. Use minimal text animation to hold the attention of the audience.

PowerPoint Views
1. Normal view. Is a Tri-pane window that provides the text outline of the entire
presentation on the left, the current slide on the upper-right, and speaker’s notes
on the lower-right. This is the default PowerPoint view
2. Outline view. This enables one to edit and display all presentation text in one
location instead of one slide at a time. It appears without the objects or images
in the slide.
3. Slide view. Shows a graphic view of the current slide for editing and viewing
4. Slide sorter view. This displays the entire presentation so that one can add,
delete and move slide.
5. Notes page. Provides a large area to view or type speaker’s notes on a slide
6. Slide show. Is a collection of slides moving in a defined sequence at a present
timing that one can control and change with special effects.

TOPIC 6: SYSTEM START UP AND CONFIGURATION

COMPUTER BOOTING

Booting refers to the process of starting a computer.

TYPES OF BOOTING

There are two major types of booting and these include:

1. Cold boot
2. Warm boot

COLD BOOT

This refers to the starting of the computer for the first time when it has not been in
use it performs Power On Self-Test (POST).

WARM BOOT

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This refers to the restarting of a computer that has been working

To perform the warm boot, press the RESET button of the system or press the
combination of keys ALT + CTRL + DEL on your keyboard.

CIRCUMSTANCES UNDER WHICH WARM BOOTING IS CARRIED

OUT

1. When the computer has frozen

2. When the computer has failed to boot fully
3. After installing a new software
4. When the computer slows down
5. After installing new hardware devices
6. In case one wants to recover from errors
7. When peripheral components has fail to work.
8. After malware or virus scanning.
THE BOOT PROCESS OF THE COMPUTER

1. The power supply sends a signal to the components in the system unit
2. The processor looks for the BIOS
3. The BIOS performs the Power On Self-Test (POST).
4. The results of the POST are compared with data in the CMOS chip
5. The BIOS looks for system files in the boot disk
6. The boot program loads the kernel of the OS into RAM from storage
7. The OS loads configuration information and displays the desk top on the screen

POWER ON SELF TEST [POST]

WHAT DOES POST MEAN

A power on self -test is a test that checks whether the computer hardware is
connected properly and operating correctly.

These series of test determine functioning of the following

1. Random access memory [RAM]

2. Disk drives
3. Hard drives
4. Central processing unit [CPU]

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5. All other hardware devices

THE BIOS

BIOS is the program responsible for booting up your computer.

BIOS is the program a computer’s microprocessor uses to start the computer after
you turn it on, it also manages data flow between the computer’s OS under touched
devices like the hard disk, keyboard and printer

BIOS is a program that is made accessible to the micro- processor on an erasable

programmable ROM [EPROM]

When you turn on your computer the micro-processor passes control to the BIOS
program, which is always located at the same place on EPROM

When BIOS boots up your computer it first determines whether all the attachments
are in place and the operational and then loads the OS or key parts of it to the
RAM from your hard disk or diskette drive

CMOS

WHAT IS CMOS

CMOS is the battery power memory chip in your computer that stores start up info

Your pc basic input or output system uses this info when starting the computer

These are;

1. Amount of memory
2. Types of disk drives
3. Monitor, keyboard
4. Current date and time
5. Port settings

INSTANCES WHEN BOOTING MAY FAIL

1. When the bootable device is unavailable such as hard disk

2. When there is no operating system installed
3. In case of hard disk crash

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File management

This is a system that an operating system or a program uses to organize and keep
track of files.

File management involves the skillful use of file operational tools enabling
ones to create, edit, format, save, view, print, rename, copy, delete, rename,
recover, and monitor your computer files.
Special utility programs are used to perform several file management
operations which may include monitoring free space on your drives, create a
virtual drive, or compare files and directories.
Folders and Sub folders

It is referred to as a storage location for related files and sub folders

In the worlds of DOS and UNIX, folders are called directories.

A sub-folder is a folder created within a folder. It can contain other sub-folders

and files.

The main folder that that all other folders and sub-folders are created is referred to
as Root Folder or Root-Directory.

Creating a new folder

1. Right click the empty portion of the desktop

2. Select new from the drop-down menu that appears
3. Select a folder
4. Give the folder an appropriate name
Renaming a folder

1. Right click the folder

2. Select the rename option
3. Give the folder a new name
Moving a folder or a file

1. click and drag the file another folder

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2. Right click on the file and choose sent to. Then choose from the options shown
in the sub menu that appears
Deleting a folder

1. Right click on the folder

2. Choose the delete option
File

A file is a collection of related data

It can also be defined as a block of arbitrary information or resources for storing

information which is available to a computer program.

Types of file

The types of files recognized by the system are regular, directory, or special

1. Regular files. These are files used to store data. Regular files are in the form of
text files and binary files.
 Text files. These are regular files that contain the information stored in
ASCII format text and are readable by the user.
 Binary files. These are regular files that contain the information readable
by the computer.
2. Directory files. These contain the information that the system needs to access
all types of files, but it does not contain actual file data.
3. Special files. These are temporary files created by processes. The basic types of
special files are FIFO (first-in, first-out), block and character.
Other types of files

4. Video files for videos

5. Web files for web activities as such web development
6. System files to enable computer function with the operating system
7. Image files for photos, graphics
8. Audio files for digital audio content (music, sound)
9. Back up files for copies of files in a computer which can later be accessed in
emergence cases
File name and file extensions

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File name. This is a name used to uniquely identify a computer file stored in a file
system

Features of file

1. A computer file is made up of two parts: a file name and a file extension
2. The file name should be associated with the content
3. Special characters such as “/”, “&” must be avoided
A computer file consists of two parts: file name and file extension separated by a
dot e.g. okolong Sam. doc

File extension. This is a part/ suffix at the end of a file name which identifies the
type of file it represents.

Functions of file extension

1. It helps to identify the file type

2. It identifies what program to associate the file with and how to properly open it
using the program
3. It helps in categorizing files for easy retrieval
Common file extensions

File File type Example

extension
.doc/.docx Ms word Samokolong.doc
.xls/ .xlsx Spreadsheet Payroll.xls
.ppt/.pptx Presentation Samuel.ppt
.db Database Students.db
.pub Publication Gift.pub
.rft Rich Text Format Olowo.rft
.pdf Portable document format Physics.pdf
Every file has the following details

1. File name
2. File size
3. File type
4. Date and time of creation
5. Storage location or path

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6. File attributes
File path

A file path or file directory specifies a unique location of a particular file in a file
system.

e.g. C:\My Documents\BOT\Submath.doc

1. C: is the root directory

2. \My Documents\ is the directory (folder)
3. \BOT\ is the subfolder
4. \Submath.doc is the file
A file path or directory can consist of location of file, user profile, folder,
subfolder(s), file name and file type

e.g. D:\ guest\ mydocuments\submath\S6results.doc

1. D: is the location
2. \guest\ is the user profile
3. \mydocuments\ is a folder
4. \submath\ is the sub folder
5. \S.6results.doc is the file
File backup

This is the activity that involves creating copies of files away from the computer,
which can later be accessed or retrieved.

Importance of creating a backup.

1. To recover from data loss in case of accidental deletion, data theft, data
corruption or catastrophe
2. To safely store data away from computer
3. To ensure disaster data recovery plan
Forms of file Backup

There are two forms of creating a backup

1. Local backup (offline backup)

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 This is backup made usually on external storage devices such as flash disks,
memory cards, external hard disks, compact disks (CDs) or Digital Versatile
Disks (DVDs), magnetic tapes etc.
2. Back up on cloud (Online backup)
This is backup mainly on a network such as the internet. Note that there are
many online companies that can offer this service for you.
The desktop environment

When you start windows, the large coloured area you see on the screen background
is called a desktop. The desktop is the entire screen except for the bar (task bar) at
the bottom. It consists of features mainly short cuts such as my computer, recycle
bin, web browsers, etc.

An icon.

This is the smallest graphical or pictorial representation of several commands, an

application, a shortcut, etc. An icon may represent a file, a folder program,
hardware utility, printer, disk drives etc.

The major icons on the desktop include:

1. My computer
2. Recycle bin
3. Network places (Network)
4. My document
My computer.

My computer allows the user to explorer the contents of their computer drives as
well as manages their computer files.

Recycle bin (trash).

This is a temporary storage for files that have been deleted in a file manager by the
user, but not yet permanently erased from the file system.

My Network places

My Network places renamed as Network on the desktop displays shortcuts to

shared computers, printers and other resources on the network.

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My Network places folder also contains hyperlinks to tasks and locations on your
computer. These links can help you view your network connections, add shortcuts
to Network places, and send files to recycle bin.

My document.

This is the name of the special folder on the computer’s hard drive that the system
commonly uses to store a user’s documents, music, pictures, downloads and other
files.

The My document folder is your personal folder in which you can store your
documents, graphics, and other personal files.

NB: To open an icon on the desktop, simply double click on it

Parts of the desktop.

The start button.

This is located on the left side of the task bar. When clicked, it opens the start
menu which is the primary access to the programs, utilities and settings that are
available in windows

The task bar.

This is located at the bottom of the screen and contains the active tasks, which are
icons and titles of programs that are running on the computer or folders are open.
The task bar also holds the start button on the left and the notification area on the
right.

The notification area.

This area contains the icons of special programs as well as the time of day. Many
of the programs running here are running in the background as you use other
applications. Examples: antivirus programs, instant messaging, security
applications, multimedia applications.

The start Menu.

This contains Icons for programs and folders, plus access to control functions and
other menus

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All programs:

This is a list of applications installed on the computer which can be started from
this list

SYSTEM CONFIGURATION

This refers to the process of setting specifications required for a computer to

properly be used.

Before buying a computer, it is important to understand the specification on it in

order to take what you like most.

SYSTEM SPECIFICATION (COMPUTER SYSTEM SELECTION)

HARDWARE CONSIDERATIONS

The main hardware factors to consider when selecting a computer system are the
type of CPU, processing speed, amount of main memory, storage capacity, user
needs and cost. In addition to this there are other things to consider such as
warranties, expansion and upgrade, portability and so on.

1. Processor type and Speed

The processing speed depends on the clock speed of the micro-processor and is
measured in MHZ ( Mega Hertz) that is million cycles per second.
The speed can also be measured in millions of instructions per second (MIPS)
were one instruction may be one or more cycles. The processing speed of small
computers ranges from 3-5 million instructions per second and the speed of
large computers can be 70 – 100 MIPS or more.

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2. Memory Capacity (Main Memory)
It is important to get the right amount of memory because the more the RAM
you have the better and faster the computer performs.
3. Secondary Storage Devices
The storage capacity is the amount of space that is available for storing data and
instructions required to manipulate the data
Larger computer systems tend to be equipped with higher storage capacities
than microcomputers due to the higher volume of data involved in such
systems.
4. Expansion and Upgrade
It is important to be aware of the expansion and upgrade on a PC. There are
some PCs that are not upgraded. The things that you can usually up grade on a
PC are as follows:
i. Ports
ii. RAM *(Random Access Memory)
iii. Hard disks
iv. DVD drive / CD ROM drive
v. USB port *(Universal Serial Port)
vi. Expansion slots
5. User Needs
The user needs focuses around what / the main reason for using the computer
system.
6. Cost
The cost of a computer is related to the size and the additional component that
may withstand a computer e.g. microcomputer price ranges from 700 – 1500,
laptops and note books tend to be expensive depending on their specification
such as a processor, RAM, hard disk, screen resolution, wireless connection,
expansion and upgrade, compatibility etc.
7. Compatibility
It is important to ensure that new computer system that are purchased can
interact with the existing hardware i.e. they are compatible.
8. Portability
If you have a lot and need to have access to your computer whenever you are on
your job then you need a computer that you can carry with you, in such
situation, you may need a lap top or hand held device depending on the power
and storage capacity requirement.
9. Warranty
When you buy a computer you do not expect it to break but sometimes things
may go wrong and it is advisable to have protection of the same kind.

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SOFTWARE CONSIDERATION

The primary condition when selecting software is suitable for a particular

application and is of a good standard however there are various factors that need to
be taken into consideration to ensure that we get the right software for a particular
application and these include the following:

1. Authenticity
When purchasing software it is important to get the original software that will
be supported by the developer. Authentic software will be licensed and is
provided by the user.
2. User Needs
The software should at least provide the major functions in situations where it is
difficult to find the package that meets the user requirements a bespoke
requirements / may need to be developed.
3. User Friendliness
In addition to meet the user requirements software must be user friendly if the
software is not easy to use there is a huge chance it is not to be used at all.
4. The System Requirements
These are basically the hardware specifications required to run a particular
program. These requirements are usually indicated on the package e.g. you need
a minimum of 16 MB of RAM to run an access database but 32 MB is
recommended
5. Cost
The cost of software application is a major contributing factor in deciding
whether to purchase it or not it is usually cheaper to purchase general purposes
software and circumstances where it is able to meet the user requirements , it
the ideal solution.
6. Compatibility
When up grading software, it is essential that the upgrades are backward
compatible.
7. Portability
The ability to transfer data to/ from another package/ hardware platform is a
feature that is increasing becoming an important requirement for users.
8. Documentation
The documentation is important and should tell you whether the programs can
be used to solve your particular problem as well as provide the user with
assistance on using the program.

COMPUTER PARTS

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A typical computer system comprises of a keyboard and mouse for entering data
into a computer, a system unit which houses the processor, storage and power
supply, a display unit *(monitor) and a printer for making print out

1. System unit.
This is the part that houses the brain of the computer central processing unit
(CPU). The system unit also houses other devices called drive. Drives are used
to store, record and read data. The computer system unit is made up of the
internal components like motherboard, memory chips (RAM, ROM),
microprocessor (CPU), Expansion slots, Adapter cards, cooling systems (fans),
ports and connectors, storage drives (HDD, FDD, ODD), data buses and
internal cables
2. The keyboard.
This is the most common peripheral device that enables a user to enter data and
instructions in a computer
3. The mouse.
This is the pointing device that enables the users to execute commands. It is
used to control the arrow displayed on the screen.

4. The monitor
This is a television like device used to display information. It is called a monitor
because it enables the user to monitor or see what is going on in the computer.
5. PRINTER
Monitors suffix for many interactive applications but a permanent record of the
out put on paper may be needed. Printers are used to create the hard copies or
paper copies or as out put.

CONNECTION AND SETUP OF HARWARE COMPONENTS

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CONNECTION PORTS

1. PARALLEL PORTS
This port is commonly used to connect a printer
2. SERIAL PORTS
This port is typically used to connect an external modem
3. UNIVERSAL SERIAL BUS *(USB)
Quickly becoming the most popular external connection, USB ports offer power
and versatility and are easy to use.
4. Fire wire (Jeee 1394)
Fire wire is a very popular method of connecting digital devices e.g. digital
camera to your computer connections, internet, and network.

CONNECTING BASIC COMPUTER COMPONENTS

You are provided with the following computer hardware parts and other electrical
accessories.

i. AC mains socket outlets

ii. Uninterruptable Power Supply (UPS)
iii. UPS power cable
iv. System unit
v. System unit power cable
vi. Monitor
vii. Monitor power cable
viii. Mouse
ix. Keyboard
x. VGA cable
a) Describe how they can be assembled to make a complete functioning computer.
b) Outline the logical order of switching on the computer system assembled in (a)
Solution

 Fix the VGA cable to the monitor and the system unit such that there is
connection between them.
 Attach both the keyboard and mouse to the system unit by plugging to their
respective ports
 Attach the system unit power cable to the system unit
 Attach the monitor power cable to the monitor
 Attach the UPS power cable to the UPS.
 Fix both the power cables from the system unit and the monitor such that they
make connections with the UPS.

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 Fix the power cable from the UPS to the AC mains socket outlet.

FORMATTING DISK

This refers to the process of preparing the disk for reading and writing of data by
organizing the disk into storage location called tracks and sectors.

WHEN DO WE NEED TO FORMAT A DISK?

1. When the disk fails to open

2. When the disk fails to copy or move files
3. Before the first recording of data is done in case of a compact disk or floppy
disk
4. When the disk space is full
5. In case of virus infection
6. When the operating system becomes corrupted on the hard disk
7. During fresh installation of OS

SYSTEM INSTALLATION

Program installation is the process of setting up a program on a computer to be

able to use it.

REASONS FOR INSTALLATION OF SOFTWARE

1. In case of a plug in. A plug in is a set of software components that adds specific
capabilities to a large software application
2. When the program previously installed is corrupted
3. If there is need to upgrade an old version of program
4. Installation of drivers in case a new device is attached to the computer
5. In case of new application package in the market.

INSTALLING SYSTEM SOFTWARE

Things you will need

1. A computer
2. Disk with an OS
3. Some basic knowledge
4. Working second PC in case something goes wrong helps

PROCEDURE

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1. Decide what you would like to do. Are you going to reinstall your OS cause of
problems, upgrading your current version or are you installing an OS in a new
computer, make sure you have the new OS install program.
2. Back up your data. if you are reinstalling your OS it is likely that you need to
wipe the disk. Backup your data before doing so cause everything on the disk
will be destroyed
3. Boot up and enter the boot menu the owner’s manual for your computer or
motherboard should have instructions on how to use it.
4. Start installing, it may take the install program a few minutes to load, it is
normal. Once it has loaded, follow the on screen instructions.
5. Sit back and relax. The installer may ask you for some info while it is installing
but for the most part, just waiting is okay.
6. Enter the product ID. If you are installing a consumer operating system like
windows, it will probably require you to enter a product ID. Look at the back of
the CD case of the product.
7. Reboot. Once you reboot, the computer will finalize everything and log you in.
at this point, you may need to install drivers. Insert any disks that came with
your computers or its parts that are NOT an OS, and allow the drivers to be
installed [ if necessary]
8. Allows updates. This is especially important in windows without antivirus
software while on the web

TROUBLE SHOOTING ON COMPUTER.

Trouble shooting is a form of problem solving, often applied to repair failed

products or processes. It is logical, systematic search for the source of a problem so
that it can be solved, and so the product or process can be made operational again.

Basic Troubleshooting Steps

1. Close open programs and windows you are not currently using.
2. Make sure all of your cords are connected properly.
3. Try to repeat the sequence of commands you performed before the problem
occurred. See if this causes the same response by your computer.
4. Press the F1 key to access the Help window. You can search for a solution to
your problem once the Help window appears.
5. If there is an error message, record the full message for future reference.
6. Restart your computer to see if it clears the problem. To restart your computer,
open the start window and select the Restart button instead of the Log Off
button.

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7. If restarting the computer does not clear the problem, shut down the computer
and then start it back up again.
8. If the issue is still not resolved, check the common technology issues below or
call your system administrator.
TROUBLESHOOTING COMMON TECHNOLOGY ISSUES

Issue: The printer is not working.

 Check if the printer is turned on. If not, turn it on and try again.
 Check if the printer has paper. If not, put paper in the paper tray and try printing
again.
 Check if the printer has a paper jam. If so, remove the paper, close the printer,
and try printing again.
 Ensure that all printer cables are properly connected.
 Turn off the printer and turn on again.
 Check to see if a new printer driver is needed. Do this by going to the
manufacturer’s website to search for your printer model and checking for any
updated driver. Seek assistance from your system administrator before
installing any drivers.
Issue: The computer is frozen. A program is not responding.

 Push the Ctrl, Alt, and Delete keys at the same time. Then, start the Task
Manager, highlight the program’s name, and hit the End Task button.
 Perform a hard reboot by simply pressing the on/off button to turn off the
computer manually. This action should only be done as a last resort if you have
an unresponsive program or critical error. This process could cause data loss or
corruption.
 Once the computer is not responding again, run a virus check.
Issue: The keyboard is not working.

 Make sure the keyboard is connected to the computer. If not, connect it to the
computer.
 If you are using a wireless keyboard, try changing the batteries.
 If one of the keys on your keyboard gets stuck, turn the computer off and clean
with a damp cloth.
 Use the mouse to restart the computer.
Issue: New hardware or software is working incorrectly.

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 Verify your computer meets the requirements of the program or utility.
 Uninstall and install the program.
 There could be a conflict with another installed program and you should contact
your system administrator.
Issue: The mouse is not working correctly.

 Check if the mouse is securely plugged into the computer. If not, plug it in
completely.
 Check to see if the cord has been damaged. If so, the mouse may need
replacing.
 If you are using a cordless mouse, try pushing the connection button on the
underside of the mouse to reestablish a connection.
 Clean the mouse, especially on the bottom.
Issue: The computer is slow.

 Free some space where necessary. There should be at least 200-500 MB of free
hard drive space. I.e. empty your recycle bin, Images and videos take up a lot
of space, so consider moving those to an external drive, Remove temporary
files from the Internet, Perform a disk cleanup.
 Run a virus scan to remove potential viruses that can slow down your computer.
 Check and disable some background programs.
 Restart your computer.
 Defragment your disks.
SERVICING AND MAINTENANCE OF COMPUTER SYSTEMS
Computer servicing is the regular inspection and updating of software and
hardware to ensure the computer system keeps working at a desired level of
performance.
Computer repair is the troubleshooting and diagnosis of problems that
exist on a computer and taking the necessary corrective actions to resolve
these problems. The issue could be a hardware or software problem.
Importance of servicing and maintaining a computer

• Early Detection of Issues: Having regular maintenance check done on your

computer can eradicate small issues before they become big problems like disk
failure.
• Prevention against Viruses and Malware: Regular maintenance can also
help you ensure your antivirus software is up-to-date and working properly and
keep both viruses and malware away.

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• Speeding up Computer performance: Computer maintenance involves
optimization checks that can pinpoint issues and keep your computer running at
an optimal speed.
• Maximizing Software Efficiency for Productivity: Maintenance on your
computer involves having all software up to date and running perfectly.
• Preventing Data Loss: However, keeping your computer maintained will
lessen the likelihood of system / disk failure instances and keep your data safe
and secure for when you need to access it.
• Extending computer Life: Maintaining hardware helps to extend the
computer's lifespan. It helps to prevent wear and tear, and keeps the system
functioning smoothly.
Cleaning of computers

The area of emphasis here is to keep area and computer system as a whole clean
and dust free.

Cleaning the system unit:

1. Turn off the computer and then unplug it from the power source
2. Using the head screw driver and nut driver, open the computer casing
3. With the system in vertical format,
 Blow out the dust that has built within the system mechanism
 Clean both the removed outer casing and main casing of the system using
damp cleaning cloth and then using a dry cloth wipe down the residual
water remains on the casing
 Wait for some time for both parts of the casing to dry and allow the
remains of the water to evaporate
4. Re-fix the computer casing
5. Test the system to ensure whether it is in its normal working state.
Cleaning the monitor:

1. Using a dampened cloth and detergent, wipe the casing of the monitor and its
screen until it is clean enough
2. Wipe down the remains of water using a dry clean cloth until every part is dry
3. Test the system to ensure it is in its normal working state.
Cleaning the keyboard

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1. With the keyboard in a vertical position and using compressed air, blow the
surface of the keyboard including the keys area.
2. Also clean the other parts of the keyboard surface using dampened cloth
3. Using the dry-cleaning cloth, wipe down the remaining elements of the residual
water
4. Leave the keyboard for some time to ensure that it is dry
Cleaning the mouse

 Use glass cleaner and soft cloth to clean the outside of the mouse. Do not spray
glass cleaner directly on the mouse
Cleaning the working area/ surface.

1. Use a dampened cloth to clean the table surface on which the computer system
is laid
2. Wipe the area using a dry cloth
Preventive measures taken during the cleaning process

1. Ensure proper handling of the computer such that the components do not loosen
up
2. Before cleaning or repairing the equipment, check to make sure that your tools
are in good working condition
3. After cleaning process of the monitor surface, plug back the power cord safely
4. Never use a vacuum cleaner inside a computer case or on a laptop keyboard
5. Little or minimal amount of water is used so that it does not drip inside the
monitor.

TOPIC 7: COMPUTER COMMUNICATION:

Communication is the exchange of messages between two or more people in the
same locality or in distant geographical locations.

Computer communication is the transfer of data/information between computers

and other devices on the network

Communications between computers can be as simple as cabling two computers to

the same printer.

Definition of terminologies

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A computer Network is a collection of two or more computers and devices
connected by channels so that they can communicate with each other and share
resources

Transmission This is the process through which the signals are broad cast/ sent
out through the medium to the receiving device.
Decoding
This is the process through which the signals are converted back into the
information in its original form in the receiving device.

Encoding This is the process through which Information (e.g. data, text, voice or
video) from the sending device is converted into signals which the communication
medium can carry.

Telecommunication refers to transmission of data and information over a long-

distance, eg television
Teleprocessing: This refers to access and modification of computer files located
elsewhere.
Downloading: To download is to transfer a file to your computer from another.
Uploading means to transfer a file from your computer to another.

Throughput refers to the rate of how much data is moved during a certain amount
of time.

Data Encryption This is Process of converting data into coded form (cypher text)
to prevent it from being read or understood by unauthorized people.
Encrypted data is difficult to decode without a secret key
Communications Software This refers to a set of instructions (software) needed
by a computer before it starts sending and receiving data from other computers.
Importance of computer communication
1. It allows sharing of hardware like printers.
2. It allows sharing of software between two or more computers, hence reducing
on cost.
3. It allows sharing and transfer of data and information stored on other computers
on the network.
4. Facilitate communications between people e.g. through electronic-mail, Mobile
phones, etc.
5. Computer communication has security & tight control measures over data
access.
6. It enables online learning and collaborative research.

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7. It allows access to common databases for example in banks.
Limitations of computer communication
1. Data theft. If a computer is a standalone, physical access becomes necessary for
any kind of data theft. However, if a computer is on a network, a computer
hacker can get illegal access.
2. Rapid Spread of Computer Viruses: If any computer system in a network gets
infected by computer virus, there is a possible threat of other systems getting
infected.
3. Expensive Set Up: The initial set up cost of a computer network can be high
depending on the number of computers to be connected.
4. Dependency on the Main File Server: In case the main File Server of a
computer network breaks down, the system becomes useless.
5. Exposure to External Exploits. Someone on a different computer can send data
to the computer in such a way as to attack it - make it lock up or crash, make it
slow down, or even take control of it.
6. Automatic Downloads. If a computer is connected to a network, it's easier to
download and install software from the network onto the computer without any
human intervention. If the new software hasn't been tested, it could cause
unpredictable behavior.
7. Computer Networks can Fail. Computer networks can be so powerful and
useful that it is very vital for them to be used. All of the computers in an office
building might become completely useless if a single network component fails.

ELEMENTS OF COMPUTER COMMUNICATION

These are the prerequisites for data communication to occur. i.e. what must first be
in place They include;
1. A sender. This is the source device used to create the message to be
transmitted. It can be a computer, fax machine, or mobile phone.
2. A receiver. This is the device that accepts the signals from the sender. It can be
a computer, telephone handset, or fax machine.
3. Transmission medium. This carries the message from one point (sender) to
another (receiver). The medium can be wireless or physical (wired) medium.
4. Message. This is the Information to be communicated which may be in the
form of text, pictures, audio, or video data.
5. Protocol. Set of rules that govern the way data is communicated from the
sender to the receiver.

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Transmission Modes

1. Asynchronous transmission Asynchronous transmission transmits one byte at

a time over a line at random intervals.
2. Synchronous transmission Synchronous transmission transmits groups of
bytes simultaneously at regular intervals.
3. Simplex transmission. It is a mode of data transmission where data moves in
only one direction. The receiving device cannot respond to the message.
Examples include radio and television broadcasts, Data transmission from a
computer to a printer.

4. Half duplex transmission. It is a mode of data transmission where data travels

in both directions but in one direction at a time. An example is radio calls used
by the police and army.

5. Full duplex transmission. It is a mode of data transmission where data travels

in both directions at the same time. This is a form of communication exhibited
in mobile phones and modern computers.

Data transmission media

Refers to the means or device by which a communication signal is carried from
one system to another.

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Data transmission media are of two types;

1. Physical transmission media (guided transmission media)

2. Wireless transmission media (Unguided transmission media).

PHYSICAL TRANSMISSION MEDIA

This refers to data transmission media where data signals are transmitted through a
physical pathway. Types of physical transmission media or network cables are;
twisted pair cables, coaxial cables and fibre optic cables

Twisted Pair Cable

Is a pair of copper wires, twisted together and wrapped with a plastic

coating. The twisting increases the electrical noise immunity, and reduces
the bit error rate of the data transmission.
Twisted pair cable gets its name from the fact that its two wires have two
twists per foot. They consist of one or more twisted pair wires bundled
together. Twisted pair cables are of two types:
a) Shielded twisted pair (STP)
b) Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP)
- Shielded Twisted Pair (STP) cable consists of two separate insulated copper
wire that are twisted together to reduce noise. STPs are used in environment
susceptible to noise, such as a local area network.
- Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP) does not have this metal wrapper for
shielding cables against noise.

Advantages of twisted pair cables include:

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 1. They are easy to install
2. It has higher mobility and flexibility
3. It is inexpensive compared to coaxial and fiber
optic cable.

Disadvantages of twisted pair cables include:

1. It suffers high attenuation

2. It can be easily tapped, especially the UTP
3. It is easily affected noise and EMR
4. It has a low data transmission speed

Coaxial Cable

These cables are widely used for cable television systems, office buildings, and
other worksites for local area networks. Transmission speed range from 200
million to more than 500 million bits per second.

Advantages of Coaxial Cable

1. It is very stable even when under high loads

2. It has a large band width, i.e. up to 1 Gbps.
3. It is more resistant to radio and EMR interference
4. It can carry voice, data & video signals simultaneously
5. It suffers low attenuation.

Disadvantages of Coaxial Cable

1. Thick coaxial cable is hard to work with, i.e. not easy to install because it is
bulky
2. It is relatively expensive to buy and install as compared to twisted pair

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 3. There is attenuation during data transmission

Fiber Optics

These cables consist of one or more thin filaments of glass fiber wrapped in a
protective layer. It transmits light which can travel over long distance and higher
bandwidths. Fiber-optic cables are not affected by electromagnetic radiation.
Transmission speed could go up to as high as trillions of bits per second. The speed
of fiber optics is hundreds of times faster than coaxial cables and thousands of
times faster than twisted-pair wire.

Advantages of Fibre Optic Cables

1. They are fast at data transmission
2. They can be used for long distances because they suffer low attenuation
3. They provide better security for signals during transmission as they cannot
be tapped
4. They are small, thin, and lighter than wire cables thus easier to work with.
5. They do not suffer from corrosion
6. It is immune to electromagnetic interference, external noise and
eavesdropping

Disadvantages of Fibre Optic Cable

1. Connectivity devices and the media are expensive
2. Installation is difficult. It must be carefully handled
3. It is relatively complex to configure
4. A broken cable is difficult and expensive to repair
5. It has a limited physical arc. It easily breaks when bent

WIRELESS TRANSMISSION MEDIA

These use wireless technology to transmit data from the sending to the receiving
device. Examples of wireless transmission media include; broadcast radio

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transmission, Bluetooth, microwave systems, satellite transmission, antenna,
infrared transmission. The connection between the sending and receiving device is
wireless. Examples of devices which use such transmission media include;
computers, printers, scanners, keyboards, mobile phones, radio and television
broadcasters.

BLUETOOTH

Is a standard for the short-range wireless interconnection of cellular phones,

computers and other electronic devices. It is managed by the Bluetooth Special
Interest Group (SIG).Products containing Bluetooth technology (Bluetooth enabled
devices) include; computers, headsets, keyboards, mice, printers, mobile phones,
digital cameras, and some GPS units

BROADCAST RADIO MEDIA

This transmits signals by converting them into radio waves which are then
transmitted in space towards the destination and intercepted by the receiving
antenna. Radio waves are not a line of sight transmission; therefore, they are not
affected by the presence of objects between the transmitter and receiver. Radio
waves range from frequencies of 10 KHz to about 1 GHz on the electromagnetic
spectrum. It is broken into many bands including the AM (amplitude modulation)
band, FM (frequency modulation) band, and VHF (very high frequency) band for
television broadcasting.

MICROWAVE TRANSMISSION
This refers to the technology of conveying information by the use of
electromagnetic waves whose wavelength is between one millimetre and one
metre, i.e.by using microwaves. Microwave transmission requires line of sight in
order to work properly because it is a point-to-point connection, i.e. the signals
must be transmitted in a straight line without obstacles such as buildings, forests or
mountains. The distance covered by microwave signals is based upon the height of
the antenna.

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SATELLITE TRANSMISSION

A satellite is a communication device stationed in the space that receives radio

wave or micro wave signals from an earth based station, amplifies them and
rebroadcasts them over a wide area to many earth based stations. Satellites are
capable of receiving and relaying voice, data, and TV signals to and from earth
based stations that use parabolic antennas (satellite dishes) to communicate with
the satellites. Satellite transmission allows lots of data to be sent simultaneously.
They also allow high quality communication across the continent. However, they
are extremely expensive to install and maintain.

INFRARED TRANSMISSION

This is the transmission of data by converting them into infrared signals which are
then transmitted in space towards the destination and intercepted by the receiving
device. Infrared signals are transmitted across short distances to transmit data
between personal devices, like, a printer and computer. Infrared can be either
beamed between two points or broadcast from one point to many receivers. It is
limited to the line of sight. Infrared emitters include; Laser diodes, used in optical
fibre and LED

Laser-Light Amplification by Simulation of Emitted Radiation: LED-Light

Emitting Diodes

COMPUTER NETWORK

Computer network is a connection of two or more computers for data and resource
sharing purposes. The resources on a network include; files and folders, printers,
programs, fax machines, modems.

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Types of Computer Networks

Computer networks can be classified according to the size of area covered by that
network. This includes:
1. Personal Area Network (PAN)
2. Local Area Network (LAN)
3. Campus Area Network (CAN)
4. Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)
5. Wide Area Network (WAN)
PAN is a computer network used for communication among computer devices
close to one person e.g. printers, fax machines, telephones, or scanners.
LAN is a network covering a small geographical area, like a home, office, or
building.
CAN it’s a network that connects two or more LANs but that is limited to a
specific geographical area such as a college campus, industrial complex or military
base.
MAN is a network that connects two or more Local Area Networks or Campus
Area Networks together but does not extend beyond the boundaries of the
immediate town, city, or metropolitan area.
WAN is a network that covers a large geographical area such as a country or
continent.
Internetwork. This is where two or more networks are connected through devices
such as a router. There are three types of internetwork. They include;

o Intranet. Is a private network within an organization

o Extranet. is an extension of an intranet - used even outside the organization.
o Internet. Is a world-wide interconnection of governmental, academic, public,
and private computer networks based upon the networking technologies of

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 Internet Protocol Suite.

NETWORK MODELS
A Network model refers to the functional relationships which exist among the
elements of the network. There are two network models, namely; Client-server
network model and Peer-to-peer network model.

PEER-TO-PEER NETWORK
It is a network model in which resources and files are shared without a centralised
management source. All computers on this network are equal and the direction of
flow of resources is not defined.

(Illustration).

Advantages of Peer-to-Peer Network

1. It is very cheap to set up and maintain
2. It is appropriate in case a small network is required
3. It enables easy sharing of resources
4. It is flexible
Disadvantages of Peer-to-Peer Network
1. There is limited security due to absence of a server
2. There is no central administration.
3. There is no central repository for network resources
4. It is not appropriate for big networks

CLIENT-SERVER NETWORK
Is network model that consists of requesting computers called clients, and
supplying devices that provide services, called servers. A client/workstation is a
computer attached to a network to receive services from the server. Aserver is a
powerful computer that runs the network operating system and manages resources
on a network.

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TYPES OF SERVERS
1. File server. This is a computer that stores various files and makes them
available to network users
2. Print server. A central computer that manages a networked printer from a
single location on the network.
3. Application server. This is a computer that stores application programs and
makes them available to network users
4. Web server. A computer that hosts websites and delivers web pages requested
by the users on the network. It is permanently connected to the internet so that
other people can surf all the time.
5. Mail server. Manages mails by receiving, forwarding and storing mails on the
network
6. Database server. Is a computer that hosts the database and allows access to
database on the network
7. Proxy server. Is a computer that acts as an intermediary for requests from
clients seeking resources from other servers.
8. FTPserver is a computer that allows users to upload and download files using
FTP.

(illustration).

Advantages of Client-Server Network

1. It offers a reliable centralised storage, management and sharing of resources
2. It ensures high security of the network through access controls installed on the
server
3. It is easy to monitor the network performance
4. It is easy to identify and rectify network problem

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5. It is cheap to install software which can be done on the server alone instead of
all computers on the network
6. Accessibility. Servers can be accessed remotely and across multiple platforms
7. Scalability. Any or all elements can be replaced individually as need arises
8. Flexibility. New technology can be easily integrated into the system.

Disadvantages of Client-Server Network

1. It is expensive to set up, requires a high initial investment in a dedicated server
2. High maintenance costs. Large networks require staff (network administrator)
to ensure efficient operation
3. The server is one point of failure. In case the server fails to work, the whole
network comes to a standstill.
4. It is difficult to set up and configure compared to a peer-to-peer network model

Advantage of Computer Networks

1. File sharing: It allows file sharing and remote file access. A person sitting at
one workstation of a network can easily see the files present on the other
workstation, provided he is authorized to do so.
2. Sharing of peripheral devices: All computers in the network can share devices
such as printers, fax machines, modems and scanners.
3. Software sharing: Software can be installed in one server computer that can be
used by the different work stations instead of purchasing a copy for each
computer.
4. Communication: People on the network can communicate with each other via
electronic mail over the network system. When connected to the internet,
network users can communicate with people around the world via the network.
5. Workgroup computing: Workgroup software enables many users to contribute
to a document concurrently. This allows for interactive teamwork.

Disadvantages of computer Network

1. Insecurity of Information: If a computer is on a network, a computer

hacker can get unauthorized access of information by using different tools.
2. Rapid Spread of Computer Viruses: If any computer system in a network
gets affected by computer virus, there is a possible threat of other computers
getting affected too.
3. Expensive Set Up: The initial set up cost can be high depending on the
number of computers to be connected. Devices like switches, routers, hubs,

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 etc are always expensive.
4. Failure of the Server: In case the main File Server of a computer network
breaks down, the whole system becomes useless.

BASIC REQUIREMENTS FOR SETTING UP A NETWORK

1. Computers with good specifications, e.g. good processor speed, high RAM
capacity, and with a NIC.
2. Communication devices such as; Modems, routers, switches, hubs,
3. Communication software such as; web browsers, internet protocols and NOS.
4. Data transmission media such as; cables, wireless antenna, telephone line.

COMMUNICATION DEVICES
Are devices that enable two or more terminal devices to communicate with each
other. Examples include;
1. Network interface card (NIC). This is a piece of computer hardware that
allows computers to communicate over a computer network. It is also known as
Network Adapter.
2. Hub. This is a network device that connects a large number of devices and
broadcasts received data to all the devices attached on the same network. It is
also called a concentrator.
3. Switch. This is a network device that connects a large number of devices onto a
network. A switch forwards a packet directly to the address of the network
device it is intended for without broadcasting.
4. Bridge. Is a device that connects two LANs which use the same protocol, such
as the Ethernet. A bridge can forward data from one LAN to another, and can
filter out data not intended for the destination LAN.
5. Repeater. It is an electronic device that receives a weak signal and retransmits
it at a higher power level to travel over a long distance. A repeater is a device
that has single input and output ports, and makes it possible for signals to be
amplified or regenerated for long distance transmission.
6. Router. It’s a device that connects networks together, e.g. LAN to WAN to
access the internet.
Router operates by extracting the destination of a packet it receives, selects the
best path to the destination and forwards data to the next device along that path
7. Gateway. Is a hardware or software that is used to connect networks that use
different protocols, e.g. a LAN and WAN

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8. Multiplexer. Is a communication device that combines two or more input
signals from various devices into a single stream of data and then transmits it
over a single transmission medium.
9. Modem (modulator/demodulator). Is a communication device that coverts
digital signals into analog signals and vice-versa over a communication channel
(e.g. a telephone line).

The process of converting digital signals into analog form for transmission over
a communication channel is called Modulation. This is done by the modem
connected to the device sending the signals.

The process of converting analog signals back to digital form so that they can
be understood by the receiving computer is called Demodulation. This is done
by the modem on the device receiving the signals.

FACTORS TO CONSIDER WHEN SETTING UP A COMPUTER

NETWORK
1. Ease of installation. It should be easy and cheap to setup the network.
2. Ease of use. It should be easy to send and receive data on the network.
3. Performance. It should support more users with negligible reduction in
performance. It should have a low failure rate. It should have no or minimal
data loss after a network failure.
4. Compatibility. The devices to be used to setup a network should be compatible.
5. Scalability. It should be possible to add or remove devices on the network
without adversely affecting it.
6. It should not require too much memory to operate
7. Security. The network should provide utmost security to the devices and its
resources
8. Maintenance costs. It should be easy and cheap to maintain.
9. It should have high bandwidth to ensure that data transmission speeds are high

NETWORK PROTOCOLS
This refers to a set of rules and procedures governing transmission between
components in a computer network.

COMMON PROTOCOLS

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1. Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP) - an internet protocol for transferring of
e-mails.
2. File Transfer Protocol (FTP): It allows files containing text, programs, graphics,
numerical data, and so on to be downloaded off or uploaded onto a network.
3. Internet Protocol (IP) - does the packet forwarding and routing.
4. Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol (TCP/IP) is a network standard
that defines how messages (data) are routed from one end of a network to the
other, ensuring the data arrives correctly.
5. Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) - responsible for delivery of data over the
network.
6. Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP): It allows Web browsers and servers to
send and receive Web pages.
7. Simple Network Management Protocol (SNMP): It allows the management of
networked nodes to be managed from a single point.
8. Telnet Protocol: It provides terminal emulation that allows a personal computer
or workstation to act as a terminal, or access device, for a server.
9. Sequential Packet Exchange (IPX/SPX) - works with the Novell's internet work'
packet / sequential exchange; responsible for delivery of sequential data over
the network

NETWORK TOPOLOGY
This refers to the way in which computers and other devices are arranged on the
network and how data moves from one device to another on the network. Network
topology is divided into two categories; logical network topology and physical
network topology.

LOGICAL NETWORK TOPOLOGY

This is also called signal topology. It refers to the way data moves from one device
to another on the network. There are two types of logical topology.
1. Ethernet or broadcast. Is when all computers listen to the network
transmission media when one computer is sending data. Ethernet is based on a
bus topology
2. Token ring. This uses a token to transmit data from one device to another on a
network. The token is an electronic envelope where data is placed and

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 addressed to a particular device on the network and then returns in the ring.
Token ring is based on ring topology and star topology.
PHYSICAL NETWORK TOPOLOGY
This is the physical arrangement of cables, computers and other devices in relation
to each other on the network. Examples of physical network topologies include;
ring topology, linear bus topology, star topology, tree topology, mesh topology,
hybrid topology.

BUS TOPOLOGY
This is a topology where all computers and other devices are connected to a single
central cable called bus. There is no central server. Data can be transmitted in both
directions but only one device can send at a time.

Advantages of Bus Topology Disadvantages of Bus Topology

1. It is less expensive due to less 1. It is difficult to administer and
cable length required. trouble shoot
2. It is good for low transmission 2. It has limited cable length and
speed networks number of workstations
3. It has a high transmission speed if 3. If the main cable breaks, the entire
coaxial cable is used. network is disabled.
4. It is easy to add new computers on 4. Performance degrades as more
the network computers are added
5. Failure of one device does not 5. Terminators are required at both
affect others ends of the bus

STAR TOPOLOGY

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Is a topology designed with each device on the network connected directly to a
central network hub or switch such that data from a device passes through the hub
or switch before continuing to its destination

Advantages of Star Topology 1. Failure of a hub or switch leads to

1. It is suitable for large networks entire network failure
2. It is easy to add or remove devices 2. It is difficult to set up and
3. Failure of a cable or node does not configure
affect entire network 3. It is expensive to set up.
4. It is easy to install, maintain and 4. All communications are through
troubleshoot the server.
5. Cabling types can be mixed to 5. Performance degrade as additional
maximise efficiency computers are added
6. The speed of data transmission is 6. Maintenance cost may be higher in
high the long run.

Disadvantages of Star Topology

RING TOPOLOGY
This is a topology where each device on the network is connected directly to one
another in the shape of a closed loop or ring.

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Advantages of Ring Topology Disadvantages of Ring Topology
1. It is easy to set up and cheaper to 1. Adding or removing a device can
install disrupt entire network
2. No data collision since signal flow 2. Failure of one workstation affects
is in one direction. the entire network
3. Each node acts as a repeater. This 3. It is difficult to troubleshoot
reduces attenuation 4. It is fairly slow as data pass
4. Growth of the network has through a number of nodes before
minimal impact on the reaching its destination
performance of the network

MESH TOPOLOGY
This is a topology where each device has its own direct link to each of all the other
devices on the network. It is the most common type of topology used in WANs,
where there are many paths between different locations

Advantages of Mesh Topology

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1. It provides each device with a point-to-point connection to every other device in
the network.
2. Damage of one or a few cables or computers may not have a vital impact on
performance of the network.

Disadvantages of Mesh Topology

1. It requires more cables to setup mesh topology compared to other topologies
2. It is very expensive and difficult to maintain since all devices are connected to
each other

TREE or HIERARCHICAL TOPOLOGY

This combines characteristics of linear bus and star topologies. It consists of

groups of star-configured workstations connected to a linear bus backbone cable.

Advantages of Tree Topology

1. It is supported by several hardware

2. It is suitable for large networks
3. It is easy to add or remove devices or segments
4. Cabling types can be mixed to maximise efficiency
5. It supports point-to-point wiring of individual segments of the network
6. If one cable or station, or segment fails, the entire network is not affected

Disadvantages of Tree Topology

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1. Segment length is limited by the type of cable used
2. The entire segment fails when the backbone line breaks.
3. It is more difficult to setup than other topologies
4. Performance degrades as it is expanded
5. It is expensive to set up due to increased cabling costs and other devices like
switch or hub
6. The backbone cable can get congested as all communications must pass through
it

FACTORS TO CONSIDER WHEN CHOOSING A

NETWORKTOPOLOGY

1. The purpose and safety provisions of the network you want to build
2. The architecture of the building to be used
3. The distance of connectivity
4. Simplicity of the topology.
5. Length of cable and other devices needed.
6. Cost of installation.
7. Future growth.

THE INTERNET:

The term internet refers to the global interconnection of computer networks for the
purpose of communication and resource sharing.

ADVANTAGES/ BENEFITS/ POSITIVE IMPLICATIONS OF THE

INTERNET

1. Research. Internet provides access to vast amount of research materials

including resources from electronic libraries, research institutions, among
others.
2. E-commerce. The internet offers a very effective way of online banking, online
advertising, online buying and selling of products all over the world.
3. Online learning. The internet provides distance education and home schooling
through a process known as virtual reality. Learning through interaction with
special programs on the computer is called e-learning.

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4. Mass media. Internet users can get latest news where by most of the major
news sites are updated all the time. Examples of news sites include; BBC,
CNN, Aljazeera, Daily Monitor, New Vision, among others.
5. Health. The internet provides latest medical news and research; it provides
users with medical information about the different diseases. It also promotes
medical care through online health care and medication.
6. Entertainment. Internet users can listen to music, watch video clips, full
videos and play games on the web
7. Downloading and uploading. The internet simplifies sharing and transfer of
large volumes of data of all types through uploading and downloading of the
required files.
8. Telecommuting. This refers to working from home, by making use of internet
services to access your work place. Using the internet, one can carry out office
work from anywhere away from the office.
9. Employment. It also offers a variety of online jobs among others which
include; data entry, web masters.
10.Communities. Communities of all types have sprung up on the internet. It is a
great way to meet up with people of similar interest in different geographical
locations, e.g. on social media like: Facebook, Google+
11.Collaborative accomplishment of a task. Using applications like groupware, a
group of people can collaboratively accomplish a given task, say working on a
project, writing a book, collecting information
12.Communication. The internet provides cheap, reliable, and instant
communication services to the users, like; email, videoconferencing,
teleconferencing, instant messaging, chat rooms, newsgroups, among others

DISADVANTAGES OF USING THE INTERNET

1. There is no privacy of information since information piracy and hacking are

common
2. There is no information control over the internet. All sorts of bad data files can
be published and accessed
3. Services on the internet are limited to only internet literates and those who can
meet internet costs
4. The cost of connecting to the internet is high in terms of subscription.

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5. There is wastage of time where internet speed is low due to poor links,
hardware and congestion.
6. Time wasting occurs when people easily stray into non-essential materials
7. Computer viruses are easily spread over the internet.
8. Cybercrimes like; fraud, phishing, child pornography, piracy and cyber bulling,
are easily committed
9. It leads to isolation of man
10.Users can become addicted to the internet, for example, addiction to online
games, online videos, social media like Facebook, Twitter, which divert the
internet users from productive activities
11.Prolonged use of the internet leads to health hazards like eye strain, backache,
and headache. This is due to electromagnetic radiation light rays from the
monitor, poor sitting posture etc.
12.The internet leads to loss of cultural values, immorality, among others through
pornographic materials that they portray which is poisonous to children and the
community

REQUIREMENTS/INFRASTRUCTURE FOR INTERNET CONNECTION

1. Computer with good specifications, i.e. high processor speed, high RAM
capacity, and with a NIC
2. Communication devices such as; modem in case of dial-up connectivity,
routers, switches, etc.
3. Communication software such as; web browsers, internet protocols and
Network Operating System (NOS)
4. Data transmission media such as; cables, wireless antenna, telephone line,
satellite transmitters, etc.
5. Internet service provider (ISP)

INTERNET SERVICE PROVIDER

This is an organization or company which provides services of accessing and using

the internet at a fee.

Examples of ISPs in Uganda include; Uganda Telecom, MTN, Airtel, Africell,

Smile Telecom, Vodafone, etc.

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Factors to Consider When Choosing an ISP

1. Price of the ISP, i.e. the cost of the modem, installation costs and subscription
costs.
2. Efficiency of the ISP, i.e. the bandwidth of the modem, communication channel
used, etc.
3. Method of connection offered by the ISP, i.e. wireless, dial up access or ISDN
4. Level of performance. The ISP should provide help and installation of the
internet.
5. Easy communication between the client and ISP, e.g. toll free help lineavailable
all the time, online help
6. Coverage of the ISP. The ISP coverage should reach your location.
7. Additional services offered by the ISP, e.g. email, telephone SMS facility, web
hosting, domain services.
8. Terms of service, e.g. subscribing monthly, annually, or weekly, post-paid
service or prepaid service.
9. Compatibility. The ISP’s systems should be compatible with the prospective
client’s systems.

FACTORS AFFECTING THE SPEED OF THE INTERNET

1. Computer Processor speed
2. Distance the data travels
3. Traffic / number of users on the network
4. Malware, Spyware and Viruses.
5. Modem speed.
6. Natural Conditions
7. Positioning of wireless access points
8. Memory available.
9. Computer internet settings
10.Technological Circumstances such as loose connections of cables or
maintenance works being done by the ISP.
11.Cookies: Over time, cookie files saved by websites in browser can compromise
the speed.

INTERNET SERVICES

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1. Chat room: is an area on the internet where users can communicate, typically
limiting communication to a particular topic.
2. Instant Messaging (IM): is an online chat which offers real-time text
transmission between two or more participants over the internet.
3. Voice over IP (VoIP) also known as Internet Telephony is a web-based
telephone service that allows a user to talk to others for just the cost of internet
connection. The requirements for conducting Internet Telephony include: a
microphone, a sound card, special internet telephony software e.g. Skype.
4. Newsgroup: is an online area where users conduct written discussions about a
particular topic.
5. Videoconferencing: means to conduct a conference between two or more
participants in different geographical locations by using the internet to transmit
audio and video data.
6. Electronic Funds Transfer (EFT): also known as e-money is the electronic
movement of funds over the internet.
7. E-learning/online learning is an internet service that allows exchange of
knowledge and skills over the internet
8. Social media: refers to websites and applications that enable users to create and
share content or to participate in social networking. Examples include;
Facebook, Google+, LinkedIn, Instagram, Twitter, Whatsapp, Reddit.
9. Online Banking: is a banking service via the internet where the customers of
the bank can access their accounts and make transactions using the web instead
of visiting the bank’s physical branches
10.Electronic Commerce (e-commerce): this is where the buying and selling of
products is conducted over electronic systems on the internet. It involves the
exchange of data to facilitate the financing and payment of business
transactions.

ELECTRONIC MAIL (e-mail)

This is the transfer of electronic messages from one geographical location to

another using computers and computer related computerized devices.

Email software is software for creating, sending, receiving, printing and

organizing emails. Examples of popular e-mail software include: Microsoft
Outlook Express, Endora, and Microsoft Outlook.

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An Email Address
An email address identifies an email box to which email messages are delivered
on the network. An email address has this format; [email protected]. One
must have an email address before they can send e-mails

Parts of an Email Address

For an e-mail address like; [email protected], it has the following parts;
 Username. This identifies the name of the mail box. In the email address above
samokolong is the username
 @ is a symbol for “at”, it separates the username from the domain name
 The domain name. This identifies the name and type of the host computer on
which the email box is found. e.g. in the email address above, yahoo.com is the
domain name
 Top level: This indicates the purpose of the organization which the computer
sometimes has no part e.g. com, org.

Features of Email Software

All email software requires the user to have an email address, i.e. username and
password which are unique to ensure security of the user’s emails.

Email software has the following features;

1. Compose. This opens a window where the user types the message and the
recipient(s)
2. From. Indicates the address of the one sending the email.
3. To. This is where the address of the email recipient is typed
4. Cc (carbon copy). This is where other addresses to receive copies of the same
message are typed in addition to the main recipient and each recipient will view
all the addresses of other recipients in the email.
5. BCC (Blind carbon copy).This is where other addresses to receive copies of
the same message are typed in addition to the main recipient but no recipient
will view the addresses of other recipients in the email.
6. Subject. This holds the topic around which the e-mail rotates
7. Attachment. Enables a user to attach files from different programs to an email,
like photo, video, document
8. Address book. It contains a list of names and email addresses.

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9. Inbox. It stores received emails.
10.Outbox/sent messages. Stores copies of sent emails
11.Spam. This stores the email messages considered to be irrelevant.
12.Drafts. This stores drafts of emails messages

Advantages of Email over Ordinary Post Office Mails

1. It is fast. An e-mail can be sent to in any part of the world in a matter of
minutes
2. Email services are free, provided the user has internet connection
3. Emails are sent to many recipients at no extra cost unlike post office mails
4. There is immediate feedback and reply after delivery
5. Email is convenient and time saving when sending the same message to many
recipients at the same time
6. Email can be sent and received at any time anywhere provided there internet
connection
7. You can attach multimedia files like; big documents, video, music, etc. to an
email.
8. Sent and received emails are automatically stored for future reference
9. It is highly private and confidential compared to post office mails which pass
through many hands.

Disadvantages of Email over Ordinary Post Office Mails

1. It is expensive due to the high initial cost of setting up internet connection.
2. Email may be corrupted by computer viruses hence it may not open.
3. Physical items cannot be sent with email while with post office mails, one can.
4. Email is limited to only internet literates and those who can meet internet costs
5. There is a large volume of spam that tends to fill up the inbox
6. The privacy of an email message cannot be guaranteed. The email may be
hacked, your password can be stolen, and so confidential messages should not
be sent using email

INTERNET NETIQUETTE
Netiquette is the code of acceptable behaviors that users should follow while using
services on the internet.
Netiquette include the following among others;

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1. Don’t forward e-mail messages you receive without permission of the original
sender.
2. Obey copyright laws: Don't use others' images, content or use web site content
without permission.
3. Do not send SPAM: Spamming is posting or e-mailing unsolicited e-mail, often
advertising messages, to a wide audience (another way of thinking of it is
electronic junk mail).
4. Don't respond to "flames" or personal attacks
5. Always keep messages brief and use proper grammar and spellings.
6. Never read someone’s private mail.
7. Don’t click on hyperlinks to unknown sites, especially on adverts and popups.
8. Don’t download attachments from unknown sources.
9. Avoid impersonation.
10.Adhere to the same standards of behavior online that you follow in real life.

THE WORLD WIDE WEB (WWW)

The World Wide Web, also known as “The Web”, is a global collection of
websites and web pages which are hyperlinked, containing text and multimedia
content on the internet. It interconnects systems of sites or servers all over the
world that can store information in multimedia form; i.e. sound, photos, graphics,
video and text.

Web browser

A web browser is a software application for displaying Web Pages on the World
Wide Web.

There are hundreds of web browsers. Popular ones include:

1. Mozilla Firefox, 5. Microsoft Internet Explorer/ Edge,
2. Google Chrome, 6. lobo,
3. Opera, 7. camino,
4. Apple Safari 8. Netscape navigator, etc.

Functions of a web browser

1. It is used to request for web pages from a web server when the user types I the
uniform resource locator.

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2. Web browser accesses information from the web server using HTTP protocol
over a network to communicate with a web server
3. Web browser also helps to display multimedia content
4. It is used for streaming video content over the internet
5. Helps to display web pages on the screen

Search engines
A search engine. Is a program that is used to locate a specific resource, e.g.
documents, music files, etc., on the web. Examples include; Google, Yahoo, Bing,
Excite, MSN, Lycos, MyWebSearch, Ask.com, AOL.com

Important Concepts of the World Wide Web

1. A website. Is a collection of related web pages accessible on the World Wide

Web
2. A webpage. Is a document on a website, which can contain text, pictures,
sound, and video (multimedia). It is also defined as a document available on the
web that is created using HTML and viewed with in a web browser. Each
webpage has a unique address called a URL.
3. Home page. This is a welcome page that identifies the website and contains
links to other pages of the site.
4. Hyperlink. It is a text or graphic on a webpage that when clicked at allows a
user to quickly navigate from one document or website to another.
5. Surfing. Surfing or browsing the web is the processing of accessing resources
like the web pages and websites, mainly using a web browser, search engines
and hyperlinks.
6. Downloading. This is the copying of data from the remote computer, usually
the server, to one’s computer over the internet.
7. A download is information received from a remote computer usually over the
internet.
8. Uploading. This is the copying of data from one’s computer to a remote
computer, usually the server over the internet.
9. Streaming. This allows a user to listen to an audio file or watch a video on-line.
The standards for streaming audio on the web are Windows Media Player and
RealAudio.

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10.Graphics. A graphic is a digital representation of information such as a
drawing, a chart, or a photograph.
11.Multimedia. Is content which is a combination of text, graphics, audio, still
images, video and animations.
12.Webcast. This is a video broadcast of an event transmitted over the internet.
The video is captured by the conventional video systems, then digitized and
streamed. e.g. news broadcast, radio and TV programs.
13.Web master. This is a person who creates, maintains and manages web sites.

UNIFORM RESOURCE LOCATOR (URL)

A URL is an address that points to a specific resource on the web. Web page URLs
are of the following
formats;http://www.google.com,https://www.bbc.com,ftp://www.brightss.ac,ftp://
www.ura.go.

Parts of a Uniform Resource Locator

A URL like; http://www.brightss.ac.ug/index.php/admissions.html, has got the
following parts;
1. http:// This is a communications standard for the web
2. www.brightss.ac.ug This is the domain name. It identifies the website on the
World Wide Web.
3. index.php This is the directory path. It identifies the location of the webpage
on the web server.
4. admissions.html This is the document name. It identifies the webpage

TYPES OF WEBSITES
1. A blog (web log). Is a personal website on which some one regularly records
their opinions or experiences.
2. Wiki. This is a website that allows collaborative editing of its content and
structure by its users.
3. Web portal. Is a site which brings information together from various sources in
a uniform manner. It also offers a variety of services like: search, e-mail, online
shopping, among others. Examples of web portals include; Yahoo, MSN, AOL,
etc.
4. Web aggregator. A website that collects content like news stories, music files
to make such material available in one place.

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5. Social networking Website. An online service, platform, or site that focuses on
building social relations among people who share interests by posting
information, comments, messages, images, etc.
6. Media sharing website. Media sharing sites allow you to upload your photos,
videos and audio to a website that can be accessed from anywhere in the world.
E.gyoutube.com, dailymotion.com, blip.tv, slideshare.net, archive.org,
podbean.com, and many, many others.

Cloud computing

Cloud computing is a technological advancement where software applications,

processing power, data and even artificial intelligence are accessed over the
internet.

Advantages of Cloud Computing

1. Lower computer costs: You do not need a high-powered and high-priced

computer to run cloud computing’s web-based applications.
2. Improved performance: With few large programs hogging your computer's
memory, you will see better performance from your PC.
3. Reduced software costs: Instead of purchasing expensive software applications,
you can get most of what you need cheaply, e.g. most cloud computing
applications today, such as the Google Docs suite better than paying for similar
commercial software.
4. Better Security: By using encryption, information on the cloud is less accessible
by hackers or anyone not authorized to view the data. As an added security
measure, with most cloud-based services, different security settings can be set
based on the user.
5. Instant software updates: Another advantage to cloud computing is that you are
no longer faced with choosing between obsolete software and high upgrade
costs.
6. Improved document format compatibility. You do not have to worry about the
documents you create on your machine being compatible with other users'
applications.
Disadvantages of Cloud Computing

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1. Can be slow: Even with a fast connection, web-based applications can
sometimes be slower than accessing a similar software program on your
desktop PC. Everything about the program, from the interface to the current
document, has to be sent back and forth from your computer to the computers in
the cloud.
2. Stored data might not be secure: With cloud computing, all your data is stored
on the cloud. Any unauthorized users gaining access to your password may
access confidential data.
3. Migration issues: Each cloud systems use different protocols and different
APIs, so your normal applications will have to be adapted to execute on these
platforms.

TOPIC 8: ELECTRONIC SPREADSHEET

An electronic spreadsheet is an interactive computer application for organization,

analysis and storage of data in a tabular form. It is made up of rows and columns.

A manual spreadsheet is a ledger book with many sheets of papers divided into
rows and columns for entering/ writing data. The data is entered manually using a
pen or pencil.

Examples of electronic spreadsheet

1. Microsoft excel 5. VisiCalc

2. Open office calc 6. LibreOffice Calc
3. Lotus 1-2-3 7. Calligra sheets
4. Corel Quattro pro
Advantages of Manual Spreadsheets
1. They are easy and cheap to acquire
2. They are easily portable
3. They are suitable for draft or rough work
4. They are not electronic, thus, can be used without electric power
5. No skills are needed, hence, even a computer illiterate can use manual
spreadsheets

Disadvantages of Manual Spreadsheets

1. They require a lot of manual effort and time

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2. Many errors are bound to be made
3. Rubbing out to correct errors makes the work untidy
4. They do not have pre-existing tables as opposed to electronic spreadsheets
5. They are very small in size
6. They are not durable. They can easily wear and tear out
7. They do not have automatic formulas that would otherwise quicken the work
8. You cannot easily insert or delete extra columns and rows

Advantages of Electronic Spreadsheets

1. They have pre-existing tables, thus, no need to draw gridlines
2. They have in-built formulas and functions, enabling automation in calculations
and work manipulations
3. There are minimal errors and in case of any, they are easily corrected
4. They have very large worksheets that can store a lot of work easily and for long
5. Extra columns and rows can be inserted and deleted without any bad effect
6. The work can be protected with passwords thus ensuring security
7. Work can be enhanced to look very attractive with various formats to suit the
user’s needs
8. The records can be sorted and filtered to get only those that you want
9. They allow printing of multiple copies without re-creation

Disadvantages of Electronic Spreadsheets

1. They are expensive to buy and maintain
2. They are electronic, thus cannot be used without electricity
3. They require computer skills and continuous training
4. There is data loss due to virus attacks and system failure
5. There are privacy problems like unauthorized access over networks
6. Health related hazards as they are associated with use of computers

FEATURES OF ELECTRONIC SPREADSHEET SOFTWARE

1. Workbook. This is a collection of multiple worksheets in a single file

2. Worksheet. This is a single page of a workbook. It is an equivalent of a work
area in Microsoft Word. A worksheet is made up of rows and columns which
intersect to form cells. Worksheets are labelled sheet1, sheet2, sheet3 by

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 default, but they can be renamed. A workbook by default has 3 worksheets,
however, these can be increased in the user’s interest and renamed
3. Columns. These are vertical lines which run through the worksheet. Worksheet
columns are labelled by letters; A, B, C, D, E… which are displayed in grey
buttons across the top of the worksheet
4. Rows. Are horizontal lines across a worksheet. Worksheet rows are labelled by
numbers; 1, 2, 3, 4, 5… which are displayed in grey buttons across the left of
the worksheet
5. A cell. This is an intersection of a column and a row. Each cell on the
spreadsheet has a cell address. A cell address is a unique name of a cell. It is
given by the column letter and row number, e.g. A1, B5, G6, D12, C1, A4, B3,
etc. Cells can contain; text, numbers, formulas, etc.
6. Range. It is a group of adjacent cells defined as a single unit. A range address is
a reference to a particular range. It has a format of top left cell address : bottom
right cell address. e.g. D5:G10
7. Value. This is a numerical entry in a cell. All values are right aligned in a cell
by default.
8. Labels. This is a text entry in a cell. All labels are left aligned in a cell by
default
9. Name box. This displays the address of the selected cell or cells. Also you can
rename a selected cell or cells using the name box
10. Formula bar. Is a bar at the top of the Excel window that you use to enter or
edit values or formulas in cells or charts.
11. Autofill. This is the feature that allows you to quickly fill cells with repetitive
or sequential data such as chronological dates or numbers, and repeated text. To
use this feature, you type one or two initial values or text entries, and then
Autofill does the rest using the fill handle, which is the small black square in
the lower-right corner of the selection. When you point to the fill handle, the
pointer changes to a black cross. Autofill recognises series of numbers, dates,
months, times and certain labels.
12. Sorting data is to arrange records in either ascending or descending order.
13. Filtering data is the displaying of records that satisfy the set condition from the
parent list.
14. Database. These are data values that can be entered in the cells of the
spreadsheet and managed by special spreadsheet features found on the data

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 menu. The special spreadsheet features include; cell referencing, data
replication, automatic recalculation, formulas and functions, data filtering,
copy, cut and paste, clip art.
15. Graphs. A graph is a pictorial representation of the base data on a worksheet.
Most spreadsheets refer to graphs as charts. A chart is a graphical
representation of data. A chart may be 2-D or 3-D
16. What-if analysis. Is a process of changing the values in cells to see how those
changes affect the outcome of formulas on the worksheet. For example, varying
the interest rate that is used in the paying-back table to determine the amount of
the payments.
17. Freezing panes. This is where rows and columns are frozen such that they
remain visible as you scroll through the data especially if the database is too big
to fit on one screen.
18. Active cell: this is the current cell that is ready to accept data input from the
user. An active cell is always surrounded by a thick boarder.
19. Cell address: is the column and row coordinates of a cell.
20. A cell pointer: This is a rectangular highlight that marks the currently selected
cell.

Uses/Applications of Spreadsheets
1. Preparation of budgets
2. Preparation of cash flow analysis
3. Preparations of financial statements
4. Processing basic business information, like, job costing, payment schedules,
stock control, tax records
5. Analysis of data from questionnaires
6. Presentation of information in tabular form, graphical or charts forms
7. Mathematical techniques and computation like trigonometry
8. Statistical computations like standard deviations.

Cell content (Data types):

A cell contain one of the four types of information i.e. a label, a value, a formula,
or a function.

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1. A label: This provides descriptive information about entries in the spreadsheet.
A cell that contains a label can not be used perform a mathematical
calculations.
2. A value: This is the actual number entered in to a cell to be used in
calculations. Value can also be a result of calculation.
3. A formula: Is the instruction to the program to calculate a number. A formula
generally contains cell addresses and one or more arithmetic operators.
4. A function: This is a predefined formula that provides shortcuts for commonly
used calculations.

Components of a spreadsheet.

1. Worksheet: This is the work area made up of rows and columns where data is
entered.
2. Database: This is a collection of related items organized so as to provide
consistent and controlled access to items
3. Graphs: This is a pictorial representation of data on the worksheet.

FORMULAS

Operands and Operators

Operands: this specifies the type of data you want to calculate.

Operators: These are symbols or signs used to build formulas in a worksheet

MS –Excel uses arithmetic operators, logical operators, reference operator and one
text operators.

Arithmetic operators:

This follows the rule similar to mathematical concept of BODMAS.

Symbol Description
/ Division
* Multiplication
+ Addition
- Subtraction

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 % Percentage
^ Exponential
Logical operator/ Relational operator.

This returns either true or false depending on the magnitude of the value being
evaluated.

Operato Description
r
= Equal to
> Greater than
< Less than
>= Greater than or equal
to
<= Less than or equal to
<> Not equal to

Reference operator

These are used to specify the cell range in formulas.

Operator Description
: Range of continuous cells
, Range of non continuous cells
Space The range or cell shared by two
references. Eg =SUM(B1:B7
A5:D6)

Cell references

A cell reference refers to the location or address of a cell in a worksheet. For

example A1, C6, AD1, etc.

Types of cell references

Relative Reference

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This is a reference that changes when you copy a formula. For instance, a formula
=A2+B2 typed in cell C2 will change when copied to cell C3 to be =A3+B3 and
son.

Absolute reference
An absolute reference does not change when you copy a formula. To make a cell
reference absolute, type a dollar sign ($) before both column letter and row number
(Example: $A$7). The absolute reference is useful in cells that contain constant
values or values to be reused in calculation.

Mixed Reference
A cell is mixed reference if a column does not change while the row does change
or the column does change while the row does not change when you copy the
formula.

Errors in Formulas

In spreadsheet an error message appears, especially in MS-Excel, when Excel

cannot properly calculate the formula. Errors in formulas are often the result of
typing mistakes. You can correct an error by editing the cell containing the error.
Some of the errors you may encounter are as follows:
1. Hash Symbols (##########)
When the column is too narrow to display the result of the calculation, this type of
error occurs. You can correct this type of error by widening your column.
2. Divided by zero (DIV/0!)
This error occurs when the formula attempts to divide a number by zero (0). Any
number divided by zero (0) is mathematically impossible. Excel considers a blank
cell to contain a value of zero.
3. Reference Error (#REF!)
This error occurs when the formula refers to a cell that is not valid.
4. Name Error (#NAME?)
This error occurs when the formula contains the function or cell reference Excel
does not recognize.

5. Value Error (#VALUE!)

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This error occurs when the formula refers to a cell that Excel cannot use in
calculation. You can solve this problem by correcting the argument or change the
formula.
6. Number Error (#NUM!)
This means that the number specified is not valid for the function or formula. For
example, using a power function that can generate a number lager than Excel can
handle.
7. #NULL! Error
This error occurs when the specified two ranges have no
intersection.
A warning message appears when a formula refers to the cell containing the
formula.
8. Not Applicable (#N/A)
This error occurs when there is no valid number available to compute the formula.
You enter a valid number if necessary to correct this type of error.

FUNCTIONS

A function is a predefined formula that provides shortcuts for commonly used

calculations.. Examples of functions in MS Office Excel include the following:

Function Description Example

SUM Adds all the numbers in a range of cells =SUM(B2:G2)
PRODUCT Multiplies numbers given as arguments to =PRODUCT(A2:D2
return product )
MAX Returns the largest value in a set of values =MAX(D4:D10)
MIN Returns the smallest number in a set of =MIN(A2:A12)
values
LARGE Returns largest value in a data set, e.g. 5th =LARGE(B1:B9,5)
largest value
COUNT Counts number of cells in a range that =COUNT(A1:E9)
contains numbers
COUNTIF Counts number of cells in a range that meet =COUNTIF(A1:C9,
given criteria ”<10”)
COUNTBL Counts number of empty cells in specified =COUNTBLANK(
ANK range of cells A2:H8)

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AVERAGE Returns the average (arithmetic mean) of =AVERAGE(B2:B1
the arguments 5)
MEDIAN Returns number in the middle of the set of =MEDIAN(D4:D10
given numbers )
MODE Frequently occurring value in a range of =MODE(C2:C9)
data.
RANK Returns the size of a number relative to =RANK(F3,$F$3:$
other values in a list of numbers. F$11,0)
SQRT Returns a positive square root =SQRT(B5)
IF Returns one value if a condition you =IF(A2<50,”fail”,
specify evaluates to TRUE and another “pass”)
value if it evaluates to FALSE.
VLOOKUP Searches for a value in the first column of a =VLOOKUP(looku
table array and returns a value in the same p_value,lookup_tab
row from another column. le, column )
HLOOKUP Searches for a value in the top row of a =HLOOKUP(looku
table array and returns a value in the same p_value,lookup_tab
column from a row you specify in the table le, column_index )
or array

TOPIC 9: INTODUCTION TO WEB DESIGN

Web Design and Publishing is the process of planning, creating, manipulating,

saving and uploading hyperlinked html documents (web pages) to a computer
network so that they can be viewed via web browsers.

Web Design software Examples

 Note Pad  Microsoft Expression Web 3.0 &

Studio 3
 Microsoft FrontPage 2003
 Namo WebEditor 8 & Professional
 Adobe Dreamweaver CS4
 Sothink DHTML Menu 9 & Tree
 WebPlus X4 (Now owned by
Menu 2
Microsoft)
 Antenna Web Design Studio 3

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 AllWebMenus PRO 5  PhotonFX Easy Website Pro 4
Terminologies

Bookmark

A bookmark is an anchor tag that defines and links to a specific location in an

HTML document. Bookmarks are useful when you have long pages that are
divided into logical sections, or when you want to jump from one central list of
links to multiple locations on a page.

HTML

(Hypertext Markup Language) A tagging system used to code documents so that

they can be published on the World Wide Web and viewed with a browser

HTTPS

(Hypertext Transfer Protocol Secure) is a combination of HTTP with the SSL/TLS

protocol to provide encrypted communication and secure identification of a
network web server. HTTPS connections are often used for payment transactions
on the World Wide Web and for sensitive transactions in corporate information
systems.

HYPERLINK

The text or graphic that users click on to go to a file, a location in a file, an Internet
or intranet site, page, location, and so on. Hypertext is text with hyperlinks.

DOMAIN NAME

The unique name that identifies an Internet site. A domain name is an

identification label that defines a dominion of control on the Internet, based on the
Domain Name System (DNS).

IP ADDRESS

An (Internet Protocol address) is a numerical label that is assigned to any

device participating in a computer network that uses the Internet Protocol for
communication between its nodes.

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JPEG / JPG

(Joint Photographic Experts Group) A graphics format used for photos and other
graphics with more than 256 colors.

PAGE TITLE

The text that is displayed on the page banner of a Web page and in the title bar of a
Web browser.

URL

(Uniform resource locator) The alphanumeric address that Web visitors use to
locate your Web site on the World Wide Web.

TAGS

HTML tags are codes, of keyword elements enclosed by the lesser than (<) and
greater than (>) brackets, which give commands to a browser. eg <u> is an HTML
tag that tells the browser to underline text on the webpage.

WEB AUTHORING SOFTWARE

A Web site development program that allows Web pages to be visually created like
a desktop publishing program. It generates the required HTML code for the pages
and is able to switch back and forth (in varying degrees) between the page layout
and the HTML.

Web Browser

Is application software which enables a user to display and interact with text,
images, and other information on a Web page (Examples: Opera, Google Chrome,
Mozilla Firefox, Internet Explorer, Netscape, etc)

WEB MAILPROVIDER

A hosting company that primarily provides end users access to internet services
such as e-mail.

WEB SERVER

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A computer that stores and delivers (serves up) websites and their related files for
viewing on the Internet.

WEBMASTER

A person who creates and manages the information and content, organizes and
maintains of a Web site

WEBSITE

A collection of related or hyperlinked web pages

WYSIWYG

(What You See is What You Get) implies a user interface that allows the user to
view something very similar to the end result while the document is being created.

Features and Qualities of a Good Website

 The web must have a home page. This means a page at the top of any tiered
structure or at the centre of a web you design on paper.
 You should name the home page Index.htm (or Index.html) in line with web
server protocol.
 Should not have too much on one page. It's better to use lots of pages with a
small amount of information on each.
 Should have links to other areas on all pages for easy navigation through the
website
 Should load quickly
 Should have a title and brief summary about the page
 Should have date of last Update
 Page (file) names should be eight characters or less. Although many servers and
systems now support long filenames, it isn't universal by any means.
 Should have a feedback page or a link to the webmaster who will be the first
contact for your website’s visitors
 Should have Simplicity = Elegance

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Importance of a website

 Making of a website favors publishing of data and information in a bid to create

awareness about something on the internet.
 A website is an avenue for sharing knowledge through intercontinental
interaction for example through teleconferencing and discussion boards.
 Website development enhances skill building such as writing, editing, layout
and design; providing motivation and pride of ownership
Limitations of a website

 Expenses: Websites are not easy to setup and maintain due to annual
subscription to ISPs or web hosts
 Timely updating issues: Information keeps on changing and this requires
constant revision and effecting changes as necessary.
 Copyright issues: It is a crime to publish information from copyrighted sources
without permission from the original authors.
SAMPLE QUESTIONS

1. A web page has a unique address called….

A. Uniform Resource Locator

B. Hyper Text Transfer Protocol
C. Virtual Reality Modelling
D. Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol
(UNEB 2009 No.4)
2. ………….. Software Uses hyperlink as one of its tools for developing a
webpage.

A. Web Browsers
B. Web Publishing
C. Presentations
D. Internet (UNEB 2009 No.10)

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3. Which of the following statements are correct?

A. Each web browser has a unique IP address

B. HTTP is a communications protocol
C. An Internet domain may be referred to as HTML
D. The internet is a network of networks (UNEB
2008 No.11)
4. A ……… is a term used in web design to connect one document or file to
another

A. linker
B. hyperlink
C. hypertext
D. hyperweb (UNEB 2009 No.10)
5. Achen wants to get some information from the internet on designing success
cards for her Fine Art examination. What kind of software would she need to
use to get this information?

A. Web browser
B. Web authoring software.
C. E-mail software.
D. Desktop Publishing. (UNEB 2008 No.19)
6. Explain the following terms:

(i) Hyperlink

(ii) Web browser (Give examples)

(iii) Web master

(iv) Website (UNEB 2007 No.24)

7. Write if full and briefly explain each of the following:

(i) HTML

(ii) HTTP (UNEB 2005 No.26(c))

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9. URL stands for

A. Uniform resource locator

B. Universal resource link
C. An email address
D. A web publishing software (UNEB 2004 No. 17)
10.(a)(i) Identify three precautions a web designer should consider when designing
a web page

(ii) Why is it not good to have a lot of graphics on a web page?

(b) List four qualities of a good web page (04 marks) (UNEB 2003
No.23)

11. Which of the following best describes the purpose of a web page?

A. Making money on the Internet

B. Creating awareness about something on the internet

C. For connecting with friends through Email

D. Downloading files from the internet (UNEB 2002 No. 19)

12.(a)Explain the following terms:

(i) HTML (ii) Website (iii) WWW (06 marks)

(b) (i) What is a web page address?

(ii) Give any two examples that would qualify as web page addresses

(c) (i) What is the difference between a web page and an HTML?

(ii) State the major difference between HTTP and HTTPS.

(UNEB 2002 No.26)

14. (a) State three advantages of web publishing (03 marks)

(b) Describe how a web page is a source of information (03 marks)

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(c) What is the difference between WWW and Web page? (2 marks)

(d) Mention any four computer application programs in which hyperlinks can be
used (02 marks)

(UNEB 2000 No. 26)

Explain why a school should have a web-site. (20 marks)

A website is a collection of hyperlinked html documents (web pages) with related

information, meant to creating awareness about something on the internet.

In a school setting, there is a lot of awareness required between the administration,

staff, students and parents.

Below are the major reasons why a school should have a website:

1. Making of a website quickens the publishing of information to the

community such as abrupt announcements, circulars, results, etc. Once
uploaded, it will be already accessible to the targeted readers
2. Through a website, the school can get feedbacks from the community
through online user comments and questions.
3. If students are involved in the Website development process, this enhances
skill building such as writing, editing, layout and design.
4. A school website provides motivation and pride of ownership. This can be
evidenced through use of customized email. Eg [email protected] instead
of [email protected]
5. Information listed on a school website removes doubt. Information such as
school fees, and Everything presented at the site appears in a positive light,
as compared to information from other sites about the school which may be
false.
6. If a school ha a website, they can use the web mail service to send parents
and other stakeholders items such as newsletters, remainders etc.
7. A website increases ways of contact. Once you have a website you can list
your website address on your business cards, report cards, and even the
school signpost.

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 8. Internet today is being used 24 / 7 and is accessible from every house.
People are becoming highly dependant on the internet. By having a web
presence, the market of the school expands your significantly.
9. A school website helps students and parents to make a wise academic choice
after using the vast quantities of information about a given college or
university.
TOPIC 10: DATABASE

A “Database” is an organized collection of related data files.

Database Management Systems (DBMS)

A DBMS is a set of programs that create, manage, protect, and provide access to
the data. DBMS organizes data in a way that allows fast and easy access to the
data.

With a DBMS you can create, modify, store, and retrieve data in a variety of ways.

Examples of DBMSs include; Microsoft Access, Oracle, Microsoft SQL Server,

Dbase, Fox Pro, Sysbase

FUNCTIONS OF A DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM

1. Takes care of storage, retrieval and management of large data sets in a database
2. Used to creates a database structure to accommodate data that may be text,
numbers, objects, video, sound
3. It lets you easily add new records, delete out-dated records, update records
4. Allows one to organizes records in different ways, i.e. sorted and indexed order
5. Helps to locate specific records, i.e. search, find and replace
6. Eliminates duplicate data say by editing, e.g. deleting and retyping
7. Used to create relationships between tables
8. You can ask questions about your data and get answers using queries
9. Used to create data entry forms
10. Used to create professional good-looking reports
11. Used to change appearance of information, i.e. perform some formatting, etc.
Advantages of DBMS

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1. Reduced redundancy: DBMS helps to avoid the same data fields being
repeated in different files, such that the information appears just once.
2. Improved data integrity: This means the data is accurate, consistent, and up to
date because each updating place is made in only one place.
3. Increased user productivity: DBMS is fairly easy to use, so users get their
request for information answered without having to resort to technical
manipulations.
4. Increased security: In DBMS Information can be limited only to authorized
users and deny access to people who are not eligible to view the data.
5. Shared data: Data in files can be shared by different people who are
authorized to access that particular information.
DISADVANTAGES OF DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS
1. Complexity. The systems are complex, costly, and take much time to develop,
e.g. they include sophisticated software programs that may require special
hardware.
2. Need for substantial conversion effort. Changing from a traditional file
oriented system to a computerised database system can involve large-scale
reorganisation of data and programs. This can create user resistance
3. Organisation security may be compromised since a database is used by many
people, departments or personnel who may cause havoc by leaking out vital
secrets
4. They are difficult to thoroughly test and audit errors
5. Initial expense. Because of their complexity and efficiency, they include
sophisticated database systems which can be expensive to setup
6. Requires special skills to handle. Being complex and enormous, databases
require skilled personnel to develop, establish and maintain
7. Vulnerability. Data in the database may be exposed to software and hardware
failures, sabotage, theft, destruction, virus attacks, etc.
8. Routine back-up. Requires back-up systems, which are inconveniencing,
complex, tedious and expensive
DATABASE OBJECTS
Table

 A Table is an object which stores data in Row & Column.

 Each column must have unique name
 We can also define Primary Key in a table.

Query

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 Queries answer a question by selecting and sorting and filtering data based on
search criteria.
 Queries show a selection of data based on criteria (limitations) you provide.
 Queries can pull from one or more related Tables and other Queries.
 Types of Query can be SELECT, INSERT, UPDATE, DELETE.

Form

 A form is a database object that you can use to create a user interface for a
database application.
 Forms help you to display live data from the table. It mainly used to ease the
process of data entry or editing.

Report

 A report is an object in desktop databases primarily used for formatting,

calculating, printing, and summarizing selected data.
 You can even customize the report's look and feel.

Macros

 Macros are mini computer programming constructs. They allow you to set up
commands and processes in your forms, like, searching, moving to another
record, or running a formula.

Modules:

 Modules are procedures (functions) which you can write using Visual Basic for
Applications (VBA).

DEFINITION OF TERMINOLOGIES

1. File. Refers to the entire collection of data in the database.

2. Field. This is the entire column that contains similar data items
3. Field name. This is the name/title of a particular field
4. Field type. This refers to how particular data items are stored in a table
5. Field properties. This refers to specific characteristics of particular fields
6. Record. This refers to particulars within a file, or a set of entire data items in a
row
7. Attribute. This refers to a group of fields or columns in a table

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8. Primary key. This is a unique record identifier in the table. It is used to ensure
that there are no duplicate fields in the table. It is also used to create
relationships among tables.
9. A foreign key, is a copy of the primary key in another table
10. A view. Is a virtual table that does not necessarily exist in its own right but may
be dynamically derived from one or more base tables
11. Relationships. This refers to how two or more entities/tables share information
in the database structure. That is, how data in one table are related to data in
another table. Relationships are of three types; one-to-one (1:1), one-to-many
(1:M) and many-to-many (M:M)
12. Datasheet view. This is a table view which allows you to update, edit, format
and delete information from the table.
13. Design view is a table view which provides tools for creating fields in a table,
i.e. specify field names, data types, field properties and descriptions (a view for
creating the table)
Data Types

Tables in database need to be designed in consideration of type of data to be

stored. If a record (a combination of related fields) is to be entered it’s obvious that
different fields may have different data types.
Common data types used in Microsoft Office Access include:
1. Text – Used for text or combinations of text and numbers, such as addresses, or
for numbers that don’t require calculations, such as phone numbers, or postal
code.
2. Memo – used for lengthy text and numbers, such as notes or descriptions.
3. Number – Used for data to be included in mathematical calculations such as
number of items.
4. Date/Time – Used for only dates and time data format such as Date of birth or
purchasing date.
5. Currency – Used for values with monetary units such as amount in dollars, or
amount in pound.
6. AutoNumber – Used for unique sequential or random numbers that is
automatically inserted when a record is added.
7. Yes/No – Used for Boolean values, data that can be only one of two possible
values, such as Yes/No, True/False, On/Off. Null values are not allowed.
8. OLE Object - Used for OLE objects such as pictures, sounds that was created
in other programs using the OLE protocol.

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9. Hypertext – It is used to store the location of a file on your computer, a local
network, or the World Wide Web.
10.Lookup Wizard – It is a feature that allows the creation of dropdown list of
values that can be

Using Wildcards characters in a Query

Wild cards: Is a special character that represents one or more other characters.
Wild card characters may be used to represent a letter or letters in a word. Wild
cards can be used in access queries to look for specific information
- You can use wildcards to select a record that follows a pattern. However, you
can use wildcard characters only in Text and Date/Time fields.
- You use the “*” to substitute for multiple characters and the “?” to substitute
for single characters.
Examples of Wildcards
Character Description Example
* Matches any number of characters. You wh* finds what, white,
can use the asterisk (*) anywhere in a and why, but not awhile
character string. or watch.
? Matches a single alphabet in a specific b?ll finds ball, bell, and
position. bill.
[] Matches characters within the brackets. b[ae]ll finds ball and
bell, but not bill.
! Excludes characters inside the brackets. b[!ae]ll finds bill and
bull, but not ball or bell.

Like “[!a]*” finds all

items that do not begin
with the letter a.
- Matches a range of characters. b[a-c]d finds bad, bbd,
Remember to specify the characters in and bcd.
ascending order (A to Z, not Z to A).
# Matches any single numeric character. 1#3 finds 103, 113, and
123.

Primary key
The primary key of a relational table is a column (or combination of columns) that
uniquely identifies each record in the table e.g. social security number, account
number or admission number, etc.

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Primary keys may consist of a single attribute or multiple attributes in
combination.

Characteristics of the Primary Key

1. It cannot allow duplicate (repeated) values in the fields.
2. It cannot allow null (empty) values in the fields.
3. It is also used to create relationships among tables.

Foreign Key
A foreign key, is a copy of the primary key in another table. The foreign key can
be used to cross-reference tables.
Foreign key may have duplicate values in a one-to-many relationship but in a one-
to-one relationship the foreign key is not supposed to have duplicate values.

Relationships in Database Tables

A relationship, in databases, is a situation that exists between two relational

database tables when one table has a foreign key that references the primary key of
the other table. Relationships allow relational databases to split and store data in
different tables, while linking disparate data items.
Types of relationships
There are three types of relationships that can be implemented in your Access
database:
 One – to – One relationship
 One – to – Many relationship.
 Many – to – Many relationship
One – to – One Relationship
In a one-to-one relationship, each row in one database table is linked to one and
only one other row in another table. In a one-to-one relationship between Table A
and Table B, each row in Table A is linked to another row in Table B. The number
of rows in Table A must equal the number of rows in Table B.

One-to-Many Relationship

Two tables are related in a one-to-many (1—M) relationship if for every row in
the first table, there can be zero, one, or many rows in the second table, but for
every row in the second table there is exactly one row in the first table.

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Many-to-Many Relationships

Two tables are related in a many-to-many (M—M) relationship when for every
row in the first table, there can be many rows in the second table, and for every
row in the second table, there can be many rows in the first table.

TOPIC 11: ELEMENTARY PROGRAMMING

Computer Program:
A computer program is a set of coded instructions given to the computer, and
represents a logical solution to a problem. It directs a computer in performing
various operations/tasks on the data supplied to it.

Computer programs may be written by the hardware manufacturers,

Software houses, or a programmer to solve user problems on the
computer.

Programming:

Programming is the process of designing a set of instructions (computer

programs) which can be used to perform a particular task or solve a specific
problem.

Programming Languages:

A programming language is artificial language design to communicate with the

computer.

The computer must be able to translate these instructions into machine-readable

form when arranged in a particular sequence or order.

Source program (source code)

The term Source program refers to program statements that the programmer enters
in the program editor window, and which have not yet been translated into
machine-readable form.

Source code is the code understood by the programmer, and is usually written in
high-level language or Assembly language.

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Object code (object program).
The term Object code refers to the program code that is in machine-readable
(binary) form.

This is the code/language the computer can understand, and is produced by a

Compiler or Assembler after translating the Source program into a form that can
be readily loaded into the computer.

LANGUAGE TRANSLATORS

A Translator is special system software used to convert the Source codes

(program statements written in any of the computer programming languages) to
their Object codes (computer language equivalents).

In addition, translators check for & identify some types of errors (e.g.,
Syntax/grammatical errors) that may be present in the program being translated.
They will produce error messages if there is a mistake in the code.

Each language needs its own translator. Generally, there are 3 types of language
translators:

1. Assembler.
2. Interpreter.
3. Compiler.

ASSEMBLER

An assembler translates programs written in Assembly language into machine

language that the computer can understand and execute.

INTERPRETER

An interpreter translates a source program word by word or line by line. This

allows the CPU to execute one line at a time.

COMPILER

A compiler translates the entire/whole source program into object code at once,
and then executes it in machine language code. These machine code instructions

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can then be run on the computer to perform the particular task as specified in the
high-level program.

LINKERS & LOADERS

Computer programs are usually developed in Modules or Subroutines (i.e.,

program segments meant to carry out the specific relevant tasks). During program
translation, these modules are translated separately into their object (machine)
code equivalents.

The Linker is utility software that accepts the separately translated program
modules as its input, and logically combines them into one logical module, known
as the Load Module that has got all the required bits and pieces for the translated
program to be obeyed by the computer hardware.

The Loader is a utility program that transfers the load module (i.e. the linker
output) into the computer memory, ready for it to be executed by the computer
hardware.

Syntax
Each programming language has a special sequence or order of writing characters.

The term Syntax refers to the grammatical rules, which govern how words,
symbols, expressions and statements may be formed & combined.

Semantics
These are rules, which govern the meaning of syntax. They dictate what happens
(takes place) when a program is run or executed.

FACTORS TO CONSIDER WHEN CHOOSING A PROGRAMMING

LANGUAGE.
The following factors should be considered when choosing a Programming
language to use in solving a problem:
1). The availability of the relevant translator

2). Whether the programmer is familiar with the language

3). Ease of learning and use

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4). Purpose of the program, i.e., application areas such as education, business,
scientific, etc.

5). Execution time

Applications that require quick response are best programmed in machine code
or assembly language. High-level languages are not suitable for such
application because, they take long to be translated & executed.

6). Development time

Development time is the time a programmer takes to write and run a
program. High-level languages are easy to read, understand and
develop; hence, they require less development time. Machine code &
Assembly languages are relatively difficult to read, understand and
develop; hence, they are time-consuming.

7). Popularity
The language selected should be suitable and/or successful in the market with
respect to the problems to be solved.

8). Documentation
It should have accompanying documentation (descriptions) on how to use the
language or maintain the programs written in the language.

9). Maintenance
Programs are developed to solve specific problems, and the problems keep on
changing; hence, the programs are also changed to perform the new functions.

Program maintenance is the activity of incorporating more routines onto the

program, modifying the existing routines or removing the obsolete routines to
make the program adapt to a functionally enhanced environment.

The maintenance is made easier if the language used is easy to read and
understand.

10). Availability of skilled programmers

The language selected should have a pool of readily available programmers to
ease the programming activity, and reduce development time.

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REVIEW QUESTIONS.
1. Define the following terms: (i). Computer program.
(ii). Programming.

(iii). Programming language.

2. With reference to programming, distinguish between Source program and

Object code.
3. What is the function(s) of: Assemblers, Interpreters and Compilers in a
computer system?
4. (a). What are the main functions of a Compiler?
(b). Differentiate between a Compiler and an Interpreter.

5. (a). What is a Programming language?

(b). Explain the two levels of programming languages.

6. (a). What is meant by ‘Machine language’?

(b). Explain why machine language programming is so error-prone.

(c). Show the difference between Machine language and Assembly language.

(d). Give two advantages & three disadvantages of Machine language

programming.

7. (a). What are High-level languages?

(b). Give the features/characteristics of high-level programming languages.

(c). Describe briefly how a program written in high-level programming

language becomes a machine code program ready for operational use.

(d). Explain the advantages and disadvantages of using a High-level

programming language for writing a program.

(e). List four examples of high-level programming languages. Indicate the

application of each language in computing.

8. (a). What is meant by program portability?

(b). Why are low-level languages not considered to be portable?

9. List 8 factors that need to be considered when selecting a programming

language.

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PROGRAM DEVLOPMENT CYLCLE

STAGES INVOLVED IN THE PROGRAM DEVLOPMENT CYLCE

The process of program development can be broken down into the following
stages:

1. Problem recognition (Identification of the problem).

2. Problem definition.
3. Program design (Algorithm Development).
4. Program coding.
5. Program testing & debugging.
6. Program Implementation and maintenance.
7. Program documentation.

PROBLEM RECOGNITION
Problem recognition refers to the understanding and interpretation of a
particular problem. The programmer must know what problem he/she is
trying to solve. He/she must also understand clearly the nature of the
problem & the function of the program.
PROBLEM DEFINITION (PROBLEM ANALYSIS).
In Problem definition, the programmer tries to define (determine) the:

1. Output expected from the program.

2. Inputs needed to generate the output information.
3. Processing
activities(requirements),
4. Kind of files which may be
needed.
At the end of the problem definition, the programmer is required to write a
requirements report/document for the new program. This document will enable
the programmer to come up with a program design that meets the needs at hand.

Program design (Algorithm Development).

Program design is the development of the program’s process or problem solving

logic called the Algorithm.

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The design stage enables the programmer to come up with a model of the
expected program (or a general framework (outline) of how to solve the
problem, and where possible, break it into a sequence of small & simple
steps.

Modular programming
Many programs are non-monolithic (i.e., they are not usually made up of one
large block of code). Instead, they are made up of several units called
modules, that work together to form the whole program with each module
performing a specific task.

This approach makes a program flexible, easier to read, and carry out
error correction. Program design Tools.

Algorithms can be illustrated using the following tools:

1). Pseudo codes.

2). Flowcharts.

3). Decision Tables.

4). Decision Trees.

Note. For any given problem, the programmer must choose which algorithm
(method) is best suited to solve it. More details on developing of algorithms
using pseudo code and flow charts during program design will be covered in
the next section.

PROGRAM CODING

Program coding is the actual process of converting a design model into its
equivalent program.

Page Coding requires the programmer to convert the design specification

(algorithm) into actual computer instructions using a particular
programming language.
For example; The programmer may be required to write the program code either
in Pascal, C++, Visual Basic or Java, and develop (invent) suitable identifiers,

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variable names, & their data types. However, remember that, at this stage the
coding is still a Pencil & paper exercise.

The end result of this stage is a source program that can be translated into
machine readable form for the computer to execute and solve the target
problem.

PROGRAM TESTING AND DEBUGGING

After designing & coding, the program has to be tested to verify that it
is correct, and any errors detected removed (debugged). TESTING:

Testing is the process of running computer software to detect/find any errors (or
bugs) in the program that might have gone unnoticed.

During program testing, the following

details should be checked;

 The reports generated by the system.

 The files maintained in connection to the
system’s information requirements.
 The input to the system.
 The processing tasks.
 The controls incorporated within the
system.

Note. The testing process is a continuous process, and it ends only when the
Programmer & the other personnel involved are satisfied that when operational,
the program will meet the objectives and the growing demands of the
organization.

Types of program errors

There are 5 main types of errors that can be encountered when testing a program.
These are:

1. Syntax errors.
2. Run-time (Execution) errors.
3. Logical (arithmetic) errors.
4. Semantic errors.

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5. Lexicon errors.
Syntax errors
Every programming language has a well-defined set of rules concerning
formal spellings, punctuations, naming of variables, etc. The instructions are
accepted only in a specified form & and must be obeyed by the programmer.
Syntax errors are therefore, programming errors/mistakes that occur if the
grammatical rules of a particular language are not used correctly.

Examples:
(i). Punctuation mistakes, i.e., if the programmer does not use the right
punctuations & spaces needed by the translator program, e.g., omitting a
comma or a semicolon.
(ii). Improper naming of variables.

(iii). Wrong spellings of user defined and reserved words.

Reserved words are those words that have a special meaning to the programming
language, and should not be used by the programmer for anything else.

Syntax errors are committed by the programmer when developing, or

transcribing the program, and can be detected by the language translators,
such as the Compiler as it attempts to translate a program. Such errors
must be corrected by the programmer before the program runs.

Logical (arithmetic) errors.

These are errors in the program logic.

Logical errors relate to the logic of processing followed in the program to get the
desired results. E.g., they may occur as a result of misuse of logical operators.

Logical errors cannot be detected by the translator. The programmer will

detect them when the program results are produced.

The program will run, but give the wrong output or stop
during execution.

Run-time (Execution) errors.

These errors occur during program execution.

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Run-time (execution) errors occur when the programmer introduces new
features in the program, which are not part of the translator’s standards.

For example; they may occur if:

(i). The computer is asked to divide a number by zero.

(ii). The number generated as a result of an instruction is too large to fit in a

memory location.

(iii). When you raise a number to a very big power that cannot be accommodated
in the Register’s structure of the computer.
(iv). In case of a closed loop in the program, leading to a set of instructions
being executed repetitively for a long time.

Execution errors are not detected by the translator programs, but are detected by
the computer during execution. Sometimes, execution errors may lead to
premature end of a program.

To detect and eliminate Execution errors, a test run should be performed

on the program after it has been translated.

Semantic errors.

These are meaning errors. They occur when the programmer develops
statements, which are not projecting towards the desired goal. Such
statements will create deviations from the desired objectives.

Semantic errors are not detected by the computer. The programmer detects
them when the program results are produced. Lexicon errors.

These are the errors, which occur as a result of misusing Reserved words
(words reserved for a particular language).

DEBUGGING:
The term Bug is used to refer to an
error in a computer program.

Most programming errors often

remain undetected until an attempt is

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made to translate a program.

The most common errors include:-

• Improperly declared Constants and Variables.

• A reference to undeclared variable.
• Incorrect punctuation.
Debugging is therefore, the process of detecting, locating & correcting
(removing, eliminating) all errors (mistakes or bugs) that may exist in a
computer program. This is illustrated below.

TYPES OF TESTING (Methods of error detection)

For the program to be assumed as correct, several testing needs to be
conducted by the programmer to ascertain/establish their validity.

There are several methods of testing a program for errors. These include:

1. Dry running (Desk checking).

2. Translator system checking.
3. Functional testing.
4. Use of Test data.
5. Use of debugging utilities.
6. Diagnostic procedures.
7. System test with actual data. Dry Running (Desk checking):
Dry running is a method of checking a program for errors by making the
corrections on a paper before entering it in the program editor.

It involves going through the program while still on paper verifying & validating
its possible results. If the final results agree with the original test data used, the
programmer can then type the program into the computer and translate it.

√ Dry running helps the programmer to identify the program instructions, detect
the most obvious syntax and logical errors, & the possible output.

√ Dry running is much faster. This is because; it involves the use of human
brain as the processor, which has got a well inbuilt common sense.
Translator system checking:

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This involves the computer & the translator programs. After entering the program,
it is checked using a translator to detect any syntax errors. The translator can be a
Compiler or an Interpreter, which goes through the set of instructions &
produces a list of errors, or a program/statement listing which is free from errors.

Functional testing (White-box testing):

This type of testing is based upon examining the internal structure of a program
& selecting test data, which give rise to the alternative cases of control flow. Use
of Test data.

The accuracy of a program can be tested by inputting a set of values referred to as

Test data. The test data is designed to produce predictable output.

There are 2 types of test data;

(a). Real data (live data): - test data obtained from the real problem environment
(practical applications).

(b). Dummy data: - assumed test data.

The programmer invents simple test data, which he/she uses to carry out trial runs
of the new program. At each run, the programmer enters various data variations
including data with errors to test how the system will behave. For example, if the
input required is of numeric type, the programmer may enter alphabetic characters.
The programmer will then compare the output produced with the predicted (actual)
output.

Notes.
 Where possible, the program should be tested using the same test data that was
used for desk checking. More strict/rigid tests should be applied on the
program in order to test the program to its limits.
 Only Logical errors & Semantic errors can be corrected by the programmer
using test data.
 A good program should not crash due to incorrect data entry but should inform
the user about the irregularity and request for the correct data to be entered.

Use of debugging utilities.

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After the program has been entered in the program editor, debugging utilities
which are built in the computer can be run during translation to detect any syntax
errors in the program.

The errors are corrected and the debugging process is repeated again to find out
more errors, before the program is executed.

Diagnostic procedures.
For complex programs, diagnostic procedures, such as Trace routines, may be
used to find logical errors.

A Trace prints out the results at each processing step to enable errors to be
detected quickly.

System Test with actual data.

This is whereby the new program is run in parallel with the existing system for a
short time so that results can be compared and adjustments made. In such cases,
the system test is made using actual data.
IMPLEMENTATION AND
MAINTENANCE IMPLEMENTATION
Implementation refers to the actual delivery, installation and putting of the new
program into use. The program is put into use after it is fully tested, well
documented, and after training the staff who will be involved in the running of the
new program.

Structured Walk Through:

It is an organized style of evaluating/reviewing a program by a team of other
programmers, which then reports to the programming team.

REVIEW AND MAINTENANCE.

Once the program becomes operational, it should be maintained throughout its life,
i.e., new routines should be added, obsolete routines removed, & the existing
routines adjusted so that the program may adapt to enhanced functional
environments.

The main objective of maintenance is to keep the system functioning at an

acceptable level.

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Program maintenance mainly involves: -

√ Correcting errors that may be encountered after the program has been
implemented or exposed to extensive use.

√ Changing procedures.

√ Hardware and software maintenance.

√ Changing parameters and algorithms used to develop the original programs.

√ Making any adjustments as new technology comes.

Note. Program maintenance runs parallel to the maintenance of the program

documentation, i.e., any time maintenance is carried out on the program, the
documentation should also be updated to convey the right image of the system.

PROGRAM DOCUMENTATION

After writing, testing, and debugging a program, it must be documented. In other

words, the programmer should describe all what he was doing during the program
development stages. Program documentation is the writing of supportive
materials explaining how the program can be used by users, installed by operators,
or modified by other programmers.

Types of program documentation.

There are 3 target groups for any type of documentation:

1. User-oriented documentation.
This enables the user to learn how to use the program as quickly as possible,
and with little help from the program developer.

2. Operator-oriented documentation:
This is meant for computer operators such as the technical staff. It is used to
help them install & maintain the program.

3. Programmer-oriented documentation:
This is a detailed documentation written for skilled programmers. It provides
the necessary technical information to help in future modification of the
program.

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Some documents used in program documentation.
(1). User guide/ manual.
This is a manual provided for an end-user to enable him/her use or operate the
program with minimal or no guidance.

A User guide is used in user-oriented documentation.

(2). Reference guide.

It is used by someone who already knows how to use the program but needs to
be reminded about a particular point or obtain more detailed information about
a particular feature.

(3). Quick Reference guide.

This could be a single sheet or card small enough to fit into a pocket. It is used
by the user to get help for the common tasks carried out within the program.

(4). Technical manuals.

They are intended for System analysts & Programmers. They assist in
maintaining & modifying the program design and code.

Contents in a program document.

Documentation includes:

1. Title of the program.

2. Function of the program.
3. Language used.
4. Hardware & Software required to support the processing of the system.
5. File specifications (details of the data structures used, & details of how data
files are to be organized, accessed, and kept secure).
6. Limitations of the program.
7. Format of the input & the output expected.
8. Design of the program using the design tools (i.e., detailed algorithms &
procedures used).
9. A listing of the Source program and the program flowcharts.
10. A carefully devised set of Test data, and a table of expected results.
11. Detailed instructions on how to run the program.

Review Questions.

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1. State the three types of errors that can be experienced in program testing, and
how each can be detected.
2. Syntax errors can be detected by the help of translators while logical errors are
detected differently.
Explain FIVE methods which can be used to detect Logical errors.

3. What is program designing?

4. (a). Define program documentation.
(b). What does a program documentation contain?

5. Briefly explain how each of the following documents are useful in

programming? (a). User manual / guide.
(b). Reference guide.

(c). Quick reference guide.

6. Program documentation is different from Implementation. Explain.

7. Outline and briefly explain the stages involved in program development.

DEVELOPING OF ALGORITHMS
After carefully analyzing the requirements specification, the programmer usually
comes up with the algorithm.

Definition of an Algorithm:
 An Algorithm is a limited number of logical steps that a program follows in
order to solve a problem.
 A step-by-step (a set of) instructions which when followed will produce a
solution to a given problem.
√ Algorithms take little or no account of the programming language.

√ They must be precise/ accurate, unambiguous/clear and should guarantee a

solution.

PSEUDO CODES

 A pseudo code is a method of documenting a program logic in which English-

like statements are used to describe the processing steps.
 These are structured English-like phrases that indicate the program steps to be
followed to solve a given problem.

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√ The term “Code” usually refers to a computer program. This implies that, some
of the words used in a pseudo code may be drawn from a certain programming
language and then mixed with English to form structured statements that are
easily understood by non-programmers, and also make a lot of sense to
programmers.

However, pseudo codes are not executable by a computer.

Guidelines for designing a good pseudocode.

1. The statements must be short, clear and readable.
2. The statements must not have more than one meaning (i.e., should not be
ambiguous).
3. The pseudocode lines should be clearly outlined and indented.
4. A pseudocode must have a Begin and an end.
i.e., a pseudocode should show clearly the start and stop of executable
statements and the control structures.
5. The input, output and processing statements should be clearly stated using
keywords such as PRINT, READ, INPUT, etc.

FLOW CHARTS

 A Flowchart is a diagrammatic or pictorial representation of a program’s

algorithm.
 It is a chart that demonstrates the logical sequence of events that must be
performed to solve a problem.
Types of Flow charts.
There are 2 common types of
Flowcharts:

1). System flowchart.

A System flowchart is a graphical model that illustrates each basic step of a

data processing system. It illustrates (in summary) the sequence of events in a
system, showing the department or function responsible for each event.

2). Program flowchart.

This is a diagram that describes, in sequence, all the operations required to
process data in a computer program.

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 A program flowchart graphically represents the types of instructions contained
in a computer program as well as their sequence & logic.

Advantages of using Flowcharts.

The following are the benefits of Flowcharts:

(i). Quicker understanding of relationships.

They assist programmers to understand procedures more quickly.

A programmer can represent a lengthy procedure more easily with the help of
a flowchart than describing it by means of written notes.

(ii). Effective synthesis.

Flowcharts may be used as working models in the design of new programs
and systems.

(iii). Proper program documentation.

Program flowcharts serve as good program documentation, which is needed
for the following reasons:
(a). If programs are modified in future, the flowcharts will direct the
programmer on what was originally done.
(b). When staff changes occur, the flowcharts may help new employees
understand the existing programs.
(c). Flowcharts assist in program conversion when new hardware/software are
acquired.

(iv). Effective coding.

Program flowcharts act as a guide during the program preparation stage.
Instructions coded in a programming language may be checked against the
flowchart to ensure that no steps are omitted.

(v). Orderly debugging and testing of programs.

Flowcharts help in detecting, locating and removing mistakes.

The programmer can refer to the flowchart as he/she re-checks the coding
steps, & the logic of the written instructions.

(vi). Efficient program maintenance.

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 Flowcharts facilitate the maintenance of operating programs. They help the
programmer to concentrate on the part of the information flow which is to be
modified.

Limitations of using Flowcharts.

(i). Flowcharts are complex, clumsy & become unclear, especially when the
program logic is complex.

(ii). If changes are to be made, the flowchart may require complete re-drawing.

(iii). Reproduction of flowcharts is usually a problem, since the flowchart symbols

cannot be typed.

(iv). No uniform practice is followed for drawing flowcharts as it is used as an aid

to the program.

(v). Sometimes, it becomes difficult to establish the link between various

conditions, and the actions to be taken upon a particular condition.

TOPIC 12: COMPUTER SECURITY

COMPUTER SECURITY RISKS

This is any event or action that could cause a loss or damage to computer
hardware, software, data or information. Any illegal act involving a computer is
generally referred to as a computer crime. Cyber-crime refers to online or
internet-based illegal acts. The aim of computer security is to enhance the
confidentiality, availability, and integrity of computer systems.

Confidentiality is a set of rules that limit access to information. i.e. only authorized
users are allowed to access. Integrity is the assurance that the information is trust
worthy and accurate. Availability is a guarantee of reliable access to the
information by authorized users

Computer System Security Risks

Some of the most common computer security risks or threats to computer systems
include;

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 Computer viruses
 Errors and accidents
 Natural disasters
 Unauthorized access to computer systems
 Hardware, software& information theft
 System failure

COMPUTER VIRUSES

A computer virus is a malicious program designed to damage other programs,

data and other computer resources in order disrupt the operation of the computer
system.

Categories of Computer Viruses

Viruses are categorized into two depending on the risks or threats and the primary
impacts posed by them onto the computer. They are categorized into; destructive
and Non-destructive viruses.

Types of Viruses

o Boot sector virus. This executes when the computer starts up because it resides
in the boot sector of a floppy disk or the master boot record of a hard disk.
o File virus. This attaches itself to program files and is loaded into memory when
the infected program is run
o Worm. This copies itself repeatedly in memory or on a disk drive until no
memory or disk space remains, which makes the computer to stop working
o Macro virus. This uses the macro language of an application, e.g. word
processor, to hide the virus code.
o Malware. Refers to malicious software designed to affect the computer
negatively.
o Logic bomb. Is a virus that activates when it detects a certain condition. A time
bomb is a kind of logic bomb that activates on a particular date.
o Trojan horse. Is a destructive program that hides within or looks like a
legitimate program, but executes when a certain condition or action is triggered.
o Polymorphic virus. This modifies its program code each time it attaches itself
to another program or file, so that even an antivirus utility has difficulty in

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 detecting it.
o Spyware. Is computer software that is installed stealthily on a personal
computer, to monitor and track the user’s online activities, internet connection,
etc.
o Adware. (Advertising supported software) is any software package which
automatically plays, displays or downloads advertising material to a computer
after it is installed.

Symptoms of Viruses
1. Corruption of programs and data files making.
2. Unfamiliar graphics or puzzling messages appearing on the screen
3. Programs taking longer than usual to open
4. Loss of access to disk drives on your computer
5. Unusual error messages occurring more frequently
6. Less memory available than usual
7. Access lights turning on for non-referred devices
8. Programs and data files disappearing mysteriously
9. Executable files changing size for no obvious reasons

Sources/Spread of Computer Viruses

1. Contact with contaminated systems. Any diskettes used on a contaminated
system could become contaminated. If the same diskettes are used on another
system, then the virus will spread.
2. Using pirated software. This introduces the risk that the software may be
contaminated by the virus code or amended to perform some other destructive
function which may affect your computer system.
3. Infected proprietary software. Virus programs can contaminate software under
development in laboratories and which is then installed onto disks containing
the finished software products.
4. Fake games. Most people like playing games on computers and for that reason
games programs spread very fast. Fake games contain viruses and as they are
installed, the viruses infect the computer system.
5. Use of freeware and shareware. Both freeware and shareware are commonly
available on the internet. Such programs should be treated with caution and

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 initially used in a controlled environment until it is clear that the program does
not contain either viruses or destructive codes
6. E-mail attachments. The files attached may come from an infected computer.
7. Network infection. When the computers are connected to a network, and one
computer is infected, it can easily infect others.
8. Updates of software distributed via networks. Software distributed via networks
is fairly obvious targets for virus programmers, as they provide an in-
builtmethod for wide-spread and anonymous propagation.

Precautions to Prevent Against Virus Infections

1. Never start up a computer with a floppy disk in the floppy drive
2. Ensure that the e-mail is from a trusted source before opening or executing any
e-mail attachment
3. Install an antivirus utility and update its virus definitions frequently for
detecting and removing viruses
4. Ensure that there is a policy for the usage of computers, their protection and
regulations
5. Scan all floppy disks and files for possible virus infection before opening them
6. Always scan your downloads and email attachments before opening them.
7. Write-protect the recovery disk before using it
8. Avoid sharing of disks as other computers may be infected
9. Back-up important files regularly

UNAUTHORISED ACCESS
This is the use of a computer or network without permission. It may also be the use
of a computer or its data for unapproved or possibly illegal activities. Examples
include; an employee using a company computer to send personal e-mails;
someone gaining access to a bank computer and performing unauthorized
transactions.

Hardware Theft; Thisis the act of stealing computer equipment or the hardware
components of the computer. The act of defacing or destroying computer
equipment is known as hardware vandalism.

Software Theft; This is the physical stealing of the media, e.g. floppy or CD-
ROM, hard disk or a computer, which contains software. Software piracy is the

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illegal making of copies of the copyrighted software.

Data/Information Theft; This refers to someone stealing personal or confidential

information from others. Information privacy is the right of individuals or
organisations to restrict the collection, and use of information about them.

System Failure; This is a prolonged malfunction of a computer that can also

cause; software, data or information loss.

Common causes of system failure include;

 aging hardware,
 Viruses,
 Natural disasters like; floods, storms, or earthquakes,
 Power fluctuations, etc Electrical power variation..
 Files should be backed-up regularly to prevent data loss caused by a system
failure

Control Measures Against Unauthorized Access, Hardware Theft, Software

Theft, and Information Theft.
1. Implement access control to computers, information and networks.
2. Keep the computer room locked when not in use and use passwords, possessed
objects and biometrics as a method of security
3. Install alarm systems and security cameras for 24 hours surveillance.
4. Employ security guards to keep watch over data and information centres and
back-ups
5. Use file passwords to deter any person who may get unauthorised access to
electronic files
6. Use cables and chains to lock the equipment to a desk, cabinet or floor
7. Back-up all files stored on the computer regularly
8. Use licenses and certificates keys to identify original software
9. Make software cheap enough to increase affordability
10.Enact laws that protect the owners of information and software against piracy
11.Encrypt the data and information during transmission.Data encryption is a form
of data security where data is converted to a form that only the sender and
receiver can understand

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12.Setting firewalls. A firewall is a system designed to prevent unauthorised
access to or from a private network. Firewalls can be implemented in both
hardware and software, or a combination of both

INTERNET AND NETWORK ATTACKS

Denial of Service (DoS) Attack; this refers to making a network resource
unavailable to the intended users. Distributed Denial of Service attacks are sent by
two or more people. i.e. when two or more people attack a computer system or a
network to make the resources unavailable to the intended users.

Backdoors; this is a method of by-passing normal authentication, to secure

unauthorised remote access to a computer to obtain data or information while
attempting to remain undetected. Default passwords and some debugging features
can function as backdoors if they are not changed or removed by the user.

Spoofing; a spoofing attack is a situation in which the attacker successfully

masquerades as another by falsifying data and thereby gaining an illegitimate
advantage. Many of the protocols in the TCP/IP suite are vulnerable to spoofing
attacks. Firewalls are used to mitigate spoofing in the TCP/IP suite.

Phishing; is the activity of defrauding an online account holder of financial

information by posing as a legitimate company

Hacking; ahacker is a person who intentionally breaks codes and passwords to

gain unauthorised entry to a computer system connected to a network and illegally
access information.

PRECAUTIONS TO PREVENT INTERNET AND NETWORK ATTACKS

1. Implement access controls to computers and networks
2. Use data encryption techniques.
3. Use log files and audit trails which record whatever goes in and out of a
particular server or computer.
4. Setting firewalls.
5. Install alarm systems which can alarm in case of any suspected attack
6. Use passwords, possessed objects and biometrics as a method of security

COMPUTER CRIMES

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These are criminal activities which involve the use of IT to gain an illegal access to
a computer system with the intension of damaging, deleting or altering computer
data/information. Computer crimes include the following;

o Hacking. This refers to intentionally breaking codes and passwords to gain

unauthorised entry to a computer system connected to a network and illegally
access information.
o Cracking. This is the use of guesswork over and over again by a person until
they discover a weakness in the computer system. It is done by people who
have an idea of passwords or usernames of authorised staff
o Trespass. Is the illegal physical entry to restricted places where computer
hardware, software or data is kept. It also involves accessing information
illegally on a local or remote computer over a network.
o Tapping. This involves the sending of an intelligent program from the
attacking computer to the host computer that stores and sends information to
intercept messages being sent and received.
o Piracy. Piracy means making illegal copies of copyrighted software,
information or data. Software, information and data are protected by the
copyright law
o Fraud. Computer fraud is the use of computers to steal information or cheat
other people to gain money or information. Some fraud may involve production
and use of fake documents
o Sabotage. This is the illegal destruction of data and information with the aim of
crippling service delivery or causing great loss to an organisation.
o Alteration. This is the illegal changing of data/information without permission
from the owner with the aim of gaining or misinforming the authorised users.
o Phishing. Is the activity of defrauding an online account holder of financial
information by posing as a legitimate company.
o Cyber-stalking. Is the repeated use of electronic communication to harass or
frighten someone, for example by sending threatening emails.
DETECTION AND PREVENTION OF COMPUTER CRIMES
1. Implement access control to computers and networks.
2. Encrypt the data and information during transmission

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3. Use log files and audit trails which record whatever goes in and out of a
particular server or computer.
4. Setting firewalls.
5. Install alarm systems which can alarm in case of any suspected attack
6. Use passwords, possessed objects and biometrics as a method of security
7. Back-up all files stored on the computer regularly
8. Enforce data and information access control policies on all employees and other
users
9. Keep the computer room locked when nobody is using it and install security
cameras for surveillance
10.Re-enforce weak access points like doors &windows with metallic grills,
burglar proofs and alarm systems
11.Employ security guards to keep watch over data and information centres and
back-ups

COMPUTERS AND HEALTH RISKS

Prolonged use of computers can lead to health risks such as; repetitive injury, eye
strain, lower back pain, muscle fatigue, emotional fatigue, headache.
Precautions to Prevent the Above Health Risks
1. Pay attention to sitting posture. i.e. have a good sitting posture
2. Take a break to stand up, walk around, or stretch every 30 to 60 minutes
3. Place the display device about an arm’s length away from the eyes with the top
of the screen at eye level or below
4. Place a wrist-rest between the keyboard and the edge of the desk
5. Minimise the number of times to switch between the mouse and the keyboard
6. Adjust the lighting in the room
7. Ensure that the workplace is designed ergonomically

ERGONOMICS
Ergonomics means incorporating comfort, efficiency and safety into the design of
items in the workplace. Some keyboards have in-built wrist rests. Most display
devices have a tilt-and-swivel base and controls to adjust the brightness, contrast,
positioning, height and width of images.

COMPUTER ETHICS

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Are the normal guidelines that govern the use of computers and information
systems. Frequently concerned areas of computer ethics are; unauthorised access
and use of computer systems, software piracy, information privacy, information
accuracy, intellectual property rights, codes of conduct
Intellectual Property Rights
Intellectual property rights are the rights to which the creators of intellectual
property are entitled for their work. Intellectual property refers to work created by
inventors, authors, and artists.

A copyright gives authors and artists exclusive rights to duplicate, publish and sell
their materials. A common breach of copyright is software piracy. Copyright law
usually gives the public fair use to copyrighted materials (e.g. educational
purposes).

A trademark protects a company’s logos and brand names.

IT Codes of Conduct
A code of conduct is a written guideline that helps determine whether a specific
action is ethical or unethical. Some IT codes of conduct include;

1. Computers may not be used to harm other people

2. Users may not interfere with others’ computer work
3. Users may not interfere with other’s computer files
4. Computers may not be used to steal
5. Computers may not be used to bear false witness
6. Users may not copy or use software illegally
7. Users may not use other’s computer resources without authorisation
8. Users shall consider the social impact of programs and systems they design
9. Users should always use computers in a way that demonstrates consideration
and respect for other people

EMERGING TECHNOLOGIES

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Are new technologies that are currently developing, which will substantially alter
the business and social environment. Examples include; Artificial intelligence,
digital forensics, virtualisation, quantum computing, etc.

Artificial Intelligence:Is the process of building computer systems that simulate

human thought process and actions, which include reasoning and learning from
past mistakes. The goal of artificial intelligence is not to replace human
intelligence which is not replaceable; rather it is to help people to be more
productive.

Several tools that emulate human problem solving and information processing
have been developed. Many of these tools are applied in; business, agriculture,
health, astronomy, education, industry and manufacturing etc. Examples artificial
intelligence systems include; expert systems, artificial neural networks and robots.

Cloud Computing: Is the practice of using a network of remote severs hosted on

the internet to store, manage and process data, rather than a local sever or a PC.
Cloud computing allocates individual users a specific storage capacity on the
remote server. It also provides all needed application program interfaces for the
users.

Virtualisation: Is the process of creating logical computing resources from

available physical resources. This is accomplished using virtualisation software to
create a layer of abstraction between workloads and the underlying physical
hardware.Once installed, the virtualised computing resources such as memory,
CPUs, networks, can all be pooled and provisioned to workloads without regard
for physical location with a data centre

Digital forensics: This is the process of uncovering and interpreting electronic data
for use in courts of law.The goal of the process is to preserve any evidence in its
most original form while performing a structured investigation by collecting,
identifying and validating the digital information for the purpose of reconstructing
past events.

Virtual Reality (VR): Is the use of computers to create an artificial environment

that appears and feels like a real environment. A VR application normally displays
a three-dimensional (3-D) view of a place or object, and allows the user to explore

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the place or manipulate the object. VR software users usually have to wear
specialised headgear, body suits, and gloves to enhance the experience of the
artificial environment.

Quantum Computation: Is a branch of computing focussed on developing

computer technology based on the principles of quantum theory, which explains
the nature and behaviour of energy and matter on the quantum level, i.e. on the
atomic and subatomic level.

Robotics: This is a branch of computing that deals with the design, construction,
operation, and application of robots. A robot is a computer controlled device that
can move and react to instructions from the outside world. Robots are suitable for
jobs that require; repetitive tasks, lifting heavy equipment, and high degree of
accuracy.

Simulation: This refers to computer-based models of real-life situations.

Simulations often replace costly and sometimes hazardous demonstrations in
teaching and learning.

Green Computing: This is the use of computers and related resources in an

environmentally responsible manner. Achieving Green Computing involves the
following;

1. Using servers and peripheral devices that are economical in power consumption
2. Ensuring proper disposal of electronic waste (e-waste) like used up printer
cartridges and spoilt devices
3. Using the power options in the control panel of your computer to eliminate
unnecessary power consumption
4. Turning off your computer and peripherals when you are not using them
5. Recycling unwanted printouts and printing on both sides of eachpaper to reduce
the volume of papers used

CAREERS IN THE ICT INDUSTRY

A career is an occupation or profession, especially one requiring special
training, followed as one’s life work. Below are some of the career
opportunities it the ICT sector

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o Computer Repair. This is the repair of computer systems as well as
maintenance of hardware and software. A person who repairs computers is
called a Computer Technician. Computer technicians also assemble and
upgrade computers and their components. They also ensure that accessories are
in good working conditions
o System Analysis. It refers to analysing needs for a given company or
individuals and then design and develop a computer based information system,
to cater for such needs. This job is done by a System Analyst
o Programming. This is the process of writing programs to solve a given
problem, testing it to ensure it is accurate and preparing documentation
(manual) to support it. This job is done by aComputer Programmer
o Computer Engineering. This is designing and developing computer
components, determining the power requirements for each component and also
controlled devices like robots, printers and scanners. The person who does this
is called a Computer Engineer
o Database Administration. Database administration is the designing of
database applications for organisations and individuals, managing and updating
records stored in the database, modifying and deleting unnecessary records. A
person who does this job is called a Database Administrator (DBA)
o Information System Management. This job is done by an InformationSystem
Manager, also known as an IT manager. He control, plans, staffs, schedules
and monitors all the activities of the ICT/IT department
o Computer/ICT Training. This is training of learners in ICT skills. This is
done by a Computer/ICT Trainer
o Web design. Is the process of planning and creating a website.
o A Web Designer or Webmaster is the individual responsible for developing and
maintaining a website.
o Network Administration. This involves the building, maintaining, managing
and repairing an organization’s computer networks. This job is done by a
Network Administrator.
o Software Engineering. Is the science and art of building significant software
systems that are on-time, on budget, with acceptable performance and with
correct operation. This job is done by a Software Engineer

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CAREER OPPORTUNITIES IN INFORMATION AND
COMMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGY
Information and communications technology (ICT) has created new job titles such
as;
A. Computer technician.
Given that all computers requires regular maintenance, upgrading as well
emergency repairs, demand for computer technicians continue to grow as more and
more computerize their work place and homes.
Responsibilities of a computer technician
1. Troubleshooting computer hardware and software related problems.
2. Ensuring that all computer related accessories such as printers, modems, storage
media etc. working properly.
3. Assembling and upgrading computers and their components.
4. In developed countries, technicians help hardware engineers in designing and
creating some computer components such as motherboards, storage devices etc.
B. System analyst.
The is a person who is responsible for analyzing a company’s needs or problems
then designs and develops a computer based information system.
Responsibilities
1. Reviewing the current manual or redundant information system and making
recommendations on how to replace it with a more efficient one.
2. Working with programmers to construct and test the system.
3. Coordinating training for users of the new system.
C. Computer programmer.
Large organizations like insurance companies, banks, manufacturing firms and
government agencies hire programmers to work together with system analyst in
order to;

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1. Write in-house applications programs or system programs
2. Customize commercial application package to suite the organization needs.
3. Test, debug, install and maintain programs developed or customized for the
organization.
D. Software engineer.
A software engineer is one who is skilled in software development and technical
operation of computer hardware.
Responsibilities
1. Developing system and application software.
2. Developing user and technical documentations for the new software.
3. Maintaining and updating the software to meet day to day requirements while
overcoming challenges.
E. Computer engineer.
Computer and electronic engineers are coming up with more efficient and
communication technology almost daily. Since computers are electronic devices,
hardware designers must be good in electronic engineering in order to be able to;
1. Design and develop computer components such as storage devices,
motherboards and other electronic components.
2. Re-engineer computer components to enhance its functionality and efficiency.
3. Design and develop engineering an manufacturing computer controlled devices
such as robots.
F. Information system manager.
The information system manger controls, plans, staffs, schedules and monitors all
activities of the ICT department in the organization. Using computerized
management information systems (MIS), the manager can test the impact that an
alternative course of action might have on the business.

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Other responsibilities
1. Making sure that all tasks in the IT department are done correctly and on time
in order to support business planning, control and decision making processes.
2. Preparing budgets for the department.
3. Keeping the department inventory records up-to-date.
4. Managing the human resource within the department.
G. Computer trainer.
Due to the dynamic nature of computers and information technology, there is a
high demand for qualified ICT trainers. Some of the responsibilities of an ICT
trainer are;
1. Training people on how to use a computer and various application programs.
2. Developing training reference materials.
3. Guide learners on how to acquire knowledge through carrying out research.
4. Advising learners on the best career opportunities in the broad field f ICT.
5. Preparing learners for ICT examinations.
H. Database administrator.
The major purpose of computerizing organizations or institutions is to store data in
an organized way for easy access, retrieval and update. For this reason, a database
administrator is responsible for;
1. Designing and developing database application for the organization.
2. Setting up security measures needed to control access to data and information.
3. Keeping the database up-to-date by adding new records, modifying or deleting
unnecessary records.
I. Website administrator/ Web master.
Internet is one of the areas of information and communication technology that has
drawn the interests of most people. These people are able to exchange messages,
search for information and business through the internet.

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Business organizations, educational institutions and individuals put information on
the internet by developing websites. Most organizations hire the services of a web
developer who is given the role of a company’s web administrator also referred to
as a web master.
Responsibilities
1. Developing and testing websites.
2. Maintaining, updating and modifying information on the websites to meet new
demands by the users.
3. Monitoring the access and use of internet connection by enforcing security
measures
4. Downloading information needed by an organization or institution from internet
websites.

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