ELEMENTS OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

UNIT-I

LEARNING MATERIAL

 Civil engineering is an engineering discipline that deals with the design.

Construction and maintenance of the built structures such as buildings,
bridges, roads, railways, canals, dams, reservoirs, and spillways.
 Civil engineering is the oldest engineering discipline after military
engineering, and was defined to distinguish non-military engineering
from military engineering.
 It is traditionally broken into several sub-disciplines including structural,
geotechnical, water resource, environmental, transportation,
construction and management, municipal or urban, coastal engineering,
and surveying.
 Many of the civil engineering developments have become essential in
subsequently developed disciplines of engineering.
Civil engineering is a broad field in engineering which includes the following:

1. Surveying

2. Building materials

3. Construction technology

4. Geotechnical engineering

5. Structural engineering

6. Hydraulics

7. Water resources and irrigation engineering

8. Transportation engineering

9. Environmental engineering

Surveying:

 Surveying is a preliminary process required for planning of any

 construction and developmental activities.
 A surveyor is the person who measures dimensions that usually occur on
the earth's surface using surveying equipment's. These measurements
are represented graphically in the form of survey maps.
 Survey maps provide the relative positions of various objects of the area
in the horizontal as well as vertical directions.
 Earlier, conventional instruments such as chain, tape, compasses,
theodolites and levels were used for various measurements in surveying.
With computerization, electronic distance measurement (EDM), total
stations, GPS (global positioning system) surveying and laser scanning
have supplemented (and to a large extent supplanted) the traditional
optical instruments.
 This information is then used by civil engineers, contractors and even
realtors to design from, build on, and trade, respectively. Elements of a
building or structure must be correctly sized and positioned in relation to
each other and to site boundaries and adjacent structures.
Building Materials:

 Conventional materials used for the construction of houses and other

buildings are stones, bricks, timber and lime concrete.
 The invention of cement and concrete has facilitated in building durable
structures.
 Reinforced concrete which is composite construction of steel and
concrete has helped in building large structures.
 Steel, aluminum, glass, plastics, glazed tiles, plaster of paris, linoleum,
paints and varnishes have improved the quality and appearance of
buildings.
 Improved versions of many building materials keep on appearing in the
market regularly. A civil engineer has to make use of all these materials
judiciously.
Construction technology:

 Construction technology involves study on methods of construction and

construction equipment's that facilitate in efficient and economic
construction processes.
 It includes planning and execution of the designs from transportation,
site development, hydraulic, environmental, structural and geotechnical
 engineers.
 The modern trend is towards constructing lighter and taller buildings
which is always a big challenge in the era of financial crunch.
 To achieve it successfully there is a need to have sophisticated
equipment’s.
 Excavation of foundation is also a challenging task in an area
surrounded by existing buildings and a busy road. All of these factors
should be considered while estimating the cost of the construction
project.
Geotechnical engineering:

 All structures have to finally transfer the load acting on them to soil or
earth safely.
 Properties of soil change from place to place. In fact, at same place it may
not be uniform at different depth and in different seasons. Hence, it
becomes essential for a civil engineer to properly investigate soil and
decide the safe load that can be spread on the soil.
 This branch of study in civil engineering is called geotechnical
engineering. Apart from finding safe bearing capacity for foundation of
buildings, geotechnical engineering involves various studies required for
the design of pavements, tunnels, earthen dam, canals and
earth-retaining structures. It also includes the study of ground
improvement techniques.
Structural engineering:

 Structural engineering is concerned with the analysis and design of

various components of a structure for the possible forces that are coming
on it.
 This involves identifying the loads which act upon a structure and the
forces and stresses which arise within the structure due to those loads,
and then designing the structure to successfully support and resist those
loads.
 Further, the structure should be safe fulfilling successfully the functions
(to be serviceable) and at the same time its components should be as
small as possible.
 Disasters due to earthquakes have made civil engineers to study
earthquake forces and build earthquake resistant structures. It needs
the knowledge of structural dynamics.
 A civil engineer has to give not only a safe structure but also an
economical structure. This needs the study of mathematical optimization
techniques.
 All these aspects of analysis and design fall under the structural
engineering field.
Hydraulics:

 Water is an important resource for all living beings. The study of

mechanics of water and its flow characteristics is called hydraulics. It is
related with the design of pipelines, water distribution systems, etc.
Water Resources and Irrigation Engineering :

 The requirement of water in cities for domestic purpose and for

industries is continuously increasing. Rural areas also need water for
agriculture.
 Hence, civil engineers have to look for new water resources and plan for
storing them. The branch of civil engineering concerned with the
collection and management of water is known as water resources
engineering.
 It includes both the prediction and management of the quality and the
quantity of water in both underground (aquifers) and above ground
(lakes, rivers, and streams) resources. Water stored in reservoirs by
building bunds and dams should be brought to agricultural fields
through canals and distributaries. Study connected with this aspect is
known as irrigation engineering.
Transportation Engineering:

 For the growth of a nation, the transportation facility forms an important

requirement.
 It is concerned with provision of safe and economic communication for
the movement of people and goods.
 It involves design and construction of roads with suitable surface
finishes, cross drainage works, intersections, culverts, bridges and
tunnels, etc.
 On the other hand, railways is another long-way transport facility.
Design, construction and maintenance of railway lines are parts of
transportation engineering.
 Globalization has resulted into requirement of airports and harbors.
  For proper planning of these transport facilities, traffic survey is to be
carried out. Carrying out traffic survey and then planning, designing,
construction and maintenance of roads, railways, bridges, tunnels,
airports and harbors is known as transportation engineering.
Environmental Engineering:

 Environmental Engineering deals with the supply of potable water to the

people, disposal of properly treated waste, and control of environmental
pollution.
 Technology of purification of water and its supply to domestic locations is
known as water supply engineering.
 Waste waster and solid waste generated at the domestic and industrial
locations should be treated and disposed of so that they do not create
health hazards. This branch of civil engineering is known as sanitary
engineering.
 Apart from tackling solid and waste water disposal, civil engineers have
to tackle air pollution problem. Due to industrialization air pollution is
becoming a major problem. During the last century, environmental
pollution has resulted in global warming (by 4°C).
 Further, environmental engineering also deals with the gathering of
information on the environmental consequences of proposed actions and
the assessment of effects of proposed actions for the purpose of assisting
society and policy makers in the decision making process.
 Hence, environmental engineering is emerging as an important field of
study in civil engineering.
Infrastructure:

 It typically refers to the technical structures that support a society, such

as roads, water supply and sanitation, power grids, telecommunications,
and so on.
 When considered functionally, infrastructure facilitates production of
goods and services; for example, roads enable transport of raw materials
to a factory, and later the distribution of finished products to markets.
 In some contexts, the term infrastructure may also include basic social
services, such as schools and hospitals.
Role of Civil Engineer in Society/ Infrastructure development:

A Civil engineer has to conceive, plan, estimate, get the approval, create and
maintain all civil engineering activities. A civil engineer has a very important
role in the development of the following infrastructure:

(i) Measure and map the earth's surface.

(ii) Plan new townships and extension of existing towns.

(iii) Construct suitable structures for rural and urban areas for various
utilities.

(iv) Build tanks and dams to exploit water resources.

(v) Build river navigation and flood control projects.

(vi) Construct canals and distributaries to take water to agricultural

fields.

(vii) Purify and supply water to the needy areas such as houses, schools.
and offices.

(viii) Provide and maintain communication systems such as math,

railways, harbours and airports.

(ix) Devise systems for control and efficient flow of traffic.

(x) Provide and maintain solid and waste water disposal system.

(xi) Monitor land, water and air pollution and take measures to control
them. Fast growing industrialization has put heavy responsibilities on
civil engineers to preserve and protect environment.

Effect of Infrastructure Facilities on Socio-economic Development of a

Country:

Civil engineering activities in the infrastructural development include:

(i) Good planning of towns and extension areas in cities. Each extension
area should be self-sufficient in accommodating offices, educational
institutions, markets, hospitals, recreational facilities and residential
accommodation.
(ii) Assured water supply.
(iii) A good drainage system.
(iv) Pollution free environmental conditions.
(v) A well planned and built network of roads and road crossings.
(vi) Railways connecting all important cities and towns.
Airports and harbours of national and international standards
 ELEMENTS OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

UNIT-II

LEARNING MATERIAL

UNIT-II

SURVEYING
Definition: Surveying is the art of making measurements of objects on, above
or beneath the ground to show their relative positions on paper. The relative
position required is either horizontal or vertical.

Classification of surveying:

I. Plane Surveying

II. Geodetic Surveying

Plane Surveying: It is that type of survey in which the mean surface of the
earth is considered as a plane and the spherical shape of the earth is ignored.

Geodetic Surveying: It is that type of survey in which the spherical shape of

the earth is taken into account.

Surveying may be classified based on three points:

a) Nature of the field of survey

b) Objective of survey and

c) Instruments used

a) Nature of the field of survey: It is further classified into three types

i) Land Survey

ii) Marine or Hydrographic survey

iii) Astronomical survey

i. Land Surrey: It involves measurement of various objects on land.

This type of survey may be further classified as given below:

1) Topographic Surveys: They consist of measurement of various points to
plot natural features such as rivers. Streams, lakes, hills and forests as
well as manmade features like roads, railways, towns. Villages and
canals.
 2) Cadastral Surveys: These surveys are for marking boundaries of
municipalities, states, etc. The surveys made to mark properties of
individuals also come under this category.
3) City Surveys: The surveys made in connection with the construction of
streets, water supply and sewage lines fall under this category.

ii. Marine or hydrographic Surreys: The survey conducted to find depth

of water at various points in bodies of water like sea, river and lakes fall
under this category of surveying.
iii. Astronomical Surreys: Observations made to heavenly bodies like sun
and stars to locate absolute position of points on the earth and for the
purpose of calculating local times is known as astronomical survey.

On the basis of objective of surveying, the classification can be as

1. Engineering survey,

2. Military survey.

3. Mines survey.

4. Geological survey and

5. Archaeological survey.

Engineering Survey: The objective of this type of surveying is to collect data

for designing roads, railways. Irrigation, water supply and sewage disposal
projects.

Military Survey: This survey is meant for working out points of strategic
importance.

Mine Survey: This is used for exploring mineral wealth

Geological Survey: This survey is for finding different strata in the earth's
crust.

Archaeological Survey: This survey is for unearthing relics of antiquity.

Classification Based on Instruments Used

Based on the instruments used Surveying may be classified into the following:

1. Chain Survey

2. Compass Survey

3. Plane Table Survey

4. Theodolite Survey
 5. Tachometric Survey

6. Modem Survey using electronic equipment like distance metres and total
stations

7. Photographic and Aerial Survey

Fundamental principles of surveying:

I. Work From Whole to Part
II. Locating a point in plain survey with respect to two reference points

I Work from whole to part:

• In surveying large areas, systems of control points are identified and they
are located with high precision.

• Then secondary control points are located using less precise methods.
• With respect the secondary control points details of the localized areas
are measured and plotted.
• This is called working from whole to part. This principle in surveying
helps in localising the errors.
II Locating a point in plain survey with respect to two reference
points:

Linear Measurement:

There are various methods of making linear measurements and their relative
merit depends upon the degree of precision required. They can be mainly
divided into three heads
1. Direct measurements.

2. Measurements by optical means.

3. Electro-magnetic methods.

Direct measurements: In the case of direct measurements, distances are

actually measured on the ground with help of a chain or a tape or any other
instrument

Measurements by optical means: In the optical methods, observations are

taken through a telescope and calculations are done for the distances, such as
in tacheometry or triangulation.

Electro-magnetic methods: In the electro-magnetic methods, distances are

measured with instruments that rely on propagation, reflection and
subsequent reception of either radio waves, light waves or infrared waves.

Chain Surveying:
• Chain survey is the most common survey usually done in all the
engineering projects for the preparation of the plans.
• In this, only linear measurements are taken in the field and no angular
measurements are to be taken.

• In this, chain is the main instrument used for the measurement of the
linear distances and hence it is known as chain survey.

• The principle of chain survey is to provide a skeleton or framework

consisting of a number of connected triangles. Triangle is the only simple
figure that can be plotted from lengths of the sides measured in the field.
 • Main Station: These are the stations at the beginning or at the end of
lines forming main skeleton. They are denoted as A, B, C ...etc
• Subsidiary or Tie Stations.. These are the stations selected on main lines
to run auxiliary/secondary lines for the purpose of locating interior
details. These stations arc denoted as a, b, c ...etc. or as 1, 2, 3 etc

• Base Line: It is the most important line and is the longest line.

• Check Lines: The lines which are run in the field to check the accuracy of
the work are called check lines. If the measured line agrees with the
length scaled off the plan, the survey is correct.

Selection of Stations:

(i) A station selected should be visible from at least two more stations.
(ii) If possible should have one or two base lines which run on level ground
and through the middle of the area.
(iii) Main frame should have as few lines as possible.

(iv) All triangles should be well-conditioned.

(v) Each triangle should have at least one check line.

(vi) The lines should be provided to avoid long offsets.

(vii) Avoid obstacles to ranging and chaining.

(viii) As far as possible survey lines should be on the level ground.

(ix) To avoid trespassing the main survey line should fall within the boundaries
of the area to be surveyed.

Instruments used in chain surveying

1. Chain

2. Tape

3. Arrows

4. Ranging Rods

5. Ranging Poles

6. Plumb-bob

7. Pegs

8. Offset rods

9. Plaster's laths and whites

Chain: Chains are formed of straight links of gal-vanished mild steel wire bent
into rings at the ends and joined each other by three small circular or oval wire
rings.

These rings offer flexibility to the chain. The ends of the chain are provided
with brass handle at each end with swivel joint, so that the chain can be
turned without twisting.

The length of a link is the distance between the centres of two consecutive
middle rings, while the length of the chain is measured from the outside of one
handle to the outside of the other handle.
Tape: Tapes are used for more accurate work and are more suitable for
measuring small distances. Depending on the material used tapes can be
classified as

i) Linen or cloth type

ii) Metallic tape

iii) Steel tape

iv) Invar tape

Arrows: When the length of the line to be measured is more than a chain
length, there is need to mark end of a chain length. Arrows are used for this
purpose. They are made of 4mm diameter tempered steel wire one end
sharpened and other end bent into loop. Usual length of arrow is 400mm.

Ranging rods: For ranging intermediate points along the line to be measured 2
to 3 m long rods are used. The rods are usually in circular section with 30mm
diameter. They are painted with colour bands of red and white or with black
and white. They are easily visible up to a distance of 200m. If distance is more
they are provided with 200mm square multicoloured flags at their top.
 • Ranging Poles: Ranging poles are similar to ranging rods except that
these are longer in length and grater in diameter. These are used for
ranging the very long lines in an undulating ground. The length of
ranging poles vary from 4m to 8m and the diameter varies from 6 to
10cm.

• Plumb-bob: In measuring horizontal distances along sloping ground

plumb bobs are required to transfer the points to ground. They are also
used to check the verticality of ranging poles

• Laths and whites: Laths are 0.5 to 1m long sticks of wood. These are
used for marking chain lines and station points while doing survey work
on the ground. This is used in the areas where the surface of ground is
covered with the vegetables, grass etc and pegs are not visible.

Levelling:

• Levelling is the art of determining the elevation of given points above or

below a datum line or establishing given points of required heights
above or below the datum line.

Purpose
• To align plinth level of buildings or to align canal, Sewage or road to
locate dam or to determine capacity of tanks.
Level Surface: Any surface parallel to the mean spheroid of the earth is called
level surface and the line drawn on the level surface is known as a level line.
Horizontal surface: Any surface which is tangential to the level surface at any
point is known as horizontal surface.

Horizontal line: Any line lying in the horizontal surface is a horizontal line

Vertical line: Any line normal to the level line is a vertical line

Vertical surface: The surface which contains the vertical line is a vertical
surface
Terms used in levelling
Datum: "It is an arbitrary level surface from which elevation of points may be
referred". In India mean sea level is considered as datum of zero elevation it is
situated at Karachi.

Mean Sea Level: It is the average height of sea for all stages of tides it is
derived by averaging the hourly tide height over a period of 19 years.

Elevation or Reduced level: It is height or depth of any point above or below

any datum. It is denoted as R.L.

Station: It is the point, the elevation of which is to be determined

Benchmark: It is a fixed reference point of known elevation with respect to

datum

Line of collimation: Imaginary line that passes through levelling instrument

at cross hairs.

Height of instrument: It is the elevation of line of collimation with respect to

datum.

Back sight: It is a staff reading taken at a known elevation. It is the first

reading taken after set up of instrument.
Fore sight( F.S.): It is the last staff reading taken denoting the shifting of the
instrument.
Intermediate sight.(I.S.): It is staff reading taken on a point whose elevation
is to be determined. All staff reading between B.S. and F.S. are Intermediate
sight.

Change Point (T.P): It is a point on which both fore and back sight are taken.

Levelling staff: It is a straight rectangular rod having graduations, the foot of

the staff representing zero reading. During levelling the staff is held vertically at
the point and from level horizontal sight is taken.

Parts of Dumpy Level:

Telescope: Telescope is used to observe the distant object through line of sight
provided by its arrangement

The important parts of telescope are as follows

Eye piece: Eye piece is used by the observer’s eye to view the distant object. It
contains magnifying glass which magnify the observing image and also the
cross hairs of diaphragm.

Objective lens: Objective lens are provided at the other end of the telescope.
The objective lens consists of two parts, the front part consists convex type lens
and the back part consists concave lens. So, the image obtained from the
objective lens is always inverted.
Diaphragm: Diaphragm is provided in front of the eye piece. It contains cross
hairs made of dark metal which are arranged in perfect perpendicular
positions. These cross hairs are used by the eye piece to bisect the objective
through objective lens.
Focusing screw: Focusing screw is used to adjust the focus if cross hairs and
the image clarity.
Ray shade: Ray shade is used to prevent the objective lens from sunlight or
any other light rays which may cause disturbance to the line of sight.

Bubble tubes: Bubble tubes are provided to check the level of the instrument.

Foot screws: Foot screws are provided to regulate the tribrach position and
hence the instrument can be leveled which is known by observing the bubble
tube.

Types of Levelling:

1. Simple levelling
2. Differential levelling
3. Profile Levelling

Simple levelling

When difference in levels of two nearby points is required it is obtained by

simple levelling. The two points am so near that with one setting of the level the
readings on the two points can he obtained Fig. shows one such case. The
reduced level of A is 100.00 m and RL. of B is required

R.L of A= 100.00 m and back sight is 1.04m

 Height of instrument (HI) = RL of A+ BS
= 100.00+1.04= 101.04m
Fore sight on B= 2.42m
 R.L of B= H.I-2.42 = 101.04-2.42= 99.62m
Differential levelling:

If the distance between the two points A and B is too large, it may not be
possible to take the reading from a single setting of the instrument. The
elevation of B w.r.t. A can he found by differential levelling. In such cases
instrument is set at more than one point, each shifting facilitated by taking a
change point. Fig. shows a scheme of such levelling.
Methods of Reduced Levels:

• Height of instrument Method

• Rise and fall method

Height of instrument Method: In any particular set up of an instrument

height of instrument, which is the elevation of the line of sight, is determined.
The elevation of unknown points can be obtained by subtracting the staff
readings at the desired points from the height of instrument. This is the basic
behind the height of instrument method for reduction of level.
STATION B.S I.S F.S H.I R.L REMARK
A 0.9 100.9 100.00 B.M
B 1.1 99.800
C 1.450 1.05 101.3 99.850 C.P.
D 1.550 99.750

Rise and Fall Method

• This method consists of determining the difference of level between

consecutive points by comparing each point with immediate preceding point.

Profile Levelling: This type of levelling is known as longitudinal sectioning.

The reduced levels of various points at regular intervals are found along a line
or along a set of lines. Then the engineers draw the sectional view of the
ground to get the profile.

Compass Surveying:

• Chain surveying can be used when the area to be surveyed is

comparatively small and is fairly flat.
• But when the area is large, undulated and crowded with many details,
triangulation (which is the principle of chain survey) is not possible. In
such an area, the method of traversing is adopted.

Traversing:

• In Traversing, the framework consists of a number of connected lines.

• The length are measured by a chain or a tape and the directions

measured by angle measuring instruments.

• In one of the methods, the angle (direction) measuring instrument is the

compass.

• Hence, in compass surveying directions of survey lines are determined

with a compass and the lengths of the lines are measured with a tape or
a chain.

• This process is known as Compass Traversing

Closed Traverse:

• A traverse is said to be closed when a complete circuit is made i.e. when it

returns to the starting point forming a closed polygon as shown in figure. Or
when it begins and ends at points whose positions on the plan are known.

• Sum of angles for a closed traverse = (2N ± 4) 90°

• Where N = No. of sides of closed traverse. +ve sign for exterior angles and —ve
sign for the interior angle

Open traverse: An open traverse does not return to the starting point. It
consists of series of line expanding in the same direction.

Principle of Compass Survey:

• The Principle of Compass Survey is Traversing; which involves a series of

connected lines the magnetic bearing of the lines are measured by
prismatic compass and the distance (lengths) are measured by chain.

• Such survey does not require the formulation of a network of triangle.

• Compass surveying is recommended when the area is large, undulating

and crowded with many details.

• Compass surveying is not recommended for areas where local attraction

is suspected due to the presence of magnetic substances like steel
structures, iron ore deposits, electric cables conveying currents, and so
on.

Definitions

• Bearing: The bearing of a line is he horizontal angles established with

reference to a some fixed line, called Meridian.

• Meridian: Meridian is a fixed direction on the surface of the earth. The

bearings of the survey lines are measured with reference to the
meridians.
 • True meridian: It is a line or plane passing through the true north pole
and south pole.

• True bearing: The horizontal angle made by a survey line with reference
to the true meridian is called true bearing of a line.

• Magnetic meridian: It is the direction established, by a freely suspended

magnetic needle, unaffected by magnetic substances.

• Magnetic bearing: The horizontal angle made by a survey line with

reference to magnetic meridian is called magnetic bearing of a line.

• Arbitrary meridian: Sometimes for the survey of a small area

convenient direction is assumed as a meridian, known as arbitrary
meridian.

• Arbitrary bearing: The horizontal angle made by a survey line with

reference to arbitrary meridian is called arbitrary bearing of a line

Types of Compass:

1. Prismatic compass
2. Surveyor compass

COMPARISION BETWEEN PRISEMATIC AND SURVEYOR COMPASS.

Sr. Base Of Prismatic Compass Surveyor Compass

No. Comparison
1 First look Prism at one end and silt on No prism only Silt at
other both end
2 Use of Tripod May or may not use along, Use of Tripod stand is
Stand Steady hold in hand also necessary
give good results
3 Observation/ Taken with help of prism Directly read from
Readings provided by eye silt top of compass
4 Magnetic Does not act as Index Act as index
Needle
5 Graduation WCB system QB system
6 Graduation Appear inverted from top, Mark directly zero at
marking Zero at South & 180 degrees North and 90 degrees
at North at East
7 Graduated Attached with needle, Does Permanently attached
circle not rotate with line of sight with box, rotates with
line of sight
Designation of magnetic bearing:

Whole Circle Bearing System: In the whole circle bearing system (W.C.B), the
bearing of a line is always measured clockwise from the north point of the
reference meridian towards the line right round the circle. The angle measured
is called whole circle bearing (W.C.B). It may have any values between 0° and
360°. The bearings observed with the prismatic compass are the whole circle
bearings.

Quadrantal Bearing System: In a Quadrantal bearing system. the bearing of a

line is measured clockwise or anticlockwise from the north or the south point
whichever is nearer the line, towards the east or west. In this system the
bearing is reckoned from 0° and 90° in each quadrant. The bearings observed
with the surveyor's compass are the quadrantal bearing.
Rule:

Case W.C.B between Rule of R.B Quadrant

I 0º and 90º = W.C.B N-E
II 90º and 180º =180º - W.C.B S-E
III 180º and 270º =W.C.B - 180º S-W
IV 270º and 360º = 360º - W.C.B N-W
 ELEMENTS OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

UNIT-III

LEARNING MATERIAL

UNIT-III

BUILDING MATERIALS
Clay Bricks:

• By heating the clay products to about 1100°C, its constituents fuse and
because of the affected chemical changes, the product becomes hard,
brittle and a strong and stable clay product most suitable as a primary
building unit for construction

Rocks and stones:

Rocks and stones consists of same material. Rocks are made of smaller
stones and stones are made from rocks.

Rocks are hard materials that are found on the earth’s crust. The rocks
can be found above the ground as well as below the ground. A stone is formed
from rocks after it has been trimmed or dresses or polished into tiny pieces.

A stone is defined as a natural hard substance formed from minerals

and earth material

Mortar:
Mortar is a material used in masonry construction to fill the gaps between the
bricks and blocks used in construction.

Mortar is a mixture of sand, a binder such as cement or lime, and water and is
applied as a paste which then sets hard.

Lime:

• Until the invention of Portland cement lime was used as the chief
cementing material in building construction both for mortar and
plasters.

• Lime is obtained by burning limestone at a temperature of about 800°C

Cement
 • Definition : " It is defined as the bonding material having cohesive and
adhesive properties which makes it capable to unite the different
construction materials and form the compacted assembly."

Clay Bricks:

• One of the oldest building material brick continues to be a most popular

and leading construction material because of being cheap, durable and
easy to handle and work with.

• In primitive ages sun dried clay bricks were used. Egyptians were
probably the first to use the burnt clay bricks.

• By heating the clay products to about 1100°C, its constituents fuse and
because of the affected chemical changes, the product becomes hard,
brittle and a strong and stable clay product most suitable as a primary
building unit for construction

Uses:

• used for building-up exterior and interior walls, partitions, piers, footings
and other load bearing structures.

CHARACTERISTICS OF GOOD CLAY BRICKS

• Size and Shape: The bricks should have uniform size and plane,
rectangular surfaces with parallel sides and sharp straight edges.

• Colour: The brick should have a uniform deep red or cherry colour as
indicative of uniformity in chemical composition and thoroughness in
the burning of the brick.

• Texture and Compactness: The surfaces should not be too smooth to

cause slipping of mortar. The brick should have uniform texture.

• Hardness and Soundness: The brick should be so hard that when

scratched by a finger nail no impression is made. When two bricks are
struck together, a metallic sound should be produced.

• Water Absorption: should not exceed 20 per cent of its dry weight when
kept immersed in water for 24 hours.

• Crushing Strength: should not be less than 10 N/mm2.

Classification of Clay Bricks

First class bricks :

• Water absorption should be 12 -15% of its dry weight.

• Crushing Strength should not be less than 10 N/mm2.

Second class bricks :

• Small cracks are permitted

• Water absorption should be 16 -20% of its dry weight

• Crushing Strength should not be less than 7 N/mm2.

Third class bricks :

Under burnt, light colored, producing dull sound when struck against each
other.

Water absorption should be 25% of its dry weight.

Fourth class bricks :

Over burnt and badly distorted in shape and size.

CHARACTERISTECS OF GOOD BUILDING STONES

Appearance: For face work it should have fine, compact texture; light-coloured
stone is preferred as dark colours are likely to fade out in due course of time.

Structure: A broken stone should not be dull in appearance and should have
uniform texture free from cavities, cracks, and patches of loose or soft material.
Stratifications should not be visible to naked eye.

Strength: A stone should be strong and durable to withstand the disintegrating

action of weather. Compressive strength of building stones in practice range
between 60 to 200 N/mm2

Weight: It is an indication of the porosity and density. For stability of

structures such as dams. Retaining walls, etc. heavier stones are required,
whereas for arches, vaults, domes, etc. light stones may be the choice.

Seasoning: The stone should be well seasoned.

Weathering: The resistance of stone against the wear and tear due to natural
agencies should be high.

Workability: Stone should be workable so that cutting, dressing and bringing

it out in the required shape and size may not be uneconomical.

Fire Resistance: Stones should be free from calcium carbonate, oxides of iron,
and minerals having different coefficients of thermal expansion.

Specific Gravity: The specific gravity of most of the stones lies between 2.3 to
2.5.

Uses:

1) Building foundations, walls, piers, pillars, and architectural works.

2) Lintels, beams ,Arches, domes etc.,

3) Cladding Works

4) Dams, light houses, monumental structures.

5) Paving jobs

6) Railway, ballast, black boards and electrical switch boards

Lime

Until the invention of Portland cement lime was used as the chief
cementing material in building construction both for mortar and
plasters.

The raw material for the manufacture of lime (CaO) is calcium carbonate.
Lime is obtained by the calcination of lime stone.

Lime is obtained by burning limestone at a temperature of about 800°C.

Quick lime

• Quick lime is the lime obtained after the calcination of limestone.

• It is also called as caustic lime, it is capable of slaking with water

• The specific gravity of pure lime is about 3.40

Fat Lime

• This lime is also called as high calcium lime, pure lime, rich lime or white
lime.

• It is prepared by calcination of pure carbonate of lime which is composed

of 95% of calcium oxide.

Hydraulic Lime
 • This lime is also known as water lime as it sets under water.

• It contains clay and some amount of ferrous oxide.

• It is obtained by calcination of Kankar

Characteristics of Lime:

1. Lime possesses good plasticity and is easy to work with

2. It stiffens easily and is resistant to moisture

3. The excellent cementitious properties make it most suitable for masonry

work

4. The shrinkage on drying is small because of its high water rententivity.

Cement

• Definition : " It is defined as the bonding material having cohesive and

adhesive properties which makes it capable to unite the different
construction materials and form the compacted assembly."

• Types of Cement : -

• Ordinary Portland Cement

• Rapid Hardening Cement

• Sulphate Resisting Cement

• Pozzolona Portland Cement

Ordinary Portland Cement

• It is called Portland cement because on hardening (setting) its colour

resembles to rocks near Portland in England.

• It was first of all introduced in 1824 by Joseph Asp din, England.

• Most important type

• Classified into three grades, namely 33 grade, 43 grade and 53 grade.

 • The chief chemical components of OPC

1. Calcium 2. Silica 3. Alumina 4. Iron

Rapid Hardening Portland Cement

• It is similar to ordinary cement but with higher tri-calcium silicate (C3S)

content and finer grinding.

• It gains strength more quickly than OPC, though the final strength is
only slightly higher.

• This type of cement is also called High Early Strength Portland Cement.

• The one day strength of this cement is equal to the three day strength of
OPC with the same water-cement ratio.

Portland Pozzolana Cement (PPC):

This type of cement is most common type available now in market. This is
made by blending 10-25% reactive pozzolana like flyash or calcined clay with
OPC Addition of pozzolana makes cement sensitive to curing and it requires
longer curing than OPC.

Sulphate-resisting Portland Cement

• This cement has better resistance to sulphate attack than OPC.

• The percentage of tricalcium aluminate (C3A) is limited to 3.5 %.

• SRPC is obtained by the addition of extra iron oxide. This results in the
cement being darker than OPC.

• Applications include foundations in sulphate-bearing soils, in marine

structures since sea water contains sulphates

Ingredients of Cement Concrete:

• Concrete and cement are not the same thing, cement is actually just a
component of concrete.

• Concrete is made up of three basic components: water, aggregate (rock,

sand, or gravel) and Portland cement.
 • Cement, usually in powder form, acts as a binding agent when mixed
with water and aggregates.

• This combination, or concrete mix, will be poured and harden into the
durable material with which we are all familiar

• There are three basic ingredients in the concrete mix: Portland Cement
Water Aggregates (rock and sand)

Requirements of Water

• Used in mixing and curing.

• Potable water should be used.

• Sea water is not permitted.

• pH value of water should not be less than 6.

Fine aggregate

• Size less than 4.75mm

• Includes natural sand or crushed stone with most particles passing

through a sieve.

• Obtained from pits, lake, river or sea-shore.

Coarse aggregate

• Size more than 4.75mm.

• Includes gravels and crushed stones.

• Obtained by crushing various types of granites, hard limestones and

sand stones.

Aggregate
A combination of different sizes and shapes normally of stones. Maximum size
is 75 mm.

CLASSIFICATION OF AGGREGATES

➢ ACCORDING TO GEOLOGICAL ORIGIN

• Natural Aggregate
• Artificial Aggregate
 ➢ ACCORDING TO SIZE
• Fine Aggregate
• Coarse Aggregate
• All-in-Aggregate
• Single-size-Aggregate
➢ ACCORDING TO SHAPE
• Rounded Aggregate
• Irregular Aggregates
• Angular Aggregate
• Flaky and Elongated Aggregate
➢ BASED ON UNIT WEIGHT
• Normal- weight Aggregate
• Heavy- weight or High-Density Aggregate
• Light-weight Aggregate

Characteristics of aggregates

Strength: The average value of crushing strength of aggregate is 200N/mm2

Hardness: It is the ability of the aggregate to with stand load or applied

pressure.

Abrasion value should not be more than 30% for aggregates used for wearing
surfaces and 50% for non wearing surfaces.

Toughness: It is the resistance offered against impact.

The aggregate impact value should not exceed 45% by weight used in concrete
for non wearing surfaces and 30% for wearing surfaces.

Durability: It is the ability of the aggregate to with stand external or internal

damaging attack or in other words the soundness of aggregate.

CLASSIFICATION OF BUILDINGS

Buildings arc classified based on occupancy and types of construction. For the
purpose of the Code, the following shall be the occupancy classification and
types of construction.

Occupancy Classification

a) Residential;

b) Educational;
 c) Institutional;

d) Assembly;

e) Business;

f) Mercantile (will include both retail and wholesale stores) relating to

trade or commerce; commercial.

g) Industrial (will include low, moderate and high fire hazards):

h) Storage; and i) Hazardous.

Group A: Residential Buildings

Any building providing sleeping and living accommodations to related or

unrelated groups of people, with or without cooking or dining facilities is
called as a residential building.

• This Occupancy shall be subdivided as follows:

• A1:Single Family Dwelling

• A2:Two Family Dwelling

• A3:Flats or Apartments

• A4:Mess, Boarding Houses, Dormitories and Hostels

• A5:Hotels and Lodging Houses

Group B : Educational Buildings

Any building in which education, training and care are provided to children or
adults is called as educational building.

• This Occupancy shall be subdivided as follows:

B1: Educational Facilities up to Higher Secondary level

B2: Facilities for Training for Above-secondary level

B3: Pre-school Facilities

Group C : Institutional Building:

• Any building in which institutional care to the occupants such as

medical or nursing care for persons suffering from illness or infirmity
 due to mental condition are provided such buildings are called as
institutional buildings.

• This occupancy shall be subdivided as follows:

C1 :Hospital

C2: Institution for care of Children

C3:Custodial Institution

C4: Penal Institution

• Group D: Assembly Building

Any building in which groups of people assemble for recreation, social,

religious, political, cultural, travel and similar purposes are called as assembly
buildings.

This Occupancy shall be subdivided as follows:

D1:Large Assembly with Fixed seats

D2: Small Assembly with Fixed seats

D3:Large Assembly without Fixed seats

D4:Small Assembly without Fixed seats

Group E: Business Building

Any building which is used for any business transaction other than mercantile
is called as business building.

This Occupancy shall be subdivided as follows:

E1: Office

E2: Research and Testing Laboratories

Group F: Mercantile Building

Any building which is used for display and sale of merchandises is called as
mercantile building.

This Occupancy shall be subdivided as follows:

F1:Small Shops and Market

F2:Large Shops and Market

Group G: Industrial Buildings

Any buildings in which products or material of all kinds are fabricated,

assembled or processed is called as industrial building. For example assembly
plants, power plants, gas plants etc.

Group H: Storage Buildings:

Any building used primarily for storage or sheltering of goods, wares,

merchandises, vehicles or animals.

Group I : Hazardous Buildings

Any Building used as storage, industrial, research and other facilities dealing
with hazardous material in excess quantity or any micro-biological facilities
shall be categorized in this occupancy group

Components of a Building

• A building can be broadly divided in two parts

1. Substructure and

2. Superstructure

Substructure:

The substructure is the lower portion of the building, which is located below
ground level which transmits the load of the superstructure to the subsoil. It
includes Foundations

• Foundations: The basic function of foundation is to

a) Transmit the load from building to the subsoil, in such a way that
Settlement are within permissible limit.

b) The soil does not fail in shear

c) Reduce the load intensity

d) Even distribution of load

e) Provide level surface

• Superstructure:

• The superstructure is that part of the building which is above the ground
and which serves the purpose of building’s intended use. It includes

• Walls

• columns

• Beams

• Floors

• Roofs and slabs

• Steps and stairs

• Doors and Windows

• Building finishes

• Wall: The walls are building blocks of bricks or stones.

They divide the building space into various space into various rooms.
They support slabs and beams. They safely transmits the loads coming
on them from beams and slabs to the foundation. They provide privacy
and protection against heat, cold, rain, noise, dust winds. They offer
resistant to firewalls may be of Brick masonry and Stone masonry.

• Columns: Columns are vertical members along which beams and

slab/roof is supported. They are square, rectangular and circular in
shape in C/S.

• Beams: Beams are horizontal members above which the slabs are
provided. The beams are instead supported on walls and columns .They
are generally 20, 39, 45, 60 cm thick and deep members as per
structural design.

• Floor: A floor is a plane area to support occupants, furniture's, and

equipment's.

• Roof: The upper most part of the building constitutes the roof .The Slab
and roof encloses the space and offers protection from rain, heat, snow,
wind, sound, fire. Slabs are 10, 12, 15 cm thick.
• Columns: Columns are vertical members along which beams and
slab/roof is supported. They are square, rectangular and circular in
shape in C/S.

• Beams: Beams are horizontal members above which the slabs are
provided. The beams are instead supported on walls and columns .They
are generally 20, 39, 45, 60 cm thick and deep members as per
structural design.

• Floor: A floor is a plane area to support occupants, furniture's, and

equipment's.

• Roof: The upper most part of the building constitutes the roof .The Slab
and roof encloses the space and offers protection from rain, heat, snow,
wind, sound, fire. Slabs are 10, 12, 15 cm thick.

• Steps and Stairs :Steps and stairs are to be provide access between
different levels. Stairs should be properly located to provide easy access
and fast services to the building.

• Doors and windows A door provides a connecting link between rooms,

allowing easy free movement in the building.

• Windows are opening provided in walls. Doors and windows provide

lighting and ventilation. They provide resistance to weather, sound and
heat. They provide security and privacy.

• Building finishes

• Floor Finishes

• Wall Finishes

• Ceiling Finishes

• Roof Finishes Types

 ELEMENTS OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

UNIT-IV

LEARNING MATERIAL

UNIT-IV

Hydrology: Hydrology is the science which deals with the occurrence,

distribution and movement of water on the earth, including that in the
atmosphere and below the surface of the earth. Water occurs in the
atmosphere in the form of vapour, on the surface as water, snow or ice and
below the surface as ground water occupying all the voids within a geologic
stratum.

Hydrologic cycle

Except for the deep ground water, the total water supply of earth is in constant
circulation from earth to atmosphere, and back to the earth. The earth's water
circulatory system is known as the hydrologic cycle. Hydrologic cycle is the
process of transfer of moisture from the atmosphere to the earth in the form of
precipitation, conveyance of the precipitated water by streams and rivers to
ocean and lakes etc., and evaporation of water back to atmosphere.

The hydrologic cycle consists of the following process 1. Evaporation and

Transpiration (E) the water from the surfaces of ocean, rivers, and lakes and
also from the moist soil evaporates. The vapours are carried over the land by
air in the form of clouds. Transpiration is the process of water being lost from
the leaves of the plants from their pores. Thus, the total evaporation (E),
inclusive of the transpiration consists of: (i) Surface evaporation. (ii) Water
surface evaporation: (a) From river surface; (b) From oceans, (iii) Evaporation
from plants and leaves (transpiration), and (iv) Atmospheric evaporation.

Precipitation (P): Precipitation may be defined as the fall of moisture from the
atmosphere to the earth surface in any form. Precipitation may be two forms :
a) Liquid precipitation : i.e. rainfall b) Frozen Precipitation : Snow 3. Run Off
(R): Run off is that portion of precipitation that is not evaporated. When
moisture falls to the earth's surface as precipitation, a part of it is evaporated
from the water surface, soil and vegetation and through transpiration by
plants, and the remainder precipitation is available as run off which ultimately
runs to the ocean through surface or sub-surface streams. Thus run off may be
classified as follows: (1) Surface run off: Water flows over the land and is first to
reach the streams and rivers, which ultimately discharge the water to the sea.
(2) Inter-flow or sub-surface run off: A portion of precipitation infiltrates into
surface soil and depending upon the geology of the basins, runs as sub-surface
runoff and reaches the streams and rivers. (3) Ground water flow or base flow:
It is that portion of precipitation, which after infiltration, percolates down and
joins the ground water reservoir which is ultimately connected to the ocean
Thus, the hydrologic cycle may be expressed by the following simplified
equation:

PRECIPITATION = EVAPORATION + RUN OFF

(P) (E) (R)

Dams: Dam is a solid barrier constructed at a suitable location across a river

valley to store flowing water. Storage of water is utilized for following
objectives:
 Hydropower
 Irrigation
 Water for domestic consumption
 Drought and flood control
  For navigational facilities
 Other additional utilization is to develop fisheries

Classification of dams: Based on use, dams are classified as follows i) Storage

dam, (ii) Diversion dam, (iii) Detention dam.

Storage dam: This is the most common type of dam normally constructed.
Storage dam is constructed to impound water to its upstream side during the
periods of excess supply in the river (i.e. during rainy season) and is used in
periods of deficient supply. Behind such a dam, a reservoir or lake is formed.
The storage dams may be constructed for various purposes, such as for
irrigation, water power generation or for water supply for public health-
purposes, or it may be for a multipurpose project. A storage dam may be
constructed of wide variety of materials, such as stone, concrete, earth and
rockfill etc.

Diversion dam.: The purpose of a diversion dam is essentially different. While a

storage dam stores water at its upstream for future use, a diversion dam
simply raises water level slightly in the river and thus provides head for
carrying or diverting water into ditches, canals, or other conveyance systems to
the place of use.

A diversion dam is, therefore, of smaller height and no reservoir is formed to

store water.

The common examples of diversion dams are weirs and barrages. During the
floods, water passes over or through these diversion dams while during periods
of normal flow, the river water, partly or wholly, is diverted to irrigation channel
etc. A diversion dam may be constructed for irrigation or municipal or
industrial uses.

Detention dam: A detention dam is constructed to store water during floods

and release it gradually at a safe rate, when the flood recedes. By the
provision of artificial storage during the floods flood
damage downstream is reduced.
There are usually two types of detention dams. In the first type discussed
above, water is temporarily stored and released through a suitable outlet
structure.

In the other type of detention dam, water is not released and no outlet
structure is provided. Instead, water is held in the reservoir as long as is
possible. This held water seeps into pervious banks and foundation strata.

Due to this seepage of water, water-level in wells in the adjoining area is

increased and lift 'irrigation may be possible. Also, irrigation may be done in
the river bed itself at the downstream side. The seepage water may be sufficient
for the growth of the crop and no additional surface watering may be
necessary. Such a detention dam is sometimes called water-spreading dam or
dike, and is similar to a weir in constructional features.

CLASSIFICATION OF DAM ACCORDING TO HYDRAULIC DESIGN

i) Non- over flow dam ii) Over flow dam

CLASSIFICATION ACCORDING TO MATERIAL

According to this most common classification, the dam may be classified as

follows:
1. Rigid dams. 2. Non-rigid dams Rigid dams.
Rigid dams are those which are constructed of rigid materials such as
masonry, concrete, steel or timber. Rigid dams may be further classified as
follows:
1. Solid masonry or concrete gravity dam.
2. Arched masonry or concrete dam.
3. Concrete buttress dam.
4. Steel dam.
5. Timber dam.
Non-rigid dams: Non-rigid dams are those which are constructed of non-rigid
materials such as earth and/or rockfill. The most common types of non-rigid
dams are 1. Earth dam. 2. Rockfill dam. 3. Combined earth and rockfill dam.

Advantages of Gravity dams

1.Gravity dams are relatively more strong and stable than earth dams. They are
particularly suited across gorges having very steep side slopes where earth
dam, if constructed, might slip.

2.Gravity darns are well adapted for use as an overflow spillway crest. Earth
dams cannot be used as overflow dams.

3.Gravity dams can be constructed of any height, provided suitable

foundations are available to bear the stresses. The height of an earth dam is
usually limited by the stability of its slopes requiring a very wide base width.

4.Gravity darn is specially suited to such areas where there is likelihood of very
heavy downpour. The slopes of earth dam might get washed away in such a
situation.

5.A gravity dam requires the least maintenance.

6.The failure of a gravity dam, if any, is not sudden. It gives enough warning
time before the area to downstream side is flooded due to the damage to the
gravity darns. On the contrary, an earth dam generally fails suddenly.

7.A gravity dam is cheaper in the long run since it is more permanent than any
other type. Thus the benefit-cost ratio of such a dam is always higher.

Disadvantages of Gravity dams

•Disadvantages. The disadvantages of gravity dam, as compared to an earth

dam are as follows :

1.Gravity dams can be constructed only on sound rock foundations. They are
unsuitable on weak foundations or on permeable foundations on Which earth
dams can be constructed with suitable foundation treatment.

2.The initial cost of a gravity dam is always higher than an earth dam. Hence,
where funds are limited and where suitable materials are available for the
construction of an earth dam, the earth dam may be preferred.

3.If mechanised plants, such as manufacturing and transporting mass

concrete, curing of concrete etc. are not available, a gravity dam may take more
time to construct.

4.Gravity dame require skilled labour or mechanised plants for its

construction.

5.It is very difficult to allow subsequent rise in the height of a gravity dam,
unless specific provisions have been made in the initial design.

Advantages of Arch Dams:

1.Arch dams are particularly adapted to the gorges where the length is small in
proportion to the height.

2.For a given height, the section of an arch dam is much lesser than a
corresponding gravity dam. Hence, an arch dam requires less material and is,
therefore, cheaper.

3.Because of much less base width, the problems of uplift pressure are minor.

4.Since only a small part of water load is transferred to the foundation by

cantilever action, an arch dam can be constructed in moderate foundations
where gravity dam requiring sound foundation rock may be unsuitable.

Disadvantages of arch dams

1.It requires skilled labour and sophisticated form work. The design of an arch
dam is also quite specialized.

2.The speed of construction is normally slow.

3.It requires very strong abutments of solid rock capable of resisting arch
thrust. Hence, it is not suitable in the locations where strong abutments are
not available. Unfortunately, only few sites are suitable for this type of darn.

Advantages of Buttress Dams

1.A buttress dam is less massive than a gravity dam. Hence, the foundation
pressures are less in the case of a buttress dam, and it can be constructed
even on weak foundations on which the gravity dam cannot be supported.

2.The amount of concrete used in buttress dam is about 1/2 to 1/3 of the
concrete used in gravity dam of the same height.

3.In the case of gravity dam, the height of the dam can raised only by the
provision of crest shutter at overflow section. However in the case of a buttress
darn, further raising of the height is possible and convenient by extending
buttress and slab.

4.Power houses and water treatment plants can be housed in between,

buttresses, thus saving some cost of construction

Disadvantages of Buttress Dams

1. Skilled labour requirements

2. Deterioration of upstream concrete surface has serious effects on buttress

dams with very thin concrete face.

3. Buttress dam is more susceptible to willful damage.

Check Dams: A small dam designed to retard the flow of water and sediment in
a channel, used especially to control soil erosion. Small barrier constructed in
a gully or other small watercourse to decrease flow velocity, minimize channel
scour, and promote deposition of sediment.

Advantages :

 They store surface water for use both during and after the monsoon.
 They help in ground water recharge of the area. Recharge of water helps
in raising the water table in the area. Which enhances availability of
water ensures the increases of agricultural yield by multi-cropping.
 Check dams can be used as a pisciculture.
 ELEMENTS OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

UNIT-V

LEARNING MATERIAL

UNIT-V

Water Supply, Sanitary and Electrical Works in Building. Water supply,

sanitation and drainage of a building are called plumbing services. In
buildings, adequate water supply should be available to meet the demand of
the occupants. Sources of water are public water supply, surface water and
ground water. Transmission and distribution of water to buildings are done
through pipes that are connected to storage tanks. The used water from the
buildings is the waste water which has to be properly drained and disposed.
The various fittings needed to use water and drainage of used water is
commonly known as sanitary fittings, wash hand basins, bathtubs, water
closets, lavatories.

Water supply system: Water is available from municipal water supply stored in
over ground or underground water tanks. The places where municipal water
supply is not available, sources will be open wells or shallow or deep tube
wells. The first step of water supply is to store water from sources in an
elevated storage tank on the top of the building. If the sources are on or below
the ground, water has to be lifted through pumping process. Choice of pumps
for lifting depends on the suction head, i.e. difference between the water level
in the source and the centre line of the pump. In no case, it should not be more
than 10m if centrifugal pump is used. For raising water from ground level
storage, centrifugal pump is a better alternative for residential buildings. If the
source is deep underground tube well, submersible pump is preferred. Stored
water in the elevated storage tank can flow down and feed the fixtures.

Precaution in laying the pipes/ General considerations

There is no cross section anywhere between a pipe carrying possible water and
the pipe carrying used or waste water. There should be no back flow from any
cistern or appliance towards the source of supply. Water supply pipes and
waste water pipes should not be laid close to each other. The pipe should be
properly protected against any damage. To achieve this, underground pipe line
should be enclosed in a cement mortar bata so that rusting of soil bacteria is
prevented. In unfeed system, pipe should carry water under adequate pressure.
For this layout of pipe should be simple and direct as far as possible. The pipes
should be laid out as straight as possible.

Materials for service pipes: The pipe leading from the distribution main of the
municipal water supply to the plumbing system of the house is known as the
service main. The following materials are commonly used for service pipes. i)
Copper or brass pipe ii) Galvanized iron iii) Lead pipe iv) Polyethene pipe

Water supply layout of a building: A typical sketch of water supply layout for
a domestic two storied building is shown in the figure. The figure shows how
water from a source is pumped to the overhead storage tank on the top floor
and is distributed to each floor to be used by the occupants through shower,
wash basin, flushing tank, water heater, bath tub and so on.

HOUSE DRAINAGE: The procedure adopted to drain away the waste water
from the bathroom and kitchen and rain water from the building area through
open drain or pipe to a public sewer, is termed as house drainage. It is always
mandatory in a municipal area to provide house drainage and to connect it to
public sewer.

Septic Tank: Septic tank is commonly used to store the waste product or foul
sewage disposed from water closet and urinal of a building. It is also used to
treat sewage from isolated group of country houses. Accordingly, it is designed
for ten users, twenty users, and twenty five users and so on. The capacity of
the tank increases as the number of users increases. The tank produces septic
action by anaerobic bacteria where proteins, fatty matter, carbohydrates, and
cellulose present in the sewage are broken into simpler compounds. The
effluent from the tank is discharged normally to a soak pit constructed close to
the septic tank. This effluent should never be discharged to open drains. Outlet
should be slightly lower than the inlet. If the tank begins to over flow, it is
either filled up or soak pit gets clogged. Cleaning and checking of both the
septic tank and soak pit is necessary to overcome the problem.

Soak Pit: A soak pit used most commonly in a residential building to receive
effluent from septic pit. The bottom of the pit is unlined. Walls of the pit are
made with bricks. Open holes in the three sides of brick walls are provided. No
such holes are provided in the wall towards entry of effluent from septic tank.
Effluent seeps through the open spaces and gets absorbed in the ground. The
unlined bottom of soak pit is filled with second class broken bricks or stone
ballasts. Each house has one soak pit whose life span is 25 to 30years.
Seepage capacity decreases with time, if pit gets filled up, to top cover is
removed and thoroughly cleaned for future use.
Sanitary Fittings and Appliances Sanitary Fittings and Appliances Sanitary
fittings are generally made of fire clay, earthen ware and china ware. •These
fittings are in the form of water closets (W.C.), wash hand basins, sinks,
flushing tanks, bath tubs, ventilation pipe, lavatory basins, inspection
chamber, etc. Water closets (WC) Water closets are of two designs—oriental or
Indian type of the squatting type, and European design of the sitting type. The
oriental type is fitted just on the floor level. It requires less water for flushing
and cleaning purposes. European type WC is of sitting type above the floor level
at about 40 cm to 45 cm height. They are mostly siphon vortex type.

Bath tubs They are made of cast iron or steel coated with enamel. Tubs are
provided with holes for fixing hot and cold water inlets and waste pipes. The
tub is fitted with short legs for its support. Wash hand basin It is made of
pottery or porcelain ware. Sometimes, they also used pressed steel, plastic and
porcelain enameled cast iron (IC) Inspections chambers are small chambers
made of usually bricks square or rectangular size. They are provided near
septic tanks, house drains for inspection and repair. The bottom of the
chamber is given a steep slope to facilitate quick disposal of drain and WC
waste. Sink is a basin used in kitchen and in laboratory. They are made of
stainless steel, metal, porcelain or enameled pressed steel. They are available
in different sizes and shapes. Urinals are of two types: bowl type and slab or
stall type. The first type is used for residential building while the second type is
used in public buildings. Automatic flushing cisterns are provided.
TRAPS

A trap is a device which is used to prevent sewer gases from entering the
buildings. Common Gases that are Produced in a Sewage System are Methane.
Hydrogen Sulfide Nitrogen, Carbon Monoxide

Traps are an integral part of a modern sanitary system. The traps should be of
a self-cleansing pattern. Traps for use in domestic waste should be convenient
for cleaning. A good trap should maintain an efficient water seal under all
conditions of flow.

GULLY TRAP These traps are constructed outside the building to carry waste
water discharge from washbasin, sinks, bathroom etc. and are connected to the
nearest building drain/sewer so that foul gases from sewer do not come to the
house.

INTERCEPTING TRAP: This trap is provided at the last main hole of building
sewerage to prevent entry of foul gases from public sewer to building sewer. • It
has a deep-water seal of 100 mm.

GREASE TRAP: This trap is a device to collect the grease contents of waste and
can be cleaned from the surface. • This is generally used in food processing
unit.
SILT TRAP: Large and heavier particles or silt enter the house drain and
municipal sewers. Silt transportation requires higher velocity and steep slope.
As it is not possible to provide steep slope all along, a chamber is constructed
where heavy silts get deposited due to low velocity. Thus, silts are trapped and
removed manually from time to time

ELECTRICAL WORKS IN BUILDING Wiring Materials The most commonly

used materials of house wiring are main switches, MCB, distribution box, PVC
wire of appropriate size, earthing wire, switch boxes of different sizes made of
wood or covered with ebonite or sunmica, switches, plugs, junction box, fuse
etc.

Electrical Fittings: The electrical fittings used in the building are bulbs of
various watts, ceiling fans, kitchen exhaust fan, tube lights, power saving
lights, call bell, night lamps, various type of decorative and fancy wall and
ceiling light fittings, etc.

Safety Precautions in House Wiring following safety precautions are to be taken

in house wiring: (a) Care should be taken so that live line should not remain
naked anywhere in the house. (b) Earth line should be properly connected and
finally earthing plate should be embedded to a sufficient depth in the moist
earth. Good earthing is always necessary. (c) Before supplying electricity, it
should be checked that no wire is earthed. (d) No live electric gadget should be
touched. (e) Experienced electrician should always be employed to wire a
house.
 ELEMENTS OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

UNIT-VI

LEARNING MATERIAL

UNIT-VI

HIGHWAY ENGINEERING

Introduction: The major modes of transportation are highways or roadways,

railways, waterways and airways. Apart from the above modes of
transportation, other modes are cable cars, monorails, aerial ropeways,
pipelines, belt conveyors, elevators etc. Transportation by road is most
important mode which is used by one and all, i.e., nearest to all. The science
and technology dealing with roadways is called road engineering or highway
engineering. This mode offers lot of flexibility for travel like selection route,
direction, time and speed. Road transport is a must in order to avail the other
modes like airways, waterways and railways. Thus, road or highway
engineering is the most important mode of transportation.

Historical Background Of Road or Highway: The Romans are considered to be

the pioneers in the construction of road although traces of hard surfaces
resembling to road surface have been found in Mesopotamia in the period of
about 3500 BC. The excavation of Mohenj odaro and Harappa as early around
2500 BC revealed the prehistoric road construction in India. The Emperor
Ashoka in the fifth century AD constructed many roads in his kingdom for the
travelers. During Roman Empire, an extensive road construction was made in
Rome The Appian Way of 580 km long built in 312 BC is an example of road
building technique by the Romans. In France, Pierre Tresaguet in the year
1764 developed few improved methods of road construction and during the
regime of Napoleon major development roads took place. John Macadam,
Surveyor General of Roads in England in 1827 developed a new method of road
construction. The roads constructed by various methods developed by him are
still known as Water Bound Macadam (WBM), Penetration Macadam (PM),
Bituminous Macadam (BM) roads. Macadam's method of construction was
scientific and hence it is still popular in other countries with slight
modification.

Highway planning in India: Out of different roads he developed, Water Bound

Macadam (WBM) road is popular even in India. In India, roads were improved
to a major extent during Mughal period. During British rule in India, Lord
Dalhousie, who was the Governor General, founded Public Works Department
(PWD) that exists till today. Many more developments in India on road or
highway engineering had taken place owing to M.R.Jayakar Committee in
1927, Indian Road Congress (IRC) in 1934, Nagpur Road Congress in 1943,
establishment of Central Road Research Institute (CRRI) in New Delhi in the
year 1950, National Highway Act in 1956, Highway Research Board in 1973
and National Transport Policy Committee in 1978.

Classification of Roads: The classification of roads mainly depends on traffic

volume, load to be transported, locations and functions. Based on the traffic
volume, roads are classified as heavy, medium and light traffic roads. Similarly,
based on the load transported, they are classified as class I, class II or class A,
class B, etc. The acceptable classification is based on locations and functions.
The Nagpur Road Congress classified the roads on the bases of locations and
functions as: (a) National highways (NH) (b) State highways (SH) (c) Major
district roads (MDR) (d) Other district roads (ODR) (e) Village roads (VR)

National Highways (NH) These are main roads running throughout the whole
country connecting capitals of the states, major ports, foreign highways, large
industrial and tourists plots including roadways essential for strategic
movements for defence of the country. It has been agreed that NH should be
constructed by central government with collaboration of state PWD. National
highways should be the frame of entire road communications of the country.
All highways may be of different specifications. All of them are assigned
different names like NH-1, NH-2, and NH-37, NH-49 and so on.

State Highways (SH) The arterial roads of the state connecting the national
highways of nearby states, district head quarters, and important cities within
the state are called state highways. They serve as the main arteries for the
traffic to and from the district roads. Their geometric design specifications and
design speed are more or less to NH.

Major District Roads (MDR) These are important roads of the districts
connecting areas of production, markets. They also connect each other or with
main highways of the districts. The geometric design specifications and speed
are lower than NH or SH.

Other District Roads (ODR) These are roads connecting rural areas of
production, outlets to market centres, circle head quarters, block development
centres and to other main roads. Their design specifications are lower than
MDR.

Village Roads (VR) These roads connect villages or group of villages. They also
connect nearest roads of higher category like MDR. They are also very
important for farms established in village areas.

Pavement or carriage way is that part of road or high way which supports the
wheel loads imposed on it from traffic moving over it. It should be strong
enough to resist the stresses that are being developed due to traffic.

TYPES OF PAVEMENT: Pavements are classified from the point of structural

behaviour as: (a) Flexible pavement (b) Rigid pavement (c) Semi-rigid pavement
(d) Composite pavement

Flexible Pavement: Flexible pavement, has low flexural strength. The external
load in this ,pavement is largely transmitted to the sub-grade by lateral
distribution with increase in depth. The thickness of the pavement is so
designed that stresses in the subgrade soil are kept within its bearing capacity.
The typical flexible pavement has the following components, and they are
shown in Figure (a) Soil sub-grade (b) Sub-base course (c) Base course (d)
Surface course

Rigid Pavement Rigid pavement derives its capacity to withstand load from
flexural strength or rigidity. The stresses developed are not transmitted to the
lower layers like flexible one. The top layer is of plain cement concrete which
withstand stresses up to about 400 N/cm2 . . Rigid pavement is made of
Portland cement concrete. The rigid pavement doesn’t get deformed under
wheel load like flexible pavement.

COMPARISON OF FLEXIBLE AND RIGID PAVEMENTS:

Design of rigid pavement is based-scientific design pavement design where as
flexible pavement is mostly empirical in nature.

Life of rigid pavement is more than the flexible

Maintenance of well designed rigid pavement is low here as flexible pavement

needs frequent maintenance

Initial cost of rigid pavement is much more than the flexible one

Selection of type of pavement depends on

availability of materials of construction

Surface characteristics play another role of selection of type of pavement.

A good cement surface is smooth, free from pot holes and corrugations. Flexible
pavement does not possess the above facilities.

Impervious layer of the pavement is essential for the subgrade. Preference will
always be the rigid pavement as concrete is impervious.

Traffic dislocation during construction for about a month takes place as

concrete requires minimum 28 days for curing and setting. In flexible
pavement, traffic is allowed to move on the pavement once it is rolled.

Earth Roads • These are the low cost or cheapest type of road made of locally
available natural soil. • The camber provided in earth road is usually steep
which ranges from 1 in 20 to 1 in 33 although it is better to have slope 1 in 20
to prevent erosion by rain water. • As the surface is pervious, large cross slope
keeps the pavement free from water standing thereby softening surface is
prevented. • Construction steps require clearing of site, centre line and road
edges marking, excavation and filling the soil to bring it to the desired level and
slope and shaping of sub-grade.

Gravel Roads • Gravel roads are superior to earth road as they can carry heavier
traffics. Gravels are used to construct the carriage way. • The camber used is from 1
in 25 to 1 in 30. • A gravel road does not become slippery when wetted by rain. •
There are two types of gravel road. One is trench type and other is feather edge type
as shown in Figure.
In the trench type, sub-grade is prepared by excavating a shallow trench and feather
type is constructed over the sub-grade with varying thickness. Trench is better as the
gravel used is nicely confined in it.

Water Bound Macadam •Water Bound Macadam (WBM) Road WBM road is known
after John Macadam, Surveyor General of Roads in England in 1827, who was the
first to introduce this particular road. • The roads whose wearing course consists of
clean crushed aggregates mechanically interlocked by rolling and bound together with
filler material and layer and laid on a well compacted base course is called water
bound macadam road. • The strength of a water bound macadam course is due to the
mechanical interlocking of the aggregate particles and the cohesion between the
aggregate particles due to cementious film of soil moisture binder. •The WBM roads
are in use in our country both as a finished pavement surface for minor roads and as
a good base course for superior pavements carrying heavy traffic.

Bituminous Roads • This road is common in India and also in abroad. • Over the
existing stabilized gravel or stone pavement, a thin bituminous layer is laid as a
wearing coat. • A thin layer of bituminous binder is sprayed over this cleaned surface
before construction of any type of bituminous layer. This is called interface treatment
which is essential to provide the necessary bond between the old and new layer. •
After that bituminous layer is laid and roller is used for compaction and binding with
the sub-grade pavement.

TRAFFIC CONTROL MECHANISMS OR DEVICES • The various aids and devices used
to control, regulate and guide traffic are called traffic control mechanisms or devices.
The most common devices or mechanisms are divider, islands, signals and signs. In
addition to this road lights are quite essential in guiding traffics during night.

DIVIDERS • Divider is a separator of road for vehicles moving from opposite direction
in order to avoid any collision with traffics of lanes separated by divider. • It is a
masonry structure constructed in the middle of the road to divide the road into two
portions for vehicles coming from opposite directions. • It is very much essential in
the busiest zone of city. • Provisions are made for U-turn of vehicles proving gaps in
the dividers at some design length. • In national highway having more than one lanes
in both sides, divider is called usually a separator of about 8 m wide. The divider in
city road is rectangular or trapezoidal in shape with usual base width from 1 m to 1.5
m
TRAFFIC ROTARY • A traffic rotary or rotary intersection is an enlarged road
intersection where all converging vehicles are forced to move round a large central
island in clockwise direction before they can weave out of traffic flow into their
respective directions radiating from the central island. • Figure is an example of
rotary island where vehicles from four roads are converging. • The arrow indicates
direction of movement of the vehicles. • The main objective of providing a rotary is to
eliminate the necessity of stopping even crossing streams of vehicles and to reduce
their area of conflict. • All vehicles are allowed to merge into the stream around the
rotary and then to diverge out to the desired radiating road. Thus, crossing of vehicles
is avoided. • Merging of vehicle takes place towards right and diverging operation
towards the left • Design factors of rotary depend on speed, shape of island, its
radius, entrance and exit curves and on many other points which is outside the scope
of this discussion.